Chapter 16: The Age of Imperialism history... · overseas holdings? History ... Europeans and...

European powers meet inBerlin to divide Africa into colonies.

1885

SuezCanal opens.

1869 China becomesa republic.

1911

Commodore Perry lands in Japan.

1853

1925190018751850

16C h a p t e r

1800–1914

The Ageof Imperialism

> Movement Political, economic,and social factors lead to the Age of Imperialism. Section 1

> Change European powers dividemost of Africa into colonies, andAfricans resist European interven-tion and colonialism. Section 2

> Reaction India and China comeunder European control or influ-ence, while Japan tries to meet theWestern challenge. Section 3

> Nationalism Nationalism inten-sifies in Latin America as UnitedStates involvement in the regionincreases. Section 4

SThetoryteller

No one knows how the rumor started, but it spread quickly.

The bullets for the new rifles, the story went, were greased with

the fat of cows and pigs. The sepoys, Indian soldiers in the

British army, were outraged. Because Hindus regarded the cow

as sacred and Muslims could not touch pork, using these bullets

would violate the beliefs of both groups. As a result, the sepoys

started a rebellion in May 1857 that soon engulfed much of

India.

The Indian Revolt of 1857 was not an isolated incident. As

European powers acquired new territories in the 1800s, conflicts

between colonial rulers and colonial peoples developed. By the

early 1900s European nations ruled large parts of Asia and

Africa, while the United States was expanding its interests in

Latin America.

How did the spread of empires affect peoples in Asia,Africa, and Latin America? How did colonial peoplesrespond to Western rule?

Historical Significance

478

Chapter Themes

Chapter 16 The Age of Imperialism 479

Draw or copy the map “Imperialismin Africa 1914” on page 486 of this chap-ter. Then, using the map of modern Africain the Atlas as a guide, write in the newnational names and draw in presentboundaries.

Your History Journal

An Indian prince hosts a British officer at a nautch (a form ofentertainment by professional dancers).History

Visualizing

Chapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web siteat worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click onChapter 16—Chapter Overview to preview thechapter.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/chapter16/overview.html

The term imperialism is a Latin wordfrom the days of the Roman Empire.Imperialism means one country’s dom-

ination of the political, economic, and social life ofanother country. About 2,000 years ago, imperialRome controlled most of the Mediterranean world.By the end of the 1800s, a handful of Europeancountries, together with the United States, con-trolled nearly the entire world. Not surprisingly,the era between 1800 and 1914 has come to beknown as the Age of Imperialism.

The imperialism of the 1800s resulted fromthree key factors. First, nationalism prompted rivalEuropean nations to build empires in their compet-itive quests for power. Second, the IndustrialRevolution created a tremendous demand for rawmaterials and expanded markets, which promptedindustrialized nations to seek new territories.Finally, both religious fervor and feelings of racialand cultural superiority inspired Europeans toimpose their cultures on distant lands.

Political RivalriesIn the mid-1800s European countries saw

themselves as actors on the world stage, and eachcountry wanted to play a starring role. If GreatBritain started a small colony in distant Asia orAfrica, France had to start one too—and so didBelgium, Germany, Italy, Holland, Spain, Portugal,and Russia.

Once begun, the quest for colonies became acontinuing enterprise that seemed to have no limits.Slow and difficult communication between remoteterritories and European capitals often enabled colo-nial governors and generals to take matters intotheir own hands. If a colony’s borders did not pro-vide military security, for instance, military officials

480 Chapter 27 The Age of Imperialism

> Terms to Defineimperialism, colony, protectorate, sphere of influence

> People to MeetCecil Rhodes, Rudyard Kipling

> Places to LocateAlgeria, Australia, New Zealand, Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)

Age of Imperialism begins.c. 1800 French citizenssettle in Algeria.

c. 1840s British author Rudyard Kipling writes the poem “The White Man‘s Burden.“

1899

1800 19001850

In India, British schools taught English andrequired students to adopt Christianity. The wifeof a British official described attending a gradua-tion ceremony in the year 1886. “The proceedingsbegan with a hymn. The children sang prettywell, though in a harsh voice…. Then a boy stoodup, put his hands together, and repeated theLord’s Prayer. Others followed him, and then Mr.

Summers [the teacher] read achapter from the Old Testamentabout Adam and Eve…. Wecould just tell he was speakingof the various nations—English,Parsee, [Muslim], Hindu, allcame from Adam and Eve, wewere all one family here.”

—adapted from An IndianJournal, Nora Scott, 1994

S e c t i o n 1

Pressuresfor Expansion

Indians and British

Read to Find Out Main Idea There were political, economic, and social causes of imperialism.

SThetoryteller

based in the colony used their armies to expand thecolony’s borders. This strategy worked well enoughuntil colonial governments started claiming thesame territories. Then new conflicts arose, andEuropean troops found themselves facing off onremote battlefields in Africa and Asia.

Desire for New MarketsThe Industrial Revolution of the 1800s knew no

borders. Factories in Europe and the United Statesconsumed tons of raw materials and churned outthousands of manufactured goods. The owners andoperators of these factories searched constantly fornew sources of raw materials and new markets for their products. They hoped to find both in foreign lands.

Rubber, copper, and gold came from Africa,cotton and jute from India, and tin from SoutheastAsia. These raw materials spurred the growth ofEuropean and American industries and financialmarkets, but they represented only the tip of theiceberg. Bananas, oranges, melons, and other exoticfruits made their way to European markets. Peoplein Paris, London, and Berlin drank colonial tea, cof-fee, and cocoa with their meals and washed them-selves with soap made from African palm oil.

The colonies also provided new markets for thefinished products of the Industrial Revolution.Tools, weapons, and clothing flowed out of the fac-tories and back to the colonies whose raw materialshad made them possible.

Seeking New OpportunitiesImperialism involved more than just guns, bat-

tles, raw materials, and manufactured goods.Colonies needed people who were loyal to theimperialist country. Great Britain, France, andGermany needed British, French, and German citi-zens to run their newly acquired territories andkeep them productive.

Throughout the 1800s European leaders urgedtheir citizens to move to far-off colonies. Many ofthem responded. In the 1840s, for example, thou-sands of French citizens sailed across theMediterranean Sea to Algeria, where they startedfarms and estates on lands seized from localAlgerian farmers.

The British, meanwhile, emigrated to the farcorners of the globe, hoping to find opportunitiesnot available at home. Many rushed to Australiaand New Zealand in the 1850s in search of gold. Asthe British government continued to acquire vasttracts of land in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, thephrase “the sun never sets on the British Empire”became a popular way of describing Great Britain’svast holdings.

Strong-minded individuals saw emigration as achance to strike it rich or make a name for them-selves. Perhaps the most spectacular success storyof the era belonged to Cecil Rhodes, a Britishadventurer who made a fortune from gold and dia-mond mining in southern Africa. Rhodes went onto found a colony that bore his name: Rhodesia(now Zimbabwe).


In this cartoon Bismarck (repre-senting Germany), John Bull

(representing Great Britain), and Uncle Sam(representing the United States) decide the fateof Samoa. What phrase described Great Britain’s vastoverseas holdings?

HistoryVisualizing

“Civilizing” MissionSome emigrants had motives that went beyond

mere personal glory and profit. Religious andhumanitarian impulses inspired many individualsto leave their secure lives at home and head for thedistant colonies. The desire to spread Western tech-nology, religion, customs and traditions also fueledcolonial expansion.

During the Age of Imperialism, growing num-bers of Catholic and Protestant missionaries decid-ed to bring the Christian message to the most remotecorners of Africa and Asia. Over the decades they setup hundreds of Christian missions and preached tothousands of Africans and Asians. Like many otherEuropeans and Americans of this period, these mis-sionaries believed that Christianity and Westerncivilization together could benefit and transformthe world.

The missionaries were not military conquerors,but they did try to change people’s beliefs and prac-tices. They believed that, in order to become “civi-lized,” the people of Africa and Asia would have toreject their old religions and convert to Christianity.To achieve this goal, missionaries built churchesand taught Christian doctrine. Missionaries oftenset up schools and hospitals as well.

Other Europeans also believed that Westerncivilization was superior to the civilizations of colo-nial peoples. As a result, some colonial officialstried to impose Western customs and traditions onthe people they conquered. These officials insistedthat their colonial subjects learn European lan-guages, and they encouraged Western lifestyles aswell. They also discouraged colonial peoples frompracticing traditional customs and rituals.

Some Europeans seized on the theory of socialDarwinism as proof of their cultural superiority.This theory adapted Darwin’s ideas about the evo-lution of animals—particularly his notion of “thesurvival of the fittest”—to explain differences

among human beings. Social Darwinists believedthat white Europeans were the “fittest” people inthe world and that they had a duty to spreadWestern ideas to “backward” peoples.

In 1899 the British writer Rudyard Kipling cap-tured the essence of the imperialist attitude in hisfamous poem “The White Man’s Burden.” Kiplingaddressed the poem to the United States, which atthis time had just begun to acquire and governcolonies of its own:

Take up the White Man’s burden— Send forth the best ye breed— Go bind your sons to exile To serve your captives’ need; To wait in heavy harness On fluttered folk and wild— Your new-caught, sullen peoples, Half-devil and half-child.

Forms of ImperialismImperial nations gained new lands through

treaties, purchases, and military conquest. Once inpower, they used several forms of territorial control.A colony was a territory that an imperial powerruled directly through colonial officials. A protec-torate had its own government, but its policies wereguided by a foreign power. A sphere of influencewas a region in which the imperial power hadexclusive investment or trading rights.

Within these general forms of control, eachimperial nation exercised its power differently. TheFrench used their colonial officials to govern, tospread French culture, and to make territories over-seas extensions of France. The British, by contrast,focused strictly on administration and were less aptto convert colonial peoples to British ways. TheBritish often allowed local rulers to govern territo-ries as their representatives.


Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to identify the eco-nomic and social causes ofimperialism.

Recall2. Define imperialism, colony,

protectorate, sphere of influence.

3. Identify Cecil Rhodes,Rudyard Kipling.

Critical Thinking4. Evaluate What does the Kipling

poem reveal about his attitudetoward Africans and Asians?

Understanding Themes 5. Movement Explain why the

period from 1800 to 1914 isthe Age of Imperialism.

EconomicCauses of Imperialism

Social

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT


Until the 1800s Europeans knew little ofAfrica beyond its northern, western,and southern coasts. Then, in the mid-

1800s, a few brave explorers began to venture intothe African interior. The most famous of these wasScottish doctor and missionary David Livingstone,who first went to Africa in 1840. For the next 30years, Livingstone explored wide tracts of centraland eastern Africa, setting up Christian missionsand sending back to Great Britain detailed reportsof his discoveries, such as Victoria Falls.

When Europeans temporarily lost touch withLivingstone late in the 1860s, the New York Heraldhired a British journalist and explorer namedHenry M. Stanley to track him down. Their famousmeeting in 1871 is best remembered for Stanley’sunderstated greeting, “Dr. Livingstone, I pre-sume?” With help from European financial backers,Stanley went on to lead several major expeditionsthrough central Africa himself.

The publicity surrounding the explorations ofLivingstone and Stanley generated new interest inAfrica throughout Europe. This interest swelledwhen subsequent explorers sent back excitedreports about the continent’s abundance ofresources. Reports such as these helped set off amad European scramble for Africa between 1880and 1914. One European country after another laidclaim to parts of Africa. In 1885, 14 nations met inBerlin, Germany, and agreed to partition, or divide,the prize King Leopold II of Belgium called “thismagnificent African cake.” By 1914 Europeannations controlled 90 percent of the continent.

North AfricaThe world’s largest desert—the Sahara—

stretches across North Africa from the Atlantic

The Britishform the Unionof South Africa.

1910 DavidLivingstone explores Africa.

c. 1870 The Ethiopians defeat the Italians in the battle of Adowa.

1896 The French win special rights in Morocco.

1904

1870 19101890

> Terms to Definepartition

> People to MeetDavid Livingstone, Abd al-Qadir,Muhammad Ali, Samory Touré, MenelikII, the Afrikaners, Shaka

> Places to LocateMorocco, Egypt, the Sudan, Liberia,Ethiopia, Union of South Africa

An eyewitness to the opening ceremonies forthe Suez Canal reported: “Fireworks in front ofthe Viceroy’s Palace. Open house everywhere....Luxurious dinners, vintage wines, exquisite fish,partridges, wild duck. Seven or eight thousandpeople sitting down to dinner in the middle of thedesert. It was like something out of the ArabianNights.... At last I got back to my houseboat....

All through the night Icould hear the noise of the fair—the sound ofmusic, the banging offireworks, and theshouting of happy revelers.”

—adapted from WorldDitch, The Making of theSuez Canal, JohnMarlowe, 1964

S e c t i o n 2

The Partitionof Africa

Opening ofSuez Canal

Read to Find Out Main Idea Imperialism greatly affectedthe continent of Africa.

SThetoryteller

Ocean to the Red Sea. Most of the people in NorthAfrica live on a thin strip of land located north of theSahara along the Mediterranean coast. Here the landis fertile and the climate mild. In the early 1800sMuslim Arabs under the authority of the Ottomanruler in Istanbul governed the large territories west ofEgypt, which at that time were called Tripoli, Tunis,and Algiers. Today Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers are theindependent North African countries of Libya,Tunisia, and Algeria.

The French in North AfricaIn 1830 King Charles X of France ordered an

invasion of Algiers with the aim of colonizing thatcountry. French troops encountered stiff resistancefrom the Algerians, whose leader was Abd al-Qadir(AB•duhl KAH•duhr). About 10 years passedbefore 100,000 French soldiers finally subdued thedetermined Algerians. After conquering Algiers, theFrench seized neighboring Tunis in 1881 andsecured special rights in Morocco in 1904. About 1million French people settled in North Africa dur-ing these years of struggle.

Britain and EgyptDuring the early 1800s, Ottoman Egypt was

virtually independent under its governor,Muhammad Ali. Muhammad Ali’s armies con-quered neighboring lands, making Egypt a powerin the eastern Mediterranean. To modernize Egypt,Ali reformed tax and land systems, encouragedindustry, and supported irrigation projects to boostcotton production. Under Ali’s successors, how-ever, Egypt’s debts rose along with European influence.

In 1859 a French entrepreneur, Ferdinand deLesseps, set up a company to build the Suez Canal.Joining the Mediterranean and Red Seas, thiswaterway became a vital shortcut between Europeand Asia and was especially valued by the Britishas an important link to India. In 1875 Great Britaingained effective control of the canal when Egyptsold its canal shares to the British to pay off itsdebts. During the next few years, British influenceincreased over Egypt. In 1882 British forces putdown a revolt led by nationalist leader AhmedArabi, and Egypt became a British protectorate.

Meanwhile, in the Sudan, south of Egypt, aMuslim revival stirred nationalist feelings. Sincethe 1880s, the Sudanese, under their leader theMahdi, had challenged British expansion. In 1898,however, British forces, using Maxim machineguns, defeated the more simply armed Sudanesearmy at the Battle of Omdurman. Soon after thebattle, the British also confronted a French force atFashoda, bringing Great Britain and France to thebrink of war. In the end, the French withdrew theirarmy and their claim to the Sudan when the Britishrecognized French control of Morocco.

Italy Seizes LibyaLibya lies between Egypt on the east and

Algeria and Tunisia on the west. Known as Tripoliin the 1800s, the country had almost no economicvalue, but it was coveted by Italy, the nearestEuropean nation. Entering the imperialist race late,Italy was eager to establish an African empire. Afterseeking guarantees of neutrality from otherEuropean nations, Italy in 1911 declared war on theOttoman Empire, which ruled Tripoli. Italy easily


British explorerSir Henry

Morton Stanley finds missionaryDavid Livingstone in Africa. Whatended Britain’s imperialist disputewith France over the Sudan?

HistoryVisualizing

defeated the Ottoman Turks and took Tripoli as acolony, renaming it Libya. Libya was the last coun-try in North Africa to be conquered by Europeannations.

West, Central, and East AfricaWest, Central, and East Africa have varied

landscapes: mountains, plains, deserts, and rainforests. During the 1800s, these regions consisted of many territories, each with its own history andtraditions. Europeans, however, exploited theAfricans’ lack of political unity and swallowed upmost of these lands in the late 1800s.

West AfricaIn the 1500s and 1600s Europeans traded along

the coasts of Africa. From West African coastal trad-ing posts, they carried out the transatlantic slavetrade that provided labor for plantations and minesin the Americas. West African states traded salt,gold, and iron wares with the Europeans, but somelocal rulers also supplied prisoners of war to theslave trade.

During the early 1800s, many Western nationsdeclared an end to the slave trade and abolishedslavery. Slave trading, however, continued as Araband African traders sent people from Central andEast Africa to perform slave labor in the MiddleEast and Asia. Meanwhile, West African states,weakened by the population losses of the slavetrade, traded natural products, such as palm oil,ivory, rubber, cotton, and cacao beans, for Europeanmanufactured goods.

To control this trade and to expand their coastalholdings, European nations began to push inland in the 1870s. Before this time, Europeans had avoided inland Africa because of the difficult ter-rain and deadly diseases, such as malaria. In the late 1800s, the discovery of the natural ingredi-ent, quinine, to fight malaria and the use ofsteamships for river transportation made Europeanexploration of inland Africa easier. By 1900,European powers, especially Great Britain andFrance, had acquired vast new territories in WestAfrica.

European expansion, however, did not gounchallenged. In the 1890s West African rulers,such as Samory Touré (sah•MOHR•ree too•RAY)and Behanzin, led armies against the French. In theGold Coast, the Ashanti queen Yaa Asantewaa rallied her people against British expansion. All of these efforts were defeated by well-armedEuropean forces. By 1900, Liberia was the only

remaining independent state in West Africa.Established in 1822 by free African Americans,Liberia became a republic in 1847. Its ties to the United States made it off limits to Europeanexpansion.

Central and East AfricaIn 1877 the explorer Henry M. Stanley reached

the mouth of the Congo River. He later describedthe river as a “grand highway of commerce to …Central Africa.” As a result of Stanley’s exploration,Belgium’s King Leopold II claimed the Congoregion as his own private plantation. He enslavedthe Congolese people and had them cut downforests for rubber trees and kill elephant herds forivory tusks. In pursuing his ambitions, Leopoldstripped the Congo of many people and resources.

Leopold’s brutal control of the Congo lastedabout 20 years, despite the world’s outrage. In 1908he finally agreed to give his plantation to theBelgian government in return for a large loan. Thus,in that year, the Congo region owned by Leopoldbecame the Belgian Congo.

Thiswood

carving of a man read-ing a book is a Yorubaartist’s depiction of aSwedish missionary.Besides establishing mis-sions, what were otherEuropean objectives inAfrica?

HistoryVisualizing

While the Belgians were claiming the CongoBasin, the British, the Germans, and the Italianswere doing the same in East Africa. The only coun-try in East Africa to remain independent duringthis period was Ethiopia, located in a remote regionknown as the Horn of Africa. Beginning in the1880s, Italy tried to conquer this country, but the

Italians underestimated the determination of theiropponent, Ethiopia’s Emperor Menelik II. Asemperor, Menelik had conquered many small king-doms and reunified the Ethiopian Empire.

When the Italians attacked Ethiopia in 1896,Menelik’s well-trained forces crushed the invaders atthe battle of Adowa. His victory was so devastating


ATLANTIC

OCEAN

INDIAN

OCEAN

Mediterranean SeaRed Sea

SuezCanal

SpanishMorocco

Morocco

Gambia

PortugueseGuinea

SierraLeone

LIBERIAGoldCoast

Togo

Nigeria

Algeria

Cameroon

Rio Muni

FrenchEquatorial

Africa

French West Africa

Angola

GermanSouthwest

Africa

Union ofSouth Africa

Bechuana-land

NorthernRhodesia

SouthernRhodesia

Nyasaland

GermanEast Africa

BritishEast

Africa

ItalianSomaliland

ETHIOPIA

BritishSomaliland

FrenchSomalilandEritreaAnglo-

EgyptianSudan

EgyptLibya

Tunisia

BelgianCongo

N

E

S

W

Rio deOro

Uganda

MadagascarMozambique

Cabinda

0°

20°S

0°20°W 20°E 40°E

20°N

Imperialism in Africa 1914

By 1914 only two independent countries remained in all of Africa. Movement How did the Suez Canal affect global trading patterns?Map

Study

IndependentFrenchBritishItalian

GermanSpanishPortugueseBelgian

Miller Stereographic Projection

0 500

500

1,000 mi.

0 1,000 km

that no Europeans dared invade his country againduring his lifetime. Ethiopia and Liberia were theonly two African nations to escape European domi-nation completely during the Age of Imperialism.

Southern AfricaDutch settlers came to southern Africa in 1652

and established the port of Cape Town. For the next150 years, the Afrikaners, as these settlers came tobe called, conquered the lands around the port,which eventually became known as Cape Colony.

Before construction of the Suez Canal, thequickest sea route to Asia from Europe was aroundthe Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip ofAfrica. Sensing the strategic value of Cape Colony,the British seized it during the Napoleonic Wars inthe early 1800s. The Afrikaners resented Britishrule, particularly laws that forbade slavery. Theybelieved that they were superior to black Africansand that God had ordained slavery.

In the 1830s about 10,000 Afrikaners, whom theBritish called Boers (the Dutch word for “farmers”),decided to leave Cape Colony rather than liveunder British rule. In a move known as the GreatTrek, the Afrikaners migrated northeast into theinterior. Here they established two independentrepublics, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State.The constitution of the Transvaal stated, “Thereshall be no equality in State or Church betweenwhite and black.”

The Afrikaners fought constantly with theirneighbors. First they battled the powerful Zulunation for control of the land. Under their kingShaka, the Zulu in the early 1800s had conquered alarge empire in southern Africa. The Zulu andBoers were unable to win a decisive victory. Finally,in 1879, the British became involved in battles with

the Zulu. Under their king, Cetywayo, the Zulu atfirst defeated British forces. With guns and greaternumbers, however, the British eventually destroyedthe Zulu Empire.

Conflict also developed between the British andthe Boers. During the 1880s, British settlers movedinto the Boer-ruled Transvaal in search of gold anddiamonds. Eager to acquire this wealth for GreatBritain, Cecil Rhodes—the prime minister of CapeColony—and other British leaders wanted all ofSouth Africa to come under British rule. They beganpressuring the Boers to grant civil rights to theBritish settlers in the Transvaal. Growing tensionfinally erupted in 1899 into the Anglo-Boer War,which the British won three years later.

In 1910 Great Britain united the Transvaal, theOrange Free State, Cape Colony, and Natal into theUnion of South Africa. The constitution of thisBritish dominion made it nearly impossible fornonwhites to win the right to vote. As one blackAfrican writer of the time said, “The Union is to bea Union of two races, namely the British and theAfrikaners—the African is to be excluded.”

Racial equality became a dominant issue inSouth African affairs after the formation of theUnion. Several nonwhite South African groupstried to advance their civil rights against the whiteminority government. Mohandas K. Gandhi, alawyer from India, worked for equality for Indiansin South Africa. He urged the Indians to disobeylaws that discriminated against them. Gandhi’sefforts brought some additional rights for theIndian community.

South Africa’s black majority also took actionagainst racial injustices. In 1912 black SouthAfricans founded the South African Native NationalCongress (SANNC), whose goal was to work forblack rights in South Africa. In 1923 the SANNCbecame the African National Congress (ANC).


King Mene-lik is shown

here with his chiefs. How didEthiopia’s emperor prevent Italyand other nations from establish-ing imperialist control ofEthiopia?

HistoryVisualizing

CON

NECTIONSC

ON

NECTIONS

Explain why Mungo Park wasinterested in Africa. Why did themouths of African rivers become cen-ters of trade with Europeans? DescribeAfrican port cities today.

Coastal Trading Centers

“The king of the white people wishes tofind out a way by which we may bring our ownmerchandise to you and sell everything at amuch cheaper rate,” said British explorerMungo Park to a West African king in 1805.

Park was interested in the possibilitiesof trade on the Niger River.

Like the other great rivers ofAfrica—the Congo, the Nile, andthe Zambezi—the Niger flows tothe sea. To the European traders ofthe 1800s, few places were moreimportant than the mouth of ariver. These were the only placeswhere the large trading ships could

unload European manufactured goods inexchange for African raw materials.

At the mouth of the Niger in the late1800s, trade centered on palm oil. TheBritish used the oil for making soap. Barrelsof the precious oil were floated down theNiger and collected at depots, or ports, withnames like Calabar and Port Harcourt.

Today these ports are growing cities thatdraw people from all parts of Nigeria. PortHarcourt now has a population of 400,000inhabitants, while Calabar has about160,000. Both ports still provide oil to theworld, but today it is crude oil, the lifebloodof the world’s industries and transportation.

Effects of ImperialismImperialism had profound effects on Africa.

These effects varied from colony to colony, but theycentered mainly on economic and social life. Theimperialists profited from the colonies by diggingmines, starting plantations, and building factoriesand ports. They hired Africans at low wages andimposed taxes that had to be paid in cash. Menwere often housed in dormitories away from theirfamilies and subjected to brutal discipline.

Schools set up by Europeans taught Africans

that European ways were best. In some cases,African traditions declined, although most Africansheld on to their cultures while accepting someEuropean ways. For example, many Africans cameto accept some form of Christianity.

By the early 1900s, a western-educated elite hademerged in many European colonies in Africa. TheseAfricans condemned imperialism as contrary towestern ideals of liberty and equality. They foundednationalist groups to push for self-rule. By the endof the twentieth century, Africa’s peoples had wontheir political independence from European rule.



below to identify effects ofimperialism on Africa.

Recall2. Define partition.3. Identify David Livingstone,

Abd al-Qadir, Muhammad Ali,Samory Touré, Menelik II, the Afrikaners, Shaka.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information

How did European rule affect

civil rights in South Africa?What steps did Africans andAsians take to bring aboutchange?

Understanding Themes 5. Change What were the

main causes and effects of the partition of Africa byEuropean countries?

Dakar, Senegal

Effects ofImperialism on

Africa



In his book Description of the World, writtenin 1298, Italian explorer Marco Polorelates the many stories he heard about

Zipangu, an East Asian island with a supposedlyinexhaustible supply of gold. Polo never did visitZipangu, now called Japan, but his description ofits imagined treasures, and of the Asian riches hedid see, inspired generations of Europeans. Theylooked eastward to Asia, dreaming of wealth.

The British in IndiaEuropean trade with Asia opened up in the

1500s as sea routes replaced difficult overlandroutes. British involvement in India dates back tothis period, when English traders first sailed alongIndia’s coast. In 1600 some of these traders formedthe East India Company, which later became one ofthe richest and most powerful trading companiesthe world had ever known.

After its founding, the East India Companybuilt trading posts and forts in strategic locationsthroughout India. The French East India Companydid the same and challenged the British for controlof the India trade. In 1757 Robert Clive, a BritishEast India Company agent, used an army of Britishand Indian troops to defeat the French at the Battleof Plassey. During the next hundred years, theBritish expanded their territory in India throughwars and commercial activity.

The Sepoy RebellionAs a result of steady expansion, the East India

Company came to control most of India by 1857.Their power was tested that year, however, whenthe sepoys, or Indian soldiers, rebelled against theirBritish commanders. Long before the greased bulletrumor discussed at this chapter’s beginning trig-gered the Indian Revolt of 1857, sepoy resentmenthad been growing over British attempts to imposeChristianity and European customs on them.

Japan emerges as a leading industrial nation. c. 1914 Taiping

Rebellion begins in China.

1850 The Meiji erabegins in Japan.

1868 Indian leaders formthe Indian National Congress.

1885

1850 1875 1925 1900

> Terms to Definesepoy, viceroy, sphere of influence, culture system, westernization

> People to MeetCi Xi, Sun Yat-sen, Matthew C. Perry, Mutsuhito, Diponegoro, Emilio Aguinaldo

> Places to LocateBeijing, the East Indies, the Philippines,Indochina

“Until the year 1924 I was the only foreignerprivileged to witness and to participate in thegreat ceremonies…. ” So wrote Reginald Johnston,Professor of Chinese at the University of London,and witness to the end of an empire in the “Palaceof Cloudless Heaven” within the Forbidden City.“It was not without difficulty that even theemperor was able to … invite a few ‘ocean-men’ towitness the New Year ceremonial which took placeon February 5, 1924. It turned out to be the lastoccasion on which the ceremony was performed.

Before another yearhad passed, the lifeof the Manchucourt had come toan end.”

—adapted fromTwilight in theForbidden City,Reginald F.Johnston, 1934

S e c t i o n 3

The Division of Asia

China’s Forbidden City

Read to Find Out Main Idea The countries of Asiaresponded in varying ways to imperialism.

SThetoryteller

The sepoy rebellion spread across northern andcentral India, in some places resulting in the mas-sacre of British men, women, and children. Withina year, British forces put down the uprising. Inrevenge for the massacres, they killed thousands ofunarmed Indians. The revolt left bitterness on bothsides and forced the British to tighten their controlof India. In 1858 Parliament ended the East IndiaCompany and sent a viceroy to rule as themonarch’s representative. Treaties secured the loy-alty of the remaining independent Indian states.

Indian NationalismThe British government tried to quell further

unrest in India by spending vast amounts of moneyon India’s economic development. It built pavedroads and an extensive railway system; it installed

telegraph lines and dugirrigation canals; and itestablished schools anduniversities.

At the same time,British colonial officialsdiscriminated against In-dians and forced them tochange their ancient ways,often with tragic results.Indian farmers, for exam-ple, were told to grow cot-ton instead of wheat,because British textilemills needed cotton. Thelack of wheat then led tosevere food shortages thatkilled millions of Indiansduring the 1800s.

Outraged by the foodshortages and other prob-lems, many Indians wantedto move toward self-rule.In 1885 a group of Indianbusiness and professionalleaders formed the IndianNational Congress. Accept-ing western ideas such asdemocracy and equality,the Congress at first usedpeaceful protest to urgethe British to grant morepower to Indians. Later, asthe Congress party, it ledthe long struggle for com-plete independence.

China Faces the WestWhile the British increased their hold on India,

they and other Europeans developed trade withChina. During the 1500s, Chinese civilization hadbeen highly advanced, and the Chinese at that timehad little interest in European products. There wasonly limited trade between China and Europe dur-ing the next 300 years. During this period, whiletechnological changes transformed Europe, China’spolitical, economic, and military position weak-ened under the Qing dynasty. Qing emperors ruledChina from 1644 to 1912.

The Unequal TreatiesIn the early 1800s, British merchants found a

way to break China’s trade barriers and earn huge


CHINA

Ceylon

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Territory under British rule in 1805Added by 1856Added by 1886Princely states

Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

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300 mi.

0 300 km

Kashmir

Punjab

RajputStates

Nepal

BengalUpperBurma

LowerBurma

Tenasserim

Hyderabad

Madras

Mysore

Goa(Portuguese)

Arakan

TIBET

AFG

HANIS

TAN

Bayof

Bengal

30°N

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MapStudy

India Under British Rule

By 1886 the British had gained control of most of India. Region What areas remained free of British rule?

profits. In exchange for Chinese tea, silk, and porce-lain—and to avoid paying cash—the merchantssmuggled a drug called opium, which they obtainedfrom India and Turkey, into China. In 1839 Chinesetroops tried to stop the smuggling. When the Britishresisted, war broke out. The British used gunboatsto bombard Chinese ports and easily defeated theChinese, who lacked modern weapons.

British victory in the Opium War in 1842 led tothe Treaty of Nanking, the first of many “unequaltreaties” that forced China to yield many of itsrights to Western powers. The Nanking treatygranted the British payment for war losses as wellas the island of Hong Kong. British citizens inChina also gained extraterritoriality, the right tolive under their own laws and courts. Over the next60 years, the “unequal treaties” increased foreigninfluence in China and weakened the Qing dynasty.Civil wars, such as the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864), also eroded the dynasty’s control.

By the 1890s, European powers as well as Japanclaimed large sections of China as spheres of influence—areas where they had exclusive tradingrights. Coming late to the imperialist scramble, theUnited States did not claim a sphere of influence.Instead, it tried to open China to the trade of allnations through the Open Door Policy. Deadlockedby their own rivalries, the other powers reluctantlyagreed to this policy in 1899.

Chinese Responses To modernize China, some reformers during

the late 1800s began a “self-strengthening” move-ment. This program involved importing bothWestern technology and educational methods. Theyalso worked to improve agriculture, strengthen thearmed forces, and end the European practice ofextraterritoriality.

Lack of government support stalled theseefforts. Chinese weakness was only further exposedin an 1894 war against a modernizing Japan thatended in China’s defeat and loss of territory. FromChina, Japan gained the island of Taiwan and theLiaodong Peninsula as well as trading benefits inChinese territory. The Japanese also ended China’sinfluence in Korea.

After this setback, reformers regained influencewith the support of the young emperor Guang Xu(gwawng SHYOO). They launched the HundredDays of Reform to modernize the government andencourage new industries. However, conservativesled by the emperor’s mother, Ci Xi (TSUH•SEE),returned to power, arrested the emperor, and halt-ed the reforms.

By the late 1890s, anti-foreign feelings in Chinahad led to the formation of secret societies dedicat-ed to removing diplomats, entrepreneurs, mission-aries, and other foreigners from the country. Onegroup, the Righteous and Harmonious Fists, prac-ticed a Chinese form of boxing, and Westernersnamed its members Boxers. In 1900 the Boxers car-ried out attacks against foreigners and ChineseChristians, besieging foreign communities inBeijing, the Chinese capital. In response, theWestern powers and Japan sent a multinationalforce that ended the uprising. The empress, whohad supported the Boxers, reversed her policy.

The Revolution of 1911After the Boxer Uprising, Ci Xi struggled to

hold on to power. She agreed to allow foreigntroops to remain in China and gave in to some ofher people’s demands for change. For example, sheestablished schools and reorganized the govern-ment. But it was too little, too late. Many Chinesebelieved that a modern republic should replace theQing dynasty. In their view, the only way to achievethis goal was through revolution.


CHINA

Haikou

Guangzhou

WuhanNanjing

Zhenjiang

Qingdao

Tianjin

Beijing

Vladivostok

Weihai

ShantouXiamen

Fuzhou

Ningbo

Shanghai

TainanHong Kong(Br.)

MANCHURIA RUSSIA

KOREA

FORMOSA(Taiwan)

Macao(Port.)

N

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Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection

0 250

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500 mi.

0 500 km

BritishGermanFrenchRussianJapanese

Spheres ofInfluence

Port Arthur

Jinzhou

PACIFICOCEAN

YellowSea

Seaof

Japan

110°E 120°E 130°E

140°E40°N

30°N

20°N

MapStudy

China 1900

The European powers divided China into spheres of influence in the late 1800s.

Location Which of these powers controlled Manchuria in 1900?

of theof the

The BritishEmpire

From the late 1700s to theearly 1900s, Great Britain ruledthe world’s largest overseas empire.British territories were found inevery continent.

British naval forcesdemonstrated Britishpower in countries thatwere not directly underQueen Victoria’s crown.Here a British shipattacks Chinese warshipsoff the coast of China.

The revolutionaries wanted China to regain itsformer power and influence. One of them, a doctornamed Sun Yat-sen, wrote in the early 1900s:“Today we are the poorest and weakest nation inthe world and occupy the lowest position in inter-national affairs. Other men are the carving knifeand serving dish; we are the fish and the meat.”

In 1905 Sun and other revolutionaries formedthe United League (later known as the Guomindang,or Nationalist party). Their goal was to modernizeChina on the basis of the “Three Principles of thePeople”: nationalism (freedom from foreign con-trol), democracy (representative government), andlivelihood (economic well-being for all Chinese).The revolutionary cause was strengthened in 1908when Ci Xi died, and two-year-old Prince Pu Yibecame emperor. Three years later, revolutionswept China as peasants, workers, soldiers, andcourt officials turned against the weak dynasty. SunYat-sen hurried home from a fund-raising tour ofthe United States. In January 1912, he became thefirst president of the new Chinese republic.

Modernization of JapanJapan’s dealings with the European powers

began in much the same way as China’s, but theyended differently. European traders first came tothe island country in the 1500s. Like the Chinese,the Japanese were uninterested in European prod-ucts, and they cut off almost all trade with Europein the early 1600s. At the time a military comman-der called a shogun ruled Japan. Although thecountry also had an emperor, he had no real power.

Japan did not trade again with the outsideworld until 1853, when four American warshipscommanded by Commodore Matthew C. Perrysailed into the bay at Edo (present-day Tokyo).Perry wanted Japan to begin trading with theUnited States. The shogun, knowing what had hap-pened to China in the recent Opium War, decidedearly in 1854 to sign a treaty with Perry.

492

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

1. What types of people were found throughoutGreat Britain’s empire?

2. In the 1800s, people often said that “the sunnever sets on the British Empire.” What do youthink this phrase meant?

Australia drew many British settlers,who made their homes in the harsh out-

back, or semi-dryinterior, as well as incoastal areas.

India was the most importantBritish possession. This paintingshows a British military officertraveling by elephant throughnorthern India with his cavalryand foot soldiers.

The Meiji LeadersIn the first five years after Perry’s arrival, the

shogun signed trade treaties with Britain, France,Holland, Russia, and the United States. Since thetreaties favored the imperialist powers, theJapanese people called them unequal treaties, justas the Chinese had. Unhappiness with the treatiesled to the overthrow of the shogun in 1868. A groupof samurai gave its allegiance to the new emperor,Mutsuhito, but kept the real power to themselves.Because Mutsuhito was known as the Meiji(MAY•jee), or “Enlightened” emperor, Japan’s newrulers were called the Meiji leaders.

The Meiji leaders tried to make Japan a greatpower capable of competing with Western nations.Adopting the slogan “Rich country, strong mili-tary” they brought the forms of parliamentary gov-ernment to Japan, strengthened the military, andworked to transform the nation into an industrialsociety. The Meiji leaders established a system ofuniversal education designed to produce loyal,skilled citizens who would work for Japan’s mod-

ernization. In this way, the Japanese hoped to createa new ruling class based on talent rather than birth.

IndustrializationIn the 1870s Japan began to industrialize in an

effort to strengthen its economy. The Japanese didthis with little outside assistance. They were reluc-tant to borrow money from the West, fearing for-eign takeovers if loans could not be repaid. In anycase, most Western banks were not interested inmaking loans to Japan, because they considered thecountry a poor financial risk.

The Japanese government laid the groundworkfor industrial expansion. It revised the tax structureto raise money for investment. It also developed amodern currency system and supported the build-ing of postal and telegraph networks, railroads, andport facilities.

Beginning in the late 1880s, Japan’s economygrew rapidly. A growing population provided acontinuing supply of cheap labor. The combinationof new technological methods and cheap labor

493

allowed Japan to produce low-priced goods. Warsat the turn of the century further stimulated Japan’seconomy and helped it enter new world markets.By 1914 Japan had become one of the world’s lead-ing industrial nations.

Japan as a World PowerBy the 1890s the Meiji leaders had taken great

strides toward creating a modern nation. Japan hadacquired an efficient government, a vigorous econ-omy, and a strong military. Needing more naturalresources, the Japanese government began to estab-lish its own overseas empire. The first prize itattempted to take was Korea.

When the people of Korea revolted againsttheir Chinese rulers in 1894, Japan decided to inter-vene. Japanese troops easily defeated the Chinesearmy in the Sino-Japanese War. Although Koreaofficially became independent, Japan gained partialcontrol of its trade. Over the next few years, thou-sands of Japanese settled in Korea.

Korea also figured in Japan’s next war. TheRussian Empire had interests in Korea as well, andits interests began to clash with Japan’s. Even moreimportant was neighboring Manchuria, where theRussians kept troops and had a naval base at PortArthur. In 1904 the Japanese navy launched a sur-prise attack on Port Arthur. Few people expectedJapan to win the Russo-Japanese War, but theJapanese piled up victory after victory. The conflictended in 1905, when Russia signed a treaty grant-ing the country of Japan control over Korea andother nearby areas.

Japan’s victory over Russia inspired non-Westernnationalist leaders throughout the world. It provedthat the European empires could be defeated if onehad the will and determination. On the other hand,Japan had now become an imperialist country itself.It annexed Korea as a colony in 1910 and continuedto expand its empire for the next 35 years.

Southeast AsiaSoutheast Asia consists of two distinct geo-

graphic areas. Island Southeast Asia is made of twoarchipelagos, or groups of islands: the East Indiesand the Philippines. To the north and west liesmainland Southeast Asia. It includes all of the terri-tories that occupy the Indochinese and MalayPeninsulas.

The growth of imperialism in these areas fol-lowed a familiar pattern. Beginning in the 1500s,imperialist powers came, saw, and conquered. Overthe next 400 years Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands,Great Britain, France, and the United States all setup colonies in that region. They ranged in size fromthe huge Dutch East Indies that included thousandsof islands to the tiny British settlements on theisland of Singapore.

The Islands of Southeast AsiaFor centuries, the island region of Southeast

Asia had attracted foreign traders and colonizers.At the beginning of the 1800s, the Dutch controlledmost of the East Indies and Spain controlled thePhilippines.

The Dutch East Indies, present-day Indonesia,had many natural resources, including rich soil.Farmers grew coffee, pepper, cinnamon, sugar,indigo, and tea; miners dug for tin and copper; log-gers cut down ebony, teak, and other hardwoodtrees. The Dutch government used a method offorced labor called the culture system to gather allthese raw materials. The Dutch also discouragedwesternization, or the spread of European civiliza-tion. The enormous profits the Dutch received fromthe East Indies made the colony the envy of theimperialist powers.

Diponegoro, a native prince from the EastIndian island of Java, started a revolt against theDutch in 1825. Although it lasted 10 years, thisrevolt eventually ended in failure, and the Dutchencountered little real opposition for the next 80years. One of the Dutch governors put it this way:“We have ruled here for 300 years with the whipand the club and we shall still be doing it in anoth-er 300 years.” In the early 1900s, the Dutch woncontrol of the entire archipelago, extending theirrule into northern Sumatra and the Celebes. Butwithin a generation, nationalist forces would bringthe Dutch East Indian empire to its knees.

The Spanish rule of the Philippines resembledthe Dutch rule of the Dutch East Indies. NativeFilipinos worked for very low wages, if any, ontobacco and sugar plantations owned by wealthySpaniard landowners. During the 1800s the


A Teenage EmperorMutsuhito was only 15when he became Japan’s

emperor in 1867. During his 44-year reign, heoften led the way in adopting Western customs.He cut his traditional topknot, a tuft of hair onthe top of the head, and wore European-styleclothes. While previous emperors lived apartfrom the people, Mutsuhito rode around Tokyo inan open carriage and toured the countryside.

Filipinos’ resentment grew until it finally explodedinto revolution in 1896.

When the United States declared war on Spainin 1898, the American government promised to freethe Philippines in return for the rebels’ help againstthe Spanish. After winning the Spanish-AmericanWar, the United States broke its promise and ruledthe Philippines as a colony. The Filipinos led byEmilio Aguinaldo (ah•gee•NAHL•doh) thenarose against American rule, but United Statestroops defeated them two years later.

Mainland Southeast AsiaThe mainland region of Southeast Asia consist-

ed of several large territories in the early 1800s,including Burma (present-day Myanmar), Malaya,Vietnam, Siam (Thailand), Cambodia, and Laos. Allthrough the 1800s, Great Britain and France strug-gled for domination of the area—more for military,than for economic, reasons.

The British swept into Burma from India in the1820s. Over the next 60 years, they took full controlof Burma and Malaya. Meanwhile, the French wereslowly conquering Indochina, including present-day Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. They took com-plete control in the 1880s.

Squeezed between the two growing blocks ofBritish and French territory lay the kingdom ofSiam. In 1893 the French invaded Siam, sendingforces into Bangkok, the capital city. Great Britainand France avoided armed conflict, however, whenthey agreed to define their spheres of influence inSoutheast Asia. As a result of the agreement, Siamremained independent.

European rivalries for control of resourcesbrought much disturbance to mainland SoutheastAsia. Western influences changed traditional waysof life. Colonial landowners and trading companiesforced local farmers and workers to grow cashcrops, mine coal, and cut teak trees.



below to identify ways inwhich Asian countriesresponded to imperialism.

Recall2. Define sepoy, viceroy, sphere

of influence, culture system,westernization.

3. Identify Ci Xi, Sun Yat-sen,Matthew C. Perry, Mutsuhito,Diponegoro, Emilio Aguinaldo.

Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information

How did European imperialismdiffer in India, China, andSoutheast Asia?

Understanding Themes5. Reaction How did Japan

avoid extensive Western inter-ference, while China did not?

This view of Whampoa Reach in China (about 1860) shows an English barque and an American ship.How did Western trade and commerce affect Southeast Asia?History

Visualizing

Asian Countries’Responses toImperialism


Have you heard the expression, “surfingthe Net”? This means you can searchthrough the Internet to find information

on many subjects. You won’t get wet, but yousure can learn a lot and have fun!

Learning the SkillThe Internet is a global computer network

that offers many features, including the latestnews and weather, stored information, E-mail,and on-line shopping. Before you can connect tothe Internet and use the services it offers, how-ever, you must have three things: a computer, amodem, and a service provider. A serviceprovider is a company that, for a fee, gives youentry to the Internet.

Once you are connected, the easiest andfastest way to access sites and information is touse a “Web browser,” a program that lets youview and explore information on the WorldWide Web. The Web consists of many docu-ments called “Web pages,” each of which has itsown address, or Uniform Resource Locator(URL). Many URLs start with the keystrokeshttp://

Practicing the SkillThis chapter focuses on the Age of

Imperialism, when the Panama Canal and theSuez Canal were completed. Surf the Internet to learn about the history of these canals.1. Log on the Internet and access one of the

World Wide Web search tools, such as Yahoo at website http://www.yahoo.com orLycos at http://www.lycos.com orWebCrawler at http:/www.webcrawler.com

2. Search by category or by name. If you searchby category in Yahoo, for example, click onSocial Science. To search by name, type inPanama Canal and Suez Canal.

3. Scroll the list of Web pages that appearswhen the search is complete. Select a page tobring up and read or print it. Repeat theprocess until you have enough informationyou can use to develop a short report on thetwo major canals completed during the Ageof Imperialism.

Applying the SkillGo through the steps just described to

search the Internet for information on the SepoyRebellion in India. Based on the information,write an article for your school newspaper ormagazine about your topic.

For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter

Assessment on page 503 for more practice inusing the Internet.

Using the Internet

TechnologyTechnology



On the floor of the Senate in 1898, UnitedStates Senator Albert J. Beveridge deliv-ered a stirring speech on America’s

growing role as a world power:

Fate has written our policy for us; thetrade of the world must and shall be ours.We will establish trading-posts through-out the world as distributing-points forAmerican products…. Great colonies gov-erning themselves, flying our flag andtrading with us, will grow about ourposts of trade.

Senator Beveridge’s grand ambition capped ahalf-century of growing American influence inworld affairs. The imperialist powers of Europehad already laid claim to much of the world. Nowthat the United States had grown considerably insize, wealth, and power, it was determined to usethe Monroe Doctrine to block the spread ofEuropean imperialism in neighboring LatinAmerica, an area that includes Mexico, theCaribbean islands, Central America, and SouthAmerica. In doing so, the United States was alsopromoting its own brand of imperialism thatinvolved the penetration of new economic marketsand the acquisition of overseas territories.

The Monroe DoctrineEven before the independence of all the Latin

American countries was well established, Spainhad sought the support of other European powersin reconquering its former colonies. Both theUnited States and Great Britain opposed Spain’s

The United States proclaims the Monroe Doctrine.

1823 The Panama Canal opens. 1914 The United States

declares war on Spain. 1898

1820 19201870

> Terms to Definearbitration

> People to MeetJames Monroe, José Martí, William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, BenitoJuárez, Porfirio Díaz, Emiliano Zapata,Francisco “Pancho” Villa, Venustiano Carranza, Woodrow Wilson

> Places to LocateCuba, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Isthmus of Panama, Mexico

Frederic Remington was one of the first “for-eign correspondents”—a journalist in Cuba dur-ing the Spanish-American War. He wrote: “Atnight I lay up beside the road outside of Siboney,and cooked my supper by a soldier fire, and laydown under a mango-tree on my raincoat, with

my haversack for a pil-low. I could hear theshuffling of the marchingtroops, and see by thelight of the fire near theroad the ... sweaty men.”

—adapted from FredericRemington and the Spanish-American War, DouglasAllen, 1971

S e c t i o n 4

Imperialismin the Americas

Teddy Roosevelt andthe Rough Riders

Read to Find Out Main Idea Latin Americans largelyopposed the growth of American influence in their region.

SThetoryteller

plan. The United States did not want a strongEuropean power so close to its borders. GreatBritain had developed good trade relations with theLatin Americans and did not feel that its commer-cial interests would be served by the return ofSpanish control to the Americas.

Great Britain suggested to the United Statesthat a joint warning be issued to the variousEuropean powers. However, President JamesMonroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adamsdecided to act alone. In 1823 Monroe warned theEuropean powers not to interfere in the countries ofthe Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine, asit was later called, contained two major points:

1. The American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assured and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any Europeanpowers.

2. We should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerousto our peace and safety.

At the time the Monroe Doctrine was declared,it was not clear what the United States would do ifEuropean powers tried to conquer any part of LatinAmerica. The support of the British Royal Navy,however, ensured that the infant states of LatinAmerica would remain free to determine their ownpolitical destinies.

As the United States grew in strength duringthe late 1800s and early 1900s, it began to make itspower felt in Latin America. In 1895, when GreatBritain was in conflict with Venezuela over theboundaries of British Guiana, the United Statesurged that the dispute be submitted to arbitration,or settlement by a third party that is agreeable toboth sides. Appealing to the Monroe Doctrine, theUnited States Department of State issued a strongwarning to the British to pressure them into accept-ing arbitration. Aware of the power of the UnitedStates and involved with problems in its empire,Great Britain agreed to a peaceful settlement.

The Spanish-American WarSoon after the Guiana border dispute was set-

tled, the United States turned its attention to Cuba.Cuba and the neighboring island of Puerto Ricowere still Spanish colonies in the late 1800s. Cubawas particularly important to Spain, which reapedhuge profits from the island’s many sugar andtobacco plantations.

In 1895 José Martí, a writer and politicalactivist, led Cubans in a revolution against Spanishrule. Cuba’s Spanish leaders embarked on a bloodyattack on the rebel forces. Martí was killed in a bat-tle against the Spaniards, and Spanish troopsrounded up thousands of Cubans and sent them toprison camps where conditions were brutal.Disease and starvation soon claimed more than400,000 Cuban lives.

Remember the Maine!The struggle of the Cubans for freedom attract-

ed much sympathy in the United States. Americannewspapers printed vivid stories describing thecruelty and killings in Cuba. Soon, prominentAmerican politicians began clamoring for war withSpain. Businesspeople who had invested in Cubaalso joined in. Finally, in January 1898, PresidentWilliam McKinley ordered the battleship Maine toHavana, the capital of Cuba, to demonstrate grow-ing American interest in Cuban affairs. A few weekslater, an explosion ripped through the Maine whileit was still anchored in Havana harbor, sinking theship and killing 260 American sailors.

The cry “Remember the Maine!” swept acrossthe United States. American newspapers left littledoubt that Spain was responsible for the disaster. InApril 1898, under pressure from all sides, McKinleyasked Congress to declare war on Spain. TheSpanish-American War lasted four months andended with a victory for the United States.


United States Marines hoist theAmerican flag in Cuba. What was

Spain’s economic interest in Cuba?

HistoryVisualizing

The Panama Canal was a testa-ment to the skill of Americanengineers. The enormous lockgates (under construction, left)

were made of steel plates attached to askeleton of steel girders. (Note the size ofthe men working around these gates.) Eachgate weighed 700 tons (784 short tons) butwas hollow and could float. Because theywere buoyant, the gates exerted less stresson their hinges as the gates were openedand closed. Without the significantadvances made in technology during the1800s, this canal could not have been built.

Without President Theodore Roosevelt (center) the

Panama Canal would not have beenbuilt. During his presidency he decidedthat the United States would build acanal across the Isthmus of Panama—and he made it happen. Roosevelt want-ed to boost American power and to com-pete more effectively with the imperialpowers of Europe and Japan. ThePanama Canal helped accomplish thisgoal by strengthening the military pos-ture of the United States. The canaleliminated 7,800 miles (12,550 km) fromthe sea voyage between New York and

San Francisco. It cost $380 million and tens of thou-sands of lives, and took ten years to complete. �

Panama Canal�

PICTURING HISTORY

Bettmann George F. Mobley

Harvard College Library


American Territorial GainsDuring the late 1800s, the United States made

many significant territorial gains. In 1867 it pur-chased Alaska from Russia, and in 1898 annexedHawaii, shortly after American entrepreneurs onthe islands had overthrown the Hawaiian queenLiliuokalani (lee•lee•oo•oh•kah•LAH•nee). As aresult of the Spanish-American War, the UnitedStates gained from Spain territories in the PacificOcean (the Philippines and Guam) and in theCaribbean Sea (Puerto Rico). Although indepen-dent, Cuba was under American protection. In 1917the United States purchased the Virgin Islands(St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix) from Denmark.

The Panama CanalVictory in the Spanish-American War made the

United States a world power. It needed to be able tomove its fleet quickly between the Pacific andAtlantic Oceans. What was needed was a canal acrossthe Isthmus of Panama, a narrow neck of land thatlinked Central America and South America.

For centuries, Europeans and Americans haddreamed of building a canal across Central America.In the 1880s the Frenchman Ferdinand de Lesseps,who had built the Suez Canal, tried—and failed—tobuild a canal in Panama. Thirteen years after thebankruptcy of de Lesseps’s company, United StatesPresident Theodore Roosevelt received the backingof Congress to acquire the Panama canal rights andproperty.

In 1902 Panama was part of Colombia. Roosevelttried to negotiate a treaty with Colombia that yearthat would give the United States land to build thecanal in Panama. When Colombia refused, Rooseveltand the American public were outraged.

Roosevelt soon developed a plan, however. Withhis approval, American agents encouraged the peo-ple of Panama to revolt against the government ofColombia. They did so on the night of November 3,1903, with the help of the United States Navy. Therebellion was over by the next day, and the newRepublic of Panama quickly signed a treaty grantingthe United States the land to build the Panama Canal.

Construction of the canal began in 1904 and took10 years and more than 40,000 workers to complete. Many of the workers, however, died ofmalaria and yellow fever. This problem was eventu-ally solved by implementing a sanitation program tocontrol disease-carrying mosquitoes. When the firstship finally steamed through the canal in August1914, the canal was hailed as one of the world’s greatengineering feats.

Possession of the Panama Canal gave the UnitedStates even more of a stake in Latin America. Thus,the United States continued to exert its power in theregion throughout the early 1900s. In 1904 PresidentTheodore Roosevelt extended the Monroe Doctrinein what became known as the Roosevelt Corollary.Now the United States would actively force LatinAmerican countries to honor their foreign debts.During the next two decades, United States forcesintervened in countries such as the DominicanRepublic, Haiti, and Nicaragua. The United Stateshoped its interventions would provide stability andprepare the way for democracy. Most LatinAmericans viewed American actions as moves toturn their countries into “colonies” of the UnitedStates and to protect foreign businesses that wereexploiting their resources.

MexicoDuring the 1800s and early 1900s, the United

States became deeply involved in the affairs of itssouthern neighbor, Mexico. During the 1830s, oppo-sition to the dictatorial rule of General AntonioLópez de Santa Anna grew in the Mexican state ofTexas, where many Americans had settled. In 1835the Americans and some Mexicans in Texas revoltedand the next year set up an independent republic.Texas in 1845 joined the American republic as a state,and conflict soon developed between Mexico andthe United States. Mexico lost the Mexican War, andin the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), lost nearly half of its territory to the United States.

Reform and ConflictAfter the Mexican War, Mexico entered an era of

change known as La Reforma. In 1855 Mexican vot-ers chose Benito Juárez, a lawyer of NativeAmerican background, as president. Juárez reducedthe power of the military, separated church andstate, and improved the lot of impoverished farm-ers. In 1863, when Mexico could not pay its foreigndebts, French troops occupied Mexico City. Juárezfled the capital to organize a guerrilla movement inthe countryside. In 1864 Mexican conservatives,supported by the French, named Austrian Archduke


Student Web Activity 16

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 16—Student Web Activities for an activityrelating to United States imperialism.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/chapter16/webact.html

rights of impoverished farmers. Like Zapata, Villaproposed radical reforms. The more conservativeCarranza, however, was able to become presidentin 1915 with American support. In retaliation, Villacrossed the border into New Mexico and killed 18Americans. United States President WoodrowWilson then sent American troops into Mexico tocapture Villa. American entry into World War I in1917 led to the withdrawal of these troops.

That same year, Carranza reluctantly introduceda liberal constitution but was slow in carrying outreforms. In 1919 a pro-Carranza military officermurdered Zapata, who had protested Carranza’sdisregard of land reform. A year later, Carranza waskilled and General Álvaro Obregón came to power.As the violence began to subside in the 1920s, rela-tions between Mexico and the United States wereless tense. The memory of American intervention,however, lingered in Mexican minds.

Maximilian emperor of Mexico. In 1867 the French,under American pressure, withdrew their troopsfrom Mexico, and Juárez returned to power afterhis forces had ousted and executed Maximilian.

Four years after Juárez’s death in 1872, GeneralPorfirio Díaz seized power. To ensure “Order andProgress,” Díaz strengthened the army and limitedindividual freedoms. Under Díaz’s harsh rule,however, Mexico made economic advances, build-ing railroads, developing industries, expandingfarmlands, and opening new mines. Unfortunatelyfor the Mexican people, most profits went to foreign investors and wealthy landowners. Whilethe rich prospered, most Mexicans remained poor.

The Mexican RevolutionDiscontent with Díaz eventually led to revolu-

tion. From 1910 to 1920, Mexico was engulfed bythe first major social upheaval in modern LatinAmerica. During this time, armies of farmers,workers, ranchers, and even soldaderas, or womensoldiers, fought the authorities and each otheracross Mexico. The unrest also sparked a wave ofMexican immigration to the United States.

The revolution began when Francisco Madero,a liberal reformer, and his supporters overthrewDíaz in 1911. Once in power, Madero was murderedby one of his generals, Victoriano Huerta. A yearlater, Huerta himself was toppled from power byMexican revolts and American intervention.

No strong leader emerged to take Huerta’splace. Instead, three revolutionary leaders—Emiliano Zapata, Francisco “Pancho” Villa, andVenustiano Carranza—competed for power. Usingthe battle cry, “Tierra y Liberdad!” (Land andLiberty!), Zapata and his followers fought for the



below to list ways in whichLatin American countriesreacted to American influence.

Recall2. Define arbitration.3. Identify James Monroe,

Monroe Doctrine, José Martí,William McKinley, TheodoreRoosevelt, Benito Juárez,Porfirio Díaz, Emiliano Zapata,Francisco “Pancho” Villa,Venustiano Carranza,Woodrow Wilson.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information Why

do you think the United Statesgovernment was so concernedabout maintaining its influencein Latin America during thelate 1800s and early 1900s?

Understanding Themes5. Nationalism What factors

led to the Mexican Revolution?

The Netherlands, 1899Representatives from 26 nations attended a peace conference at The Hague in 1899 to deal with arms limitation. While no arms limitation agreement was made, the Hague Conference accomplished other goals, such as the creation of the Permanent Court of Justice. The Hague Conference also prohibited the use of chemical and biological weapons.

AROUND THE

Latin AmericanReaction to U.S.

Influence


Reviewing Facts1. History Use a diagram like the one below to

identify different responses of U.S. Presidentsto events in Latin America.

2. History Explain how imperial nations acquiredand ruled overseas lands. In what ways did theBritish and the French differ in ruling theirempires?

3. Geography Identify the locations and state thesignificance of the Suez and Panama Canals.

4. Culture Describe the role of religion in thespread of Western values during the 1800s.

5. History Identify how Asians, Africans, andLatin Americans reacted to Western imperial-ism after the mid-1800s.

Critical Thinking1. Apply How did science, industry, and technol-

ogy aid the growth of imperialism?2. Evaluate Why was Japan able to establish itself

as an imperial and military power?3. Synthesize How did imperialism affect peo-

ples in Africa, Asia, and Latin America? Whatimpact did imperialism have on the peoples ofEurope and North America?

4. Analyze Contrast the ways in which the Age ofImperialism contributed to the growth of unityin the world with the ways in which it con-tributed to disunity.

Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence. Then write a sentence for each term not chosen.

a. sepoys f. imperialismb. protectorate g. spheres of influencec. partition h. viceroyd. arbitration i. culture systeme. westernization j. colony

1. Before revolting in 1857, ______ had resentedBritish attempts to impose Christianity andEuropean customs on them.

2. ________ means one country’s control of the polit-ical, economic, and social life of another country.

3. The acquisition of colonies by Europeans led to ____________, or the spread of European civi-lization to other parts of the world.

4. In the East Indies, the Dutch used a method offorced labor called the _________ to gather rawmaterials and harvest crops.

5. In 1885, 14 nations met in Berlin, Germany, andagreed to ____________ the continent of Africaamong themselves.


CHAPTER 16 ASSESSMENT

Choose one nation in Africa andresearch its history from the colonial erato the present. Write a short paper aboutyour chosen country’s independence andits prospects for the future.

Using Your History Journal

Responses to Latin America

Monroe McKinley

WilsonRoosevelt

Self-Check Quiz

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 16—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

Using the Internet Searchthe Internet for a Website that provides a map ofthe world around 1900 that includes politicalboundaries and a distance scale. Color code allcountries that the British Empire controlled.Describe the relative location of the countriesthat were part of the British Empire in terms ofthe approximate distance from each country toGreat Britain. Use the distance scale on the map.Then organize your findings in a chart. In addi-tion, find out which countries remain underBritish control today.

Technology Activity

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whme2001/quiz.shtml?BOOK=005&CHAPTER=16&TITLE=The+Age+of+Imperialism

Geography in History1. Place Refer to the map below. What two large

bodies of water does the Panama Canal connect?2. Human/Environment Interaction Why do you

think engineers chose this particular location inwhich to build the canal?

3. Location Why is the Pacific Ocean located on thesoutheast side of this map?

4. Region What geographic features of this regionmade building the canal difficult?


CHAPTER 16 ASSESSMENT

ColónCristobal

Gaillard

Cut

0 5

5

10 mi.

0 10 km

Pedro MiguelLocksMiraflores

LocksBalboa Panama

GatunLocks

Canal Zone

Canal route

Railroad

Locks

N

E

S

W

CaribbeanSea

MaddenLake

PACIFICOCEAN

80°W

9°N

Gat

unLa

ke

Chagres

River

The Panama Canal

Understanding Themes1. Movement What factors stimulated outward

expansion by the European powers in the Age of Imperialism?

2. Change How did Africans react to the changesbrought by the spread of imperialism in Africa?

3. Reaction In what two ways did Indian nationalists respond to British rule in India?

4. Nationalism Trace the events of the MexicanRevolution. Why was the Revolution an impor-tant development in modern Latin America?

1. Historical context refers to the setting inwhich an event occurs. Throughout the1900s the United States continued to inter-vene in Latin America. Investigate threerecent interventions, and explain how thehistorical context surrounding Americaninterventions has changed from 1900 to thepresent.

2. Have attitudes about imperialism changedfrom the 1800s to the present time? Explain.What factors do you think account for anychanges?

3. Does imperialism exist in some form today?What factors do you think account for anychanges? If imperialism exists today, does itdiffer from the imperialism of the 1800s?

4. Examine the role of the South AfricanNative Congress (SANNC) in South Africaafter its founding in 1912. As the AfricanNational Congress (ANC) after 1923, howdid the organization’s involvement changeunder independent white-dominated SouthAfrican governments from the 1920s to theearly 1990s? How does the ANC influencedevelopments in South Africa today?

Skill PracticeUsing the steps described on page 496, search theInternet for information about one of the followingtopics from the Age of Imperialism. Write an articlefor the school newspaper or magazine based on theinformation you retrieved about your topic.

• writings of Rudyard Kipling• establishment of Liberia• African Imperialism 1914• Cecil Rhodes• Russo-Japanese War• Spanish-American War

504 Unit 4 Industry and Nationalism

Unit 4

Chapter 14

Women’s Right to Vote

In the United States and Great Britain womenstruggled for decades to gain the right to vote. Here,Emmeline Pankhurst, a leader of this cause inEngland, speaks to women in Connecticut in 1913.

. . . We found that all the fine phrases aboutfreedom and liberty were entirely for maleconsumption, and that they did not in anyway apply to women. When it was said . . . “Taxation of men without representation istyranny,” everybody quite calmly acceptedthe fact that women had to pay taxes andeven were sent to prison if they failed to paythem—quite right. We found that“Governmentof the people,by the peopleand for thepeople” . . .was againonly for maleconsumption;half of thepeople wereentirelyignored; it wasthe duty ofwomen to paytheir taxes andobey the lawsand look aspleasant as they could under the circumstances; in fact, everyprinciple of liberty enunciated inany civilized country on earth, with very fewexceptions, was intended entirely for men;and when women tried to force the puttinginto practice of these principles, for women,then they discovered they had come into avery, very unpleasant situation indeed. . . .

Between the late 1700s and the

early 1900s, the nations of

Europe and North America

entered an Industrial Revolution

which had far-reaching effects.

Many people pushed for social

and political reforms.

Meanwhile, Western nations

gradually extended their

imperialism.

VOCABULARY PREVIEW

admonitions: warnings

consumption: use

tyranny: oppression imposed by government

enunciated: spoken clearly

debouched: emerged

✦

For more primary sources to accompany this unit, use the World History Primary Source Document Library CD-ROM.

✦

✦

EmmelinePankhurst1858–1928

Unit 4 Industry and Nationalism 505

Chapter 15

Garibaldi Liberates Palermo

From 1859 to 1870, a series of wars led to Italy’sunification. One nationalist leader was GiuseppeGaribaldi, whose attack on Palermo, Sicily, in 1860 is recorded in this eyewit-ness account written byLondon Times corre-spondent Nandor Eber.

. . . TheNeapolitan fort atthe gate, consider-ably reinforced,opened a hot fire, . . .while at the sametime the two gunsand the troops posted atthe Porta Sant’Antoniobrought a crossfire to bearon the attackers. But this was no obstacle tothe brave fellows who led the way. They didnot lose time with firing, but rushed on withthe bayonet. . . .

Close to the Porta di Termini is the VecchiaFiera—the old marketplace. This was thefirst point where Garibaldi stopped. Onemust know these Sicilians to have an idea ofthe frenzy, screaming, shouting, crying, andhugging; all would kiss his hand andembrace his knees. Every moment broughtnew masses, which debouched in troopsfrom one of the streets,anxious to have theirturn. As the Cacciatorigradually cleared thelower part of the townmost of the inhabitantscame to have a look, andgive a greeting to the lib-erator of Palermo andSicily. . . .

11.. What, to Pankhurst, is ironic about the meaning of “liberty”?22.. How did the people of Palermo react to Garibaldi’s arrival there?33.. According to the myth of Kintu, how did Death enter the world?44.. CRITICAL THINKING: Why do you think Pankhurst’s message was

considered so radical at that time?

Applications ActivityCreate a political cartoon that depicts either Garibaldi’s liberation of Palermo or the struggle for voting rights for women.

Interpreting Primary Sources

Chapter 16

Myth of Kintu

In this folktale Kintu, legendary founder ofBuganda (in present-day Uganda), becomes engagedto marry Nambi, the daughter of the sky god Ggulu.The story also explains how Death enters the world.

Ggulu gives his admonitionsHe then called Nambi and said to Kintu:

“Take my daughter who loves you, marryher and go back to your home [the earth]. . . .You must hurry away and go back beforeDeath (Walumbe) comes, because he willwant to go with you and . . . he will onlycause you trouble and unhappiness.” . . .

Kintu and Nambi then took leave ofGgulu, who said: “Be sure if you have for-gotten anything not to come back, becauseDeath will want to go with you. . . .”

They started off. . . . On the way Nambiremembered that she had forgotten the grainfor the fowl, and said to Kintu: “I will hurryback and get it without anyone seeing me.”He said: “Your brother Walumbe will . . . seeyou.” She would not listen to her husband,but went back and said to her father: “I haveforgotten the grain of the fowl. . . .” Hereplied: “Did I not tell you that you were notto return if you forgot anything, because . . .Walumbe would see you, and want to gowith you? Now he will accompany you. . . .”

Giuseppe Garibaldi1807–1882

Standardized Test Practice

1. The invention of the power loom in 1787led to

A an increase in cloth imports from Asia.B an increase in the need for skilled

craftspeople.C an increase in productivity.D an increase in the price of finished

cloth.

2. The Industrial Revolution led to thegrowth of capitalism. In which of thefollowing ways did the government helpcapitalism flourish?

F By establishing few regulationsG By setting duties on imports and

exportsH By requiring state ownership of

factoriesJ By enacting laws protecting workers

3. Early factory workers faced dangerousconditions and unfair practices. Businessowners exploited workers for all thefollowing reasons EXCEPT that

A there were more workers thanavailable jobs.

B business controlled housing and jobs.C labor unions did not focus on safety.D governments were slow to interfere

with capitalism.

Read the quotation from The CommunistManifesto and answer the question thatfollows.

Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistrevolution. The proletarians have nothing to losebut their chains. They have a world to win. Work-ing men of all countries, unite!

4. Engels and Marx wrote The CommunistManifesto to advocate

F freedom for political prisoners.G a revolution of the working class

against the bourgeoisie.H the growth of their empire.J democratic ideals and civil rights.

Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the followingmultiple choice questions. If you have trouble answering aquestion, use the process of elimination to narrow your choices.Write your answers on a separate piece of paper.

Test-Taking Tip: This question requiresyou to remember the meaning of the wordcapitalism. Since capitalism is an economicsystem in which individuals and private firms—not the government—own the means ofproduction, answer H does not make sense.Look for the answer that would help makebusinesses profitable.

Test-Taking Tip: Be careful—this ques-tion is looking for the exception. Do not simplychoose the first answer that “makes sense.”Look for the answer that does NOT fit. Sinceanswer A is true, it cannot be the exception.

Test-Taking Tip: Make sure that youranswer is supported by information in thequotation. Do not rely only on your memory.Remember also that proletarians means“members of the working class.”

Test-Taking Tip: The phrase led toindicates that this question is looking for acause and effect relationship. In general, themachinery developed during the IndustrialRevolution reduced the need for skilled crafts-people, so answer B is an unlikely effect ofthis invention.

506 Unit 4 Industry and Nationalism

Standardized Test Practice

Use the graph below to answer question 5.

5. According to the graph

A the North had more people and firearms,but the South had more manufacturedgoods.

B the North had more railroad tracks, butthe South had more farmland and bankdeposits.

C the North had more manufactured goods,but the South had more people andrailroad tracks.

D None of the above

Use the following map to answer question 6.

6. Which area of Central Africa producesmanganese?

F Democratic Republic of the CongoG GabonH CongoJ Cameroon

Test-Taking Tip: Double check all theanswer choices against the information on thegraph. Make sure that you look at the key todetermine how North and South are repre-sented. Remember that the sections of a circlegraph are different sizes for a reason.

Test-Taking Tip: Use the map’s key, orlegend, to identify the symbols used on themap. Make sure that you double check allanswers against the information on the map.

Railroad track

Manufactured goods

8%

71%

92%

29%

Population

29%

3%

71%

97%

Firearms

(1/3 enslaved)

Source: Encyclopedia Americana, 1994; Historical Statistics of the United States.

North South

Resoures of the North and South, 1861

CAMEROON

CENTRAL AFRICANREPUBLIC

SÃO TOMÉAND PRÍNCIPE

EQUATORIALGUINEA

DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC

OF THE CONGO

CONGOGABON

N

E

S

W

0

0

500 mi.250

500 km250

Cabinda(ANGOLA)

� Kinshasa

Lubumbashi

Douala

Equator

Cotton

Cacao

Palm oil

Cotton CoffeeRubber

Corn

10°E 20°E 30°E

10°N

0°

Central Africa: Land Use and Resources

Resources

AgricultureSubsistence farmingManufacturing area

Coal

Copper

Diamonds

Forest

Gold

Hydroelectricpower

Manganese

Petroleum

Tin

Uranium

Unit 4 Industry and Nationalism 507

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