CHAPTER 16 Electricity - Grygla Public School Circuits What Are Circuits? ... form of a skit, story,...

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ElectricityElectricityC H A P T E R 16

Chapter Preview

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Electricity arcs across the fusionchamber at Sandia NationalLaboratory in the large photoabove. Video games and all otherelectrical appliances use the move-ment of electrons to operate.

1 Electric Charge and ForceElectric ChargeElectric Force

2 CurrentVoltage and CurrentElectrical Resistance

3 CircuitsWhat Are Circuits?Series and Parallel CircuitsElectric Power and Electrical EnergyFuses and Circuit Breakers

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

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Pre-Reading Questions1. Why are power outages more common

during thunderstorms?2. Make a list of all the electrical devices in

your home. What do they all have in com-mon? How do they differ?

ACTIVITYACTIVITYFocusFocus

Background A race car rounds a curve and speeds to the finishline in first place. Afterward, the screen darkens and the driver’sscore is displayed. Video games are complex pieces of electricalequipment with a detailed video display and computer chips thatuse electric power supplied by a power plant miles away. And inturn, that energy comes from burning fossil fuels, falling water,the wind, or nuclear fission.

At the Sandia National Laboratory, in New Mexico, powerfulelectrical arcs are generated in a split second when scientists firea fusion device. Each electrical arc is similar to a bolt of lightning.A huge number of electrons move across the chamber with eacharc. Although they cannot be seen, electrons move inside all elec-trical devices, including video games. Electricity is involved inmany interactions between everyday objects, and is a vital part of the natural world and of every living organism.

Activity 1 Use the bulb and battery from a flashlight, and somewire or aluminum foil to make the light bulb light up. Try con-necting the light bulb to the battery in several different ways.What works? What doesn’t?

Activity 2 Find your electric meter at home. Observe how thehorizontal gear moves and the numbers on the dials change. Ifyou have an electric clothes dryer or air conditioner, observe thedials on the meter when one of these appliances is operating.Compare this with the rate of movement of the dials when allthe electrical appliances and lights are turned off. Based on yourresults, what do you think the electric meter measures?

www.scilinks.orgTopic: Applications of the Electric SparkSciLinks code: HK4008

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston.All rights reserved.

Electric Charge and Force> Indicate which pairs of charges will repel and which

will attract.> Explain what factors affect the strength of the electric force.> Describe the characteristics of the electric field due to

a charge.

When you speak into a telephone, the microphone in thehandset changes your sound waves into electric signals.

Light shines in your room when you flip a switch. And if you stepon a pin with bare feet, your nerves send messages back andforth between your brain and your muscles so that you reactquickly. These messages are carried by electric pulses movingthrough your nerve cells.

Electric ChargeYou have probably been shocked from touching a doorknob afterwalking across a rug on a dry day. This happens because yourbody picks up as your shoes move across thecarpet. Although you may not notice these charges when they arespread throughout your body, you notice them as they pass fromyour finger to the metal doorknob. You experience this move-ment of charges as a shock.

Like charges repel, andopposite charges attractOne way to observe charge is to rub a balloon back andforth across your hair. Youmay find that the balloon isattracted to your hair, asshown in Figure 1A. If you rubtwo balloons across your hairand then gently bring themnear each other, as shown inFigure 1B, the balloons willpush away from, or repel,each other.

electric charge

O B J E C T I V E S

SECTION

1

530 C H A P T E R 1 6

K E Y T E R M S

electric chargeelectrical conductorelectrical insulatorelectric forceelectric field

electric charge an electrical property of matterthat creates electric and mag-netic forces and interactions

If you rub a balloon acrossyour hair on a dry day, the balloonand your hair become chargedand are attracted to each other.

A

The two charged balloons,on the other hand, repel oneanother.

B

Figure 1

Disc Two, Module 15:Force Between ChargesUse the Interactive Tutor to learn moreabout this topic.


After this experiment, the balloons andyour hair have some kind of charge on them.Your hair is attracted to both balloons, yet thetwo balloons are repelled by each other. Thismeans there must be two types of charges—thetype on the balloons and the type on your hair.

The two balloons must have the same kindof charge because each became charged in thesame way. Because the two charged balloonsrepel each other, we see that like charges repel.However, a rubbed balloon and your hair,which did not become charged in the sameway, are attracted to one another. This is because unlike charges attract.

The two types of charges are called positiveand negative. When you rub a balloon on yourhair, the charge on your hair is positive and thecharge on the balloon is negative. When thereis an equal amount of positive and negativecharges on an object, it has no net charge.

An object’s electric charge depends on theimbalance of its protons and electronsAll matter, including you, is made up of atoms.Atoms in turn are made up of even smallerbuilding blocks—electrons, protons, and neu-trons. Electrons are negatively charged, pro-tons are positively charged, and neutrons areneutral (no charge).

Objects are made up of an enormous number of neutrons, protons, and electrons.Whenever there is an imbalance in the number of protons andelectrons in an atom, molecule, or other object, it has a net elec-tric charge. The difference in the numbers of protons and elec-trons determines an object’s electric charge. Negatively chargedobjects have more electrons than protons. Positively chargedobjects have fewer electrons than protons.

The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb, C. The electronand proton have exactly the same amount of charge, 1.6 10–19 C.Because they are oppositely charged, a proton has a charge of1.6 10–19 C, and an electron has a charge of 1.6 10–19 C.An object with a total charge of 1.0 C has 6.25 1018 excesselectrons. Because the amount of electric charge on an objectdepends on the numbers of protons and electrons, the net electriccharge of a charged object is always a multiple of 1.6 10–19 C.

E L E C T R I C I T Y 531

Connection toSOCIAL STUDIESSOCIAL STUDIES

www.scilinks.orgTopic: Static ElectricitySciLinks code: HK4134

Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) first suggestedthe terms positive and negative for the two

different types of charge. At the age of 40, Franklin was a successful

printer and journalist. He saw some experimentson electricity and was so fascinated by them that he began to devote much of his time to experimenting.

Franklin was the first person to realize thatlightning is a huge electric discharge, or spark. He invented the first lightning rod, for which he became famous. He also flew a kite into thunderclouds—at great risk to his life—to collectcharge from them.

During and after the Revolutionary War,Franklin gained fame as a politician and statesman.

Making the Connection1. Franklin is credited with many famous inven-

tions besides his groundbreaking electricity experiments. Prepare a presentation in theform of a skit, story, or computer programabout his work on fire departments, publiclibraries, or post offices.

2. One of Franklin’s other technologi-cal achievements was the inventionof the Franklin stove. Research thisstove, and write a brochure explaining the benefits of this stove to prospective customersof Franklin’s time.

WRITINGS K I L L


Conductors allow charges to flow; insulators do notHave you ever noticed that the electric cords attached to appli-ances, such as the stereo shown in Figure 2, are plastic? Thesecords are not plastic all the way through, however. The center ofan electric cord is made of thin copper wires twisted together. Cords are layered like this because of the electric prop-erties of each material.

Materials like the metal in cords are calledConductors allow electric charges to move relatively freely. Theplastic in the cord, however, does not allow electric charges tomove freely. Materials that do not transfer charge easily are called

Cardboard, glass, silk, and plastic are insulators.Charges in the electric cord attached to an appliance can

move through the conducting center but cannot escape throughthe surrounding insulator. This design makes the appliances moreefficient and helps protect people from dangerous electric shock.

Objects can be charged by the transfer of electronsProtons and neutrons are relatively fixed in the nucleus of theatom, but the outermost electrons can be easily transferred fromone atom to another. When different materials are rubbedtogether, electrons can be transferred from one material to theother. The direction in which the electrons are transferred depends on the materials.

For example, when you slide across a fabric car seat, someelectrons are transferred between your clothes and the car seat.Depending on the types of materials involved, the electrons canbe transferred from your clothes to the seat or from the seat toyour clothes. One material gains electrons and becomes nega-tively charged, and the other loses electrons and becomes posi-tively charged. This is an example of charging by friction.

insulators.

conductors.

532 C H A P T E R 1 6

electrical conductor amaterial in which charges canmove freely and that can carryan electric current

electrical insulator amaterial that does not transfercurrent easily

Figure 2Appliance cords are made of metal wire surrounded by plastic. Electric charges move easilythrough the wire, but the plastic insulation prevents them from leaking into the surroundings.

Plastic insulation

Copper wire

BIOLOGYAtoms or moleculeswith a net electriccharge are known asions. All living cells

contain ions. Most cells alsoneed to be bathed in solutionsof ions to stay alive. As a result,most living things are fairlygood conductors.

Dry skin can be a goodinsulator. But if your skin getswet it becomes a conductor,and charge can move throughyour body more easily. Sothere is a greatly increased riskof electrocution when your skin is wet.


Objects can also be charged without friction. One way tocharge a neutral object without friction is by touching it with acharged object. As shown in Figure 3A, when the negativelycharged rubber rod touches a neutral object, like the doorknob,some electrons move from the rod to the doorknob. The door-knob then has a net negative charge, as shown in Figure 3B. Therubber rod still has a negative charge, but the charge is smaller.If a positively charged rod touches a neutral doorknob, electronsmove into the rod from the neutral doorknob, giving the door-knob a positive charge. Objects charged in this manner are saidto be charged by contact.

Charges move within uncharged objectsThe charges in a neutral conductor can be redistributed withoutcontacting a charged object. If you just bring a negativelycharged rubber rod close to the doorknob, the movable electronsin the doorknob will be repelled. Becausethe doorknob is a conductor, the elec-trons will move away from the rod. As aresult, the portion of the doorknob clos-est to the negatively charged rod willhave an excess of positive charge. Theportion farthest from the rod will have anegative charge. But the doorknob willbe neutral. Although the total charge onthe doorknob will be zero, the oppositesides will have an induced charge, asshown in Figure 4.


Figure 3 When a negative rod touches a neutral doorknob,

electrons move from the rod to the doorknob. A

Figure 4A negatively charged rod broughtnear a metal doorknob induces apositive charge on the side of thedoorknob closest to the rod and a negative charge on the side farthest from the rod.

The transfer of electrons to the metal door-knob gives the doorknob a net negative charge.B


How can the negatively charged comb in Figure 5 pick uppieces of neutral tissue paper? The electrons in tissue paper can-not move about freely because the paper is an insulator. Butwhen a charged object is brought near an insulator, the positionsof the electrons within the individual molecules of the insulatorchange slightly. One side of a molecule will be slightly more posi-tive or negative than the other side. This polarization of the atomsor molecules of an insulator produces an induced charge on thesurface of the insulator. The surface of the tissue paper nearestthe comb has an induced positive charge. The surface farthestfrom the comb has an induced negative charge.

Electric ForceThe attraction of tissue paper to a negatively charged comb andthe repulsion of the two balloons are examples of It is also the reason clothes sometimes cling to each other whenyou take them out of the dryer. Such pushes and pulls betweencharges are all around you. For example, a table feels solid, eventhough its atoms contain mostly empty space. The electric forcebetween the electrons in the table’s atoms and your hand isstrong enough to prevent your hand from going through thetable. In fact, the electric force at the atomic and molecular levelis responsible for most of the common forces we can observe,such as the force of a spring and the force of friction.

The electric force is also responsible for effects that we can’tsee; it is part of what holds an atom together. The bonding ofatoms to form molecules is also due to the electric force. Theelectric force plays a part in the interactions among molecules,such as the proteins and other building blocks of our bodies.Without the electric force, life itself would be impossible.

electric force.

534 C H A P T E R 1 6

Figure 5The negatively charged comb induces a positive charge on thesurface of the tissue paper closestto the comb, so the comb and thepaper are attracted to each other.

ACTIVITYACTIVITYQuickQuickQuick

electric force the force of attraction or repulsion between objects due tocharge

Charging Objects1. Rub two air-filled

balloons vigorously on a piece of wool.

2. Hold your balloons near each other.

3. Now try to attach oneballoon to the wall.

4. Turn on a faucet, andhold a balloon near thestream of tap water.

5. Explain what happens to the charges in the balloons, wool, water,and wall.


Electric force depends on charge and distanceThe electric force between two charged objects varies dependingon the amount of charge on each object and the distance between them. The electric force between two objects is propor-tional to the product of the charges on the objects. If the chargeon one object is doubled, the electric force between the objectswill also be doubled.

The electric force is also inversely proportional to the squareof the distance between two objects. For example, if the distancebetween two charged balloons is doubled, the electric forcebetween them decreases to one-fourth its original value. If the dis-tance between two charged balloons is quadrupled, the electricforce between them decreases to one-sixteenth its original value.

Electric force acts through a fieldAs described earlier, electric force does not require that objectstouch. How do charges interact over a distance? One way tomodel this property of charges is with the concept of an

A charged particle produces an electric field in the spacearound it. Another charged particle in that field will experiencean electric force. This force is due to the electric field associatedwith the first charged particle.

One way to show an electric field is by drawing electric fieldlines. Electric field lines point in the direction of the electric forceon a positive charge. Because two positive charges repel oneanother, the electric field lines around a positive charge point out-ward, as shown in Figure 6A. In contrast, the electric field linesaround a negative charge point inward, as shown in Figure 6B. Re-gardless of the charge, electric field lines never cross one another.

field.electric


electric field a region inspace around a charged ob-ject that causes a stationarycharged object to experiencean electric force

+ −

Figure 6

A positive charge placed in the electric field due to a negative charge would be pulled in.

BThe electric field lines show that a positive charge placed in the electric field due to a positive charge would be pushed away.

A

Electric force and gravitationalforce both depend on a physi-calpropertyofobjects—chargeand mass, respectively—andthe distance between the objects. They have the samemathematical form. But gravi-tational force is attractive,while electric force is both attractive and repulsive. Also,the electric force betweentwo charged particles sepa-rated by a given distance ismuch greater than the gravi-tational force between theparticles.


You can see from Figure 7 that the electric field between twocharges can be represented using these rules. The field lines inFigure 7A point away from the positive charges, showing that thepositive charges repel each other. Field lines show not only thedirection of an electric field but also the relative strength due toa given charge. As shown in Figure 7B, there are twice as manyfield lines pointing outward from the 2 charge as there are end-ing on the 1 charge. More lines are drawn for greater chargesto indicate greater force.

536 C H A P T E R 1 6

S E C T I O N 1 R E V I E W

1. Identify the electric charge of each of the following atomicparticles: a proton, a neutron, and an electron.

2. Describe the interaction between two like charges. Is theinteraction the same between two unlike charges?

3. Diagram what will happen if a positively charged rod isbrought near the following objects:a. a metal washer b. a plastic disk

4. Categorize the following as conductors or insulators:a. copper wireb. your body when your skin is wetc. a plastic comb

5. Explain how the electric force between two positive chargeschanges ifa. the distance between the

charges is tripled.b. the amount of one charge

is doubled.

6. Critical Thinking What missingelectric charge would producethe electric field shown at right?

S U M M A R Y

> There are two types of electric charge, positive andnegative.

> Like charges repel; unlikecharges attract.

> The electric force betweentwo charged objects is pro-portional to the product ofthe charges and inverselyproportional to the squareof the distance between the objects.

> Electric force acts throughelectric fields.

> Electric fields surroundcharged objects. Anycharged object that entersan electric field experiencesan electric force.

Figure 7The electric field lines for two

positive charges show the repul-sion between the charges.

Half the field lines starting onthe positive charge end on thenegative charge because the posi-tive charge is twice as great as the negative charge.

B

A

+ + +2 −1

–

A B


> Describe how batteries are sources of voltage.> Explain how a potential difference produces a current in

a conductor.> Define resistance.> Calculate the resistance, current, or voltage, given the

other two quantities.> Distinguish between conductors, superconductors, semi-

conductors, and insulators.

Current

When you wake up in the morning, you reach up and turnon the light switch. The light bulb is powered by moving

charges. How do charges move through a light bulb? And whatcauses the charges to move?

Voltage and CurrentGravitational potential energy depends on the relative position ofthe ball, as shown in Figure 8A. A ball rolling downhill movesfrom a position of higher gravitational potential energy to one oflower gravitational potential energy. An electric charge also haspotential energy— —that dependson its position in an electric field.

Just as a ball will roll downhill, a negative charge will moveaway from another negative charge. This is because of the firstnegative charge’s electric field. The electrical potential energy ofthe moving charge decreases, as shown in Figure 8B, because theelectric field does work on the charge.

electrical potential energy

SECTION

2


K E Y T E R M S

electrical potentialenergy

potential differencecellcurrentresistance

electrical potentialenergy the ability to move anelectric charge from one pointto another

More gravitationalpotential energy

Less gravitationalpotential

energy

Figure 8The gravitational potential

energy of a ball decreases as itrolls downhill.

The electrical potential energybetween two negative chargesdecreases as the distancebetween them increases.

B

A

Elec

tric

al

pote

ntia

l ene

rgy

Distance

Disc Two, Module 8:Batteries and CellsUse the Interactive Tutor to learn moreabout these topics.

A B

O B J E C T I V E S


You can do work on a ball tomove it uphill. This will increasethe ball’s gravitational potentialenergy. In the same way, a forcecan push a charge in the oppositedirection of the electric force.This increases the electricalpotential energy associated withthe charge’s relative position.Figure 9 shows how the electricalpotential energy depends on thedistance between two chargedobjects for both an attractive anda repulsive electric force.

Potential difference is measured in voltsUsually, it is more practical to consider the than electrical potential energy. Potential difference is the changein the electrical potential energy of a charged particle divided byits charge. This change occurs as a charge moves from one placeto another in an electric field.

The SI unit for potential difference is the volt, V, which isequivalent to one joule per coulomb (1 J/C). For this reason,potential difference is often called voltage.

There is a voltage across the terminals of a batteryThe voltage across the two terminals of a battery can range fromabout 1.5 V for a small battery to about 12 V for a car battery, as shown in Figure 10. Most common batteries are an electric

—or a combination of connected electric cells—that convertchemical energy into electrical energy. One terminal is positive,and the other is negative. A summary of various types of electriccells is given in Table 1.

Electrochemical cells contain an electrolyte, a solution thatconducts electricity, and two electrodes, each a different conduct-ing material. These cells can be dry cells or wet cells. Dry cells,such as those used in flashlights, contain a paste-like electrolyte.Wet cells, such as those used in almost all car batteries, containa liquid electrolyte. An average cell has a potential difference of1.5 V between the positive and negative terminals.

A voltage sets charges in motionWhen a flashlight is switched on, the terminals of the battery areconnected through the light bulb. Electrons move through thelight bulb from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.

cell

potential difference

538 C H A P T E R 1 6

potential differencebetween any two points,the work that must be doneagainst electric forces to movea unit charge from one pointto the other

cell a device that is a sourceof electric current because of apotential difference, or voltage,between the terminals

Lesser distance

Greater distance

AttractionRepulsion

Electrical Potential Energy and Relative Position

Figure 9The electrical potential energy ofa charge depends on its positionin an electric field.

Negative terminal Positive

terminal

High electrical PE Low electrical PE

Low electrical PE High electrical PE

Figure 10 For a typical car battery, there is avoltage of 12 V across the nega-tive (black) terminal and the posi-tive (red) terminal.


When charges are accelerated by an electric field to move toa position of lower potential energy, an electric is pro-duced. Current is the rate at which these charges move througha conductor. The SI unit of current is the ampere, A. One ampere,or amp, equals 1 C of charge moving past a point in 1 second.

A battery is a direct current source because the charges alwaysmove from one terminal to the other in the same direction.Current can be made up of positive, negative, or a combination ofboth positive and negative charges. In metals, moving electronsmake up the current. In gases and many chemical solutions, cur-rent is the result of both positive and negative charges in motion.

In our bodies, current is mostly positive charge movement.Nerve signals are in the form of a changing voltage across thenerve cell membrane. Figure 11A shows that a resting cell hasmore negative charges on the inside than on the outside. Figure 11B shows how a nerve impulse moves along the cell membrane. As one end of the cell is stimulated, channels nearbyin the cell membrane open, allowing Na+ ions to enter. Later,potassium channels open, and K+ ions exit the cell, restoring theoriginal voltage across the cell membrane.

Conventional current is defined as movement of positive chargeA negative charge moving in one direction has the same effect asa positive charge moving in the opposite direction. Conventionalcurrent is defined as the current made of positive charge thatwould have the same effect as the actual motion of charge in thematerial. In this book, the direction of current will always be givenas the direction of positive charge movement that is equivalent to theactual motion of charges in the material. So the direction of currentin a wire is opposite the direction that electrons move in that wire.

current


Electrochemical Electrons are transferred between Common batteries,different metals immersed in an automobile batterieselectrolyte.

Photoelectric and Electrons are released from a metal Artificial satellites, photovoltaic when struck by light of sufficient energy. calculators, streetlights

Thermoelectric Two different metals are joined together, Thermostats forand the junctions are held at different furnaces and ovenstemperatures, causing electrons to flow.

Piezoelectric Opposite surfaces of certain crystals Crystal microphones andbecome electrically charged when headsets, computer keypads,under pressure. record cartridge

Electrical cell Basic principle Uses

Table 1 Types of Electric Cells

current the rate that electric charges move through a conductor

+ ++ ++ ++++ − −

−−

−−

−− −

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

−−−

−

−

−

++

−

−

+

Na+

K+

Figure 11

A resting nerve cell is morenegatively charged than its sur-roundings.

A

As a nerve impulse movesalong the cell membrane, thevoltage across it changes.

B


540 C H A P T E R 1 6

Heavy-duty,” “long-lasting alkaline,” and “envi-ronmentally friendly rechargeable” are some ofthe labels that manufacturers put on batteries.

But how do you know which type to use?

The answer depends on how you will use thebattery. Some batteries are used continuously, butothers are turned off and on frequently, such asthose used in a stereo. Still other batteries must beable to hold a charge without being used, such asthose used in smoke detectors and flashlights.

Heavy-Duty Batteries Are InexpensiveIn terms of price, a heavy-duty battery typically coststhe least but lasts only about 30 percent as long as an alkaline battery. This makes heavy-duty batteriesimpractical for most uses and an unnecessary sourceof landfill clutter.

Regular Alkaline Batteries Are Expensive but Long Lasting

Regular alkaline batteries are more expensive buthave longer lives, lasting up to 6 hours with continu-ous use and up to 18 hours with intermittent use.They hold a full charge for years, making them goodfor use in flashlights and similar devices. They are less

of an environmental problem than they previouslywere because manufacturers have stopped usingmercury in them. However, because they are single-use batteries, they also end up in landfills very quickly.

Rechargeable Batteries Don’t Clutter Landfills

Rechargeable batteries are the most expensive to pur-chase initially. If recycled, however, they are the mosteconomical in the long run and are the most environ-mentally sound choice. The most common recharge-able cells are either NiCads—containing nickel, Ni,and cadmium, Cd, metals—or alkaline. Either type ofrechargeable battery can be recharged hundreds oftimes. Although rechargeable batteries last only abouthalf as long on one charge as regular alkaline batteries,the energy to recharge them costs pennies. Recharge-able NiCads lose about 1% of their stored energy eachday they are not used and should therefore never beused in smoke detectors or flashlights.

1. Making Decisions Which type of batterywould you use in a portable stereo? Explainyour reasoning.

2. Critical Thinking Why is it important not touse NiCads in smoke detectors?

3. Locating Information Use library resources orthe Internet to learn more about batteries usedin gasoline-powered and electric cars. Prepare asummary of the types of rechargeable car bat-teries available.

Your Choice

and the Consumerand the ConsumerScienceScience

Which Is the Best Type of Battery?

www.scilinks.orgTopic: Batteries SciLinks code: HK4014


Electrical ResistanceMost electrical appliances you plug into an outlet are designedfor the same voltage: 120 V. But light bulbs come in many vari-eties, from dim 40 W bulbs to bright 100 W bulbs. These bulbsshine differently because they have dif-ferent amounts of current in them. Thedifference in current between thesebulbs is due to their Re-sistance is caused by internal friction,which slows the movement of chargesthrough a conducting material. Becauseit is difficult to measure the internal fric-tion directly, resistance is defined by arelationship between the voltage acrossa conductor and the current through it.

The resistance of the filament of alight bulb, as shown in Figure 12, deter-mines how bright the bulb is. The fila-ment of a dim 40 W light bulb has ahigher resistance than the filament of abright 100 W light bulb.

resistance.


Galvanometer

Zinc

Copper+

Fresh lemon

resistance the oppositionposed by a material or adevice to the flow of current

Figure 12When charges passthrough the tungsten filament of a light bulb,the filament gives offboth heat and light.

Filament

QuickQuickQuick ACTIVITYACTIVITY

Because lemons are very acidic, their juice can actas an electrolyte. If various metals are inserted intoa lemon to act as electrodes, the lemon can beused as an electrochemical cell.SAFETY CAUTION Handle the wires only wherethey are insulated.

1. Using a knife, make two parallel cuts 6 cm apartalong the middle of a juicy lemon. Insert a cop-per strip into one of the cuts and a zinc strip thesame size into the other.

2. Cut two equal lengths of insulated copper wire.Use wire strippers to remove the insulation fromboth ends of each wire. Connect one end of eachwire to one of the terminals of a galvanometer.

3. Touch the free end of one wire to the copperstrip in the lemon. Touch the free end of theother wire to the zinc strip, as shown in the fig-ure at right. Record the galvanometer reading forthe zinc-copper cell.

Using a Lemon as a Cell4. Replace the strips of copper and zinc with

equally sized strips of different metals. Record the galvanometer readings for each pair of electrodes. Which pair of electrodes resulted in the largest current?

5. Construct a table of your results.


Resistance can be calculated from current and voltageYou have probably noticed that electrical devices such as televi-sions or stereos become warm after they have been on for awhile. As moving electrons collide with the atoms of the material,some of their kinetic energy is transferred to the atoms. Thisenergy transfer causes the atoms to vibrate, and the materialwarms up. In most materials, some of the kinetic energy of elec-trons is lost as heat.

A conductor’s resistance indicates how much the motion ofcharges within it is resisted because of collisions. Resistance isfound by dividing the voltage across the conductor by the current.

The SI unit of resistance is the ohm, Ω, which is equal to volts perampere. If a voltage across a conductor of 1 V produces a currentof 1 A, then the resistance of the conductor is 1 Ω.

A resistor is a special type of conductor used to control cur-rent. Every resistor is designed to have a specific resistance. Forexample, for any applied voltage, the current in a 10 Ω resistor ishalf the current in a 5 Ω resistor.

542 C H A P T E R 1 6

resistance = cvuorltraegnet

R = VI

Resistance Equation

REAL WORLDAPPLICATIONS

REAL WORLD

The Danger of ElectricShock If you are in contact with the ground or with water, youcan receive an electric shock bytouching an uninsulated conduct-ing, or “live,” wire. An electric shockfrom such a wire can result in seri-ous burns or even death.

The degree of damage to yourbody by an electric shock dependson several factors. Large currentsare more dangerous than smallercurrents. A current of 0.1 A is oftenfatal. But the amount of time youare exposed to the current alsomatters. If the current is larger thanabout 0.01 A, the muscles in the

hand touching the wirecontract, and you maybe unable to let go ofthe wire. In this case,the charges will con-tinue moving throughyour body and cancause great damage,especially if the charges pass through a vital organ, such as the heart.

Applying Information1. You can use the definition of

resistance to calculate theamount of current that wouldbe in a body, given the voltageand resistance. Using the tableabove as a reference, determine

the effect of touching the termi-nals of a 24 V battery. Assumethat your body is dry and has a resistance of 100 000 Ω.

2. If your skin is moist, your body’sresistance is only about 1000 Ω.How would touching the termi-nals of a 24 V battery affectyour body if your skin is moist?

Resistance depends on the material used as well as the material’s length,cross-sectional area, and temperature. Longer pieces of a material have greater resistance. Increasing thecross-sectional area of a ma-terial decreases its resistance.Lowering the temperature ofa material also decreases itsresistance.

Current (A) Effect

0.001 Slight tingle

0.005 Pain

0.010 Muscle spasms

0.015 Loss of muscle control

0.070 Probably fatal (if contact is more than 1 second)


Conductors have low resistancesWhether or not charges will move in a material depends partly onhow tightly electrons are held in the atoms of the material. Agood conductor is any material in which electrons can flow easilyunder the influence of an electric field. Metals, like the copperfound in wires, are some of the best conductors because elec-trons can move freely throughout them. Certain metals, con-ducting alloys, or carbon are used in resistors.

When you flip the switch on a flashlight, the light seems tocome on immediately. But the electrons don’t travel that rapidly.The electric field is directed through the conductor at almost thespeed of light when a voltage source is connected to the conduc-tor. Electrons everywhere throughout the conductor simulta-neously experience a force due to the electric field and move inthe opposite direction of the field lines. This is why the lightcomes on so quickly in a flashlight.


PracticeHINT

> When a problem requires youto calculate the resistance ofan object, you can use the resistance equation as shownon the previous page.

> The resistance equation canalso be rearranged to isolatevoltage on the left in the following way:

R = VI

Multiply both sides by I.

IR =VII

V = IRYou will need this version of the equation for Practice Problem 3.

> For Practice Problem 4, youwill need to rearrange theequation to isolate current on the left.

Math SkillsMath Skills

PracticePracticeResistance1. Find the resistance of a portable lantern that uses a 24 V power

supply and draws a current of 0.80 A.2. The current in a resistor is 0.50 A when connected across a

voltage of 120 V. What is its resistance?3. The current in a handheld video game is 0.50 A. If the

resistance of the game’s circuitry is 12 Ω, what is the voltageproduced by the battery?

4. A 1.5 V battery is connected to a small light bulb with a resist-ance of 3.5 Ω. What is the current in the bulb?

Resistance The headlights of a typical car are powered by a 12 V battery. What is the resistance of the headlights if theydraw 3.0 A of current when turned on?

List the given and unknown values.Given: current, I = 3.0 A

voltage, V = 12 VUnknown: resistance, R = ? Ω

Write the equation for resistance.

resistance = cvuorltraegnet

R = VI

Insert the known values into the equation, and solve.

R = VI

= 31.20

VA

R = 4.0 Ω

3

2

1


Some materials become superconductors below a certain temperatureCertain metals and compounds have zero resistance when theirtemperature falls below a certain temperature called the criticaltemperature. These types of materials are called superconductors.The critical temperature varies among materials, from less than272°C (458°F) to as high as 123°C (189°F).

Metals such as niobium, tin, and mercury and some metalliccompounds containing barium, copper, and oxygen becomesuperconductors below their respective critical temperatures.Superconductors have been used in electrical devices such as fil-ters, powerful magnets, and Maglev high-speed express trains.

Semiconductors are intermediate to conductors and insulatorsSemiconductors belong to a third class of materials with electricalproperties between those of insulators and conductors. In theirpure state, semiconductors are insulators. The controlled additionof specific atoms of other materials as impurities dramaticallyincreases a semiconductor’s ability to conduct electric charge.Silicon and germanium are two common semiconductors.Complex electrical devices, like the computer board shown inFigure 13, are made of conductors, insulators, and semiconductors.

544 C H A P T E R 1 6

Wooden base

Metal screw hooks

Alligator clipWire leads

6 V battery Flashlight bulb in base holder

Alligator clip

Materials

How can materials be classified by resistance?

6 V battery glass stirring rod strip of cardboard flashlight bulb in base holder iron nail plastic utensil 2 wire leads with alligator clips wooden dowel aluminum nail 2 metal hooks copper wire brass key block of wood piece of chalk strip of cork

1. Construct a conductivity tester, as shown in the diagram.

2. Test the conductivity of various materials by laying the objects one at a time across the hooks of the conductivity tester.

Analysis1. What happens to the conductivity tester if a

material is a good conductor?

2. Which materials were good conductors?

3. Which materials were poor conductors?

4. Explain the results in terms of resistance.

Figure 13Most electrical devices containconductors, insulators, and semiconductors.


Insulators have high resistanceInsulators have high resistance to charge movement. So insulat-ing materials are used to prevent electric current from leaking.For example, plastic coating around the copper wire of an electriccord keeps the current from escaping into the floor or your body.

Sometimes it is important to provide a pathway for current toleave a charged object. So a conducting wire is run between thecharged object and the ground, thereby grounding the object.Grounding is an important part of electrical safety.

Many electrical sockets are wired with three connections: twocurrent-carrying wires and the ground wire. If there is anycharge buildup, or if the live wire contacts an appliance, theground wire conducts the charge to Earth. The excess charge canspread over the planet safely.



S U M M A R Y

> A charged object has electrical potential energydue to its position in anelectric field.

> Potential difference, or voltage, is the difference inelectrical potential energyper unit charge.

> A voltage causes charges tomove, producing a current.

> Current is the rate of chargemovement.

> Electrical resistance can becalculated by dividing volt-age by current.

> Conductors are materials inwhich electrons flow easily.

> Superconductors have noresistance below their critical temperature.

> Insulators are materialswith high resistance.

1. Describe the motion of charges through a flashlight, fromone terminal of a battery to the other.

2. Identify which of the following could produce current:a. a wire connected across a battery’s terminalsb. two electrodes in a solution of positive and negative ionsc. a salt crystal, whose ions cannot moved. a sugar-water mixture

3. Predict which way charges are likely to move between twopositions of different electrical potential energy, one highand one low.a. from low to highb. from high to lowc. back and forth between high and low

4. Define resistance, and state the quantities needed to calcu-late an object’s resistance.

5. Classify the following materials as conductors or insulators:wood, paper clip, glass, air, paper, plastic, steel nail, water.

6. Critical Thinking Recent discoveries have led some scientiststo hope that a material will be found that is superconductingat room temperature. Why would such a material be useful?

7. If the current in a certain resistor is 6.2 A and the voltageacross the resistor is 110 V, what is its resistance?

8. If the voltage across a flashlight bulb is 3 V and the bulb’s resistance is 6 Ω, what is the current through the bulb?


www.scilinks.orgTopic: Semiconductors and

InsulatorsSciLinks code: HK4162


Circuits

> Use schematic diagrams to represent circuits.> Distinguish between series and parallel circuits.> Calculate electric power using voltage and current.> Explain how fuses and circuit breakers are used to pre-

vent circuit overload.

Think about how you would get the bulb shown in Figure 14 tolight up. Would the bulb light if the bulb were not fully

screwed into the socket? How about if one of the clips wereremoved from the battery?

What Are Circuits?When a wire connects the terminals of the battery to the lightbulb, as shown in Figure 14, charges that built up on one termi-nal of the battery have a path to follow to reach the oppositecharges on the other terminal. Because there are charges movinguniformly, a current exists. This current causes the filamentinside the light bulb to give off heat and light.

An electric circuit is a path through which charges can be conductedTogether, the bulb, battery, and wires form an In the circuit shown in Figure 14, the path from one battery ter-minal to the other is complete. Because of the voltage of the bat-tery, electrons move through the wires and bulb from thenegative terminal to the positive terminal. Then the battery addsenergy to the charges as they move within the battery from thepositive terminal back to the negative one.

In other words, there is a closed-loop path for electrons to fol-low. The conducting path produced when the light bulb is con-nected across the battery’s terminals is called a closed circuit.Without a complete path, there is no charge flow and thereforeno current. This is called an open circuit.

The inside of the battery is part of the closed path of currentthrough the circuit. The voltage source, whether a battery or anoutlet, is always part of the conducting path of a closed circuit.

electric circuit.

O B J E C T I V E S

SECTION

3

546 C H A P T E R 1 6

K E Y T E R M S

electric circuitschematic diagramseriesparallelelectrical energyfusecircuit breaker

Figure 14 When this battery is connected toa light bulb, the voltage across thebattery generates a current thatlights the bulb.

electric circuit a set ofelectrical components con-nected such that they provideone or more complete pathsfor the movement of charges

Disc Two, Module 16:Frequency and WavelengthUse the Interactive Tutor to learn moreabout these topics.


Switches interrupt the flow of charges in a circuitIf a device called a switch is added to the circuit, asshown in Figure 15, you can use the switch to openand close the circuit. You have used a switch manytimes. The switches on your wall at home are used toturn lights on and off. Although they look differentfrom the switch in Figure 15, their function is thesame. When you flip a switch at home, you eitherclose or open the circuit to turn a light on or off.

The switch shown in Figure 15 is called a knifeswitch. The metal bar is a conductor. When the bar istouching both sides of the switch, as shown in Figure 15, the cir-cuit is closed. Electrons can move through the bar to reach theother side of the switch and light the bulb. If the metal bar on theswitch is lifted, the circuit is open. Then there is no current, andthe bulb does not glow.

Schematic diagrams are used to represent circuitsSuppose you wanted to describe to someone the contents andconnections in the photo of the light bulb and battery in Figure 15.How might you draw each element? Could you use the same rep-resentations of the elements to draw a bigger circuit?

A diagram that depicts the construction of an electrical circuitor apparatus is called a Figure 16 showshow the battery and light bulb can be drawn as a schematic dia-gram. The symbols that are used in this figure can be used todescribe any other circuit with a battery and one or more bulbs.All electrical devices, from toasters to computers, can bedescribed using schematic diagrams. Because schematic dia-grams use standard symbols, they can be read by people all overthe world.

schematic diagram.


Figure 16 The connections between thelight bulb and battery can berepresented by symbols. Thistype of illustration is called aschematic diagram.

Figure 15 When added to the circuit, aswitch can be used to open and close the circuit.

schematic diagram agraphical representation of acircuit that uses lines to repre-sent wires and different sym-bols to represent components

www.scilinks.orgTopic: Electric CircuitsSciLinks code: HK4042


As shown in Table 2, each element used in a piece of electri-cal equipment is represented by a symbol that reflects the element’s construction or function. For example, the schematic-diagram symbol that represents an open switch resembles theopen-knife switch shown in the corresponding photograph. Anycircuit can be drawn using a combination of these and other,more complex schematic diagram symbols.

548 C H A P T E R 1 6

Wire or conductorWires that connect elements are conductors.

ResistorResistors are shown as wires withmultiple bends, indicating resistanceto a straight path.

Bulb or lampThe winding of the filament indirectlyindicates that the light bulb is a resistor, something that impedes the movement of electrons or the flow of charge.

Battery or otherThe difference in line height indicates a direct current sourcevoltage between positive and negativeterminals of the battery. The taller line represents the positive terminal of the battery.

SwitchThe small circles indicate the two placeswhere the switch makes contact with thewires. Most switches work by breakingonly one of the contacts, not both.

Open Open

Closed Closed

Symbol used Component in this book Explanation

Table 2 Schematic Diagram Symbols

+ −


Series and Parallel CircuitsSection 2 showed that the current in a circuit depends on voltageand the resistance of the device in the circuit. What happenswhen there are two or more devices connected to a battery?

Series circuits have a single path for currentWhen appliances or other devices are connected in a circuit, as shown in Figure 17A, they form a single pathway forcharges to flow. Charges cannot build up or disappear at a point ina circuit. For this reason, the amount of charge that enters onedevice in a given time interval equals the amount of charge thatexits that device in the same amount of time. Because there isonly one path for a charge to follow when devices are connectedin series, the current in each device is the same. Even though thecurrent in each device is the same, the resistances may be differ-ent. Therefore, the voltage across each device in a series circuitcan be different.

If one element along the path in a series circuit is removed, thecircuit will not work. For example, if either of the light bulbs inFigure 17A were removed, the other one would not glow. The seriescircuit would be open. Several kinds of breaks may interrupt a seriescircuit. The opening of a switch, the burning out of a light bulb, acut wire, or any other interruption can cause the whole circuit to fail.

Parallel circuits have multiple paths for currentWhen devices are connected in ratherthan in series, the voltage across each device isthe same. The current in each device does nothave to be the same. Instead, the sum of the cur-rents in all of the devices equals the total cur-rent. A simple parallel circuit is shown inFigure 17B. The two lights are connected to thesame points. The electrons leaving one end ofthe battery can pass through either bulb beforereturning to the other terminal. If one bulb hasless resistance, more charge moves through thatbulb because the bulb offers less opposition tothe movement of charges.

Even if one of the bulbs in the circuit shownin Figure 17B were removed, charges would stillmove through the other loop. Thus, a break inany one path in a parallel circuit does not inter-rupt the flow of electric charge in the other paths.

parallel,

series

Figure 17

When bulbs are connected in series, charges mustpass through both light bulbs to complete the circuit.A

When devices are connected in parallel, chargeshave more than one path to follow. The circuit canbe complete even if one light bulb burns out.

B

series the components of acircuit that form a single pathfor current

parallel a circuit in which all of the components are connected to each other sideby side

ACTIVITYACTIVITYQuickQuickQuickACTIVITYACTIVITYQuickQuickQuick

Series and ParallelCircuits

1. Connect two flashlightbulbs, a battery, wires,and a switch so that bothbulbs light up.

2. Make a diagram of yourcircuit. Is it a series or aparallel circuit?

3. Now make the othertype of circuit. Comparethe brightness of thebulbs in the two types of circuits.

E L E C T R I C I T Y 549Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Electric Power and Electrical EnergyMany of the devices you use on a daily basis, such as the toastershown in Figure 18, require to run. The energyfor these devices may come from a battery or from a power plantmiles away.

Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is used in a circuitWhen a charge moves in a circuit, it loses energy. This energy istransformed into useful work, such as the turning of a motor, andis lost as heat in a circuit. The rate at which electrical work isdone is called electric power. Electric power is the product of totalcurrent (I) in and voltage (V) across a circuit.

The SI unit for power is the watt (W). A watt is equivalent to 1 A 1 V. Light bulbs are rated in terms of watts. For example, atypical desk lamp uses a 60 W bulb. A typical hair dryer is ratedat about 1800 W.

If you combine the electric power equation above with theequation V = IR, the power lost, or dissipated, by a resistor can becalculated.

P = I2R = VR

2

electrical energy

550 C H A P T E R 1 6

power = current × voltageP = IV

Electric Power Equation

electrical energy theenergy that is associated withcharged particles because oftheir positions

The SI unit of power, the watt,was named after the Scottishinventor James Watt in honor of his important work on steamengines.

V

Math SkillsMath SkillsElectric Power When a hair dryer is plugged into a 120 V outlet, it has a 9.1 A current in it. What is the hair dryer’spower rating?

List the given and unknown values.Given: voltage, V = 120 V

current, I = 9.1 AUnknown: electric power, P = ? W

Write the equation for electric power. power = current × voltageP = IV

Insert the known values into the equation, and solve.P = (9.1 A)(120 V)

P = 1.1 × 103 W

3

2

1

Figure 18 Household appliances use electri-cal energy to do useful work. Someof that energy is lost as heat.


Electric companies measure energy consumed in kilowatt-hoursPower companies charge for energy used in the home, not power.The unit of energy that electric companies use to track con-sumption of energy is the kilowatt-hour (kW•h). One kilowatt-hour is the energy delivered in 1 hour at the rate of 1 kW. In SIunits, 1 kW•h = 3.6 106 J.

Depending on where you live, the cost of energy ranges from5 to 20 cents per kilowatt-hour. All homes and businesses have anelectric meter, like the one shown in Figure 19. Electric meters areused by an electric company to determine how much electricalenergy is consumed over a certain time interval.

Fuses and Circuit BreakersWhen too many appliances, lights, CD players,televisions, and other devices are connected acrossa 120 V outlet, the overall resistance of the circuitis lowered. That means the electrical wires carrymore than a safe level of current. When this hap-pens, the circuit is said to be overloaded. The highcurrents in overloaded circuits can cause fires.

Worn insulation on wires can also be a firehazard. If a wire’s insulation wears down, twowires may touch, creating an alternative pathwayfor current. This is called a short circuit. Thedecreased resistance greatly increases the currentin the circuit. Short circuits can be very danger-ous. Grounding appliances reduces the risk ofelectric shock from a short circuit.

PracticeHINT

> When a problem requires youto calculate power, you canuse the power equation asshown on the previous page.

> The electric power equationcan also be rearranged to iso-late current on the left in thefollowing way:

P IVDivide both sides by V.

I VP

You will need this version of the equation for Practice Problems 3 and 4.

> For Practice Problem 5, youwill need to rearrange theequation to isolate voltage on the left.

IVV

PV

PracticePracticeElectric Power1. An electric space heater requires 29 A of 120 V current to ad-

equately warm a room. What is the power rating of the heater?2. A graphing calculator uses a 6.0 V battery and draws

2.6 × 10−3 A of current. What is the power rating of the calculator?

3. A color television has a power rating of 320 W. How much current is in the television when it is connected across 120 V?

4. The operating voltage for a light bulb is 120 V. The power rating of the bulb is 75 W. Find the current in the bulb.

5. The current in the heating element of an electric iron is 5.0 A. Ifthe iron dissipates 590 W of power, what is the voltage across it?

Figure 19An electric meter, such as theone shown here, records theamount of energy consumed.

E L E C T R I C I T Y 551Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Fuses melt to prevent circuit overloadsTo prevent overloading in circuits, are connected in seriesalong the supply path. A fuse is a ribbon of wire with a low melt-ing point. If the current in the line becomes too large, the fusemelts and the circuit is opened.

Fuses “blow out” when the current in the circuit reaches acertain level. For example, a 20 A fuse will melt if the current inthe circuit exceeds 20 A. A blown fuse is a sign that a short cir-cuit or a circuit overload may exist somewhere in your home. Itis best to find out what made a fuse blow out before replacing it.

Circuit breakers open circuits with high currentMany homes are equipped with instead of fuses.A circuit breaker uses a magnet or bimetallic strip, a strip withtwo different metals welded together, that responds to currentoverload by opening the circuit. The circuit breaker acts as aswitch. As with blown fuses, it is wise to determine why the cir-cuit breaker opened the circuit. Unlike fuses, circuit breakers canbe reset by turning the switch back on.

circuit breakers

fuses

552 C H A P T E R 1 6


1. Identify the types of elements in theschematic diagram at right and thenumber of each type.

2. Describe the advantage of using aparallel arrangement of decorativelights rather than a series arrangement.

3. Draw a schematic diagram with four lights in parallel.

4. Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit with two light bulbsin which you could turn off either light and still have acomplete circuit. (Hint: You will need to use two switches.)

5. Contrast how a fuse and a circuit breaker work to preventoverloading in circuits.

6. Critical Thinking Predict whether a fuse will work success-fully if it is connected in parallel with the device it is sup-posed to protect.

7. When a VCR is connected across a 120 V outlet, the VCR hasa 9.5 A current in it. What is the power rating of the VCR?

8. A 40 W light bulb and a 75 W light bulb are in parallelacross a 120 V outlet. Which bulb has the greater current?

S U M M A R Y

> An electric circuit is a pathcharges can move along.

> In a series circuit, devicesare connected along a sin-gle pathway. A break any-where along the path willstop the current.

> In a parallel circuit, two ormore paths are connectedto the voltage source. Abreak along one path willnot stop the movement ofcharges in the other paths.

> Electric power supplied to a circuit or dissipated in acircuit is calculated as theproduct of the current andvoltage.

> Circuit breakers and fusesprotect circuits from currentoverloads.

fuse an electrical device thatcontains a metal strip thatmelts when current in the circuit becomes too great

circuit breaker a switchthat opens a circuit automati-cally when the currentexceeds a certain value



G R A P H I N G S K I L L S 553

Examine the graph above and answer the following questions (See Appendix A for help inter-preting a graph.)

What type of graph is this?

What variables are shown in this graph?

Identify the dependent variable. What is the relationship between the two variables?

The information provided by the graph is restricted to certain conditions. What are thoseconditions? How would the data vary if these conditions changed?

Which element listed would make the poorest conductor? Which listed element conductselectricity best?

Suppose aluminum, copper, iron, and silver cost $0.50, $0.95, $0.18, and $135 per kilo-gram, respectively. Based on this information and the graph above, which element wouldyou choose as a conductor of electricity over a long distance? Explain your answer.

Use the data in the table below to construct the type of graph best suited for the data.How does carbon’s electrical behavior differ from that of most conducting metals?

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Graphing SkillsGraphing SkillsGraphing Skills

Resistance of Carbon Wire Temperature (°C) (1.0 m long; 1 cm2 in area) (Ω)

0 0.354

200 0.318

400 0.284

600 0.248

800 0.214

02468

1214

10

16182022

Res

ista

nce

(m

)

Aluminum

(All wire samples are 0.1 cm2 in area and 1.0 m in length. Resistances are measured at 20.0°C.)

Copper Gold Iron Lead Silver

Element

Resistance of Metal Wires


6. In the figure below,a. the positive charge is greater than the

negative charge.b. the negative charge is greater than the

positive charge.c. both charges are positive.d. both charges are negative.

7. The __________ is the change in the electri-cal potential energy of a charged particle perunit charge.a. circuit c. inductionb. voltage d. power

8. The type of electrical cell in a commonbattery isa. piezoelectric. c. electrochemical.b. thermoelectric. d. photoelectric.

9. In order to produce a current in a cell, theterminals musta. have a potential difference.b. be exposed to light.c. be in a liquid.d. be at two different temperatures.

10. An electric current does not exist in a(n)a. closed circuit. c. parallel circuit.b. series circuit. d. open circuit.

11. Which of the following can help prevent acircuit from overloading?a. a fuse c. a circuit breakerb. a switch d. both (a) and (c)

Chapter HighlightsBefore you begin, review the summaries of thekey ideas of each section, found at the end ofeach section. The key vocabulary terms arelisted on the first page of each section.

1. Which of the following particles is electri-cally neutral?a. a proton c. a hydrogen atomb. an electron d. a hydrogen ion

2. Which of the following is not an example ofcharging by friction?a. sliding over a plastic-covered car seatb. scraping food from a metal bowl with a

metal spoonc. walking across a woolen carpetd. brushing dry hair with a plastic comb

3. The electric force between two objectsdepends on all of the following excepta. the distance between the objects.b. the electric charge of the first object.c. how the two objects became electrically

charged.d. the electric charge of the second object.

4. A positive charge placed in the electric fieldof a second positive charge willa. experience a repulsive force.b. accelerate away from the second positive

charge.c. have greater electrical potential energy

when near the second charge than whenfarther away.

d. All of the above

5. If two charges attract each other,a. both charges must be positive.b. both charges must be negative.c. the charges must be different.d. the charges must be the same.

UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTSUNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS

554 C H A P T E R 1 6

R E V I E WC H A P T E R 16


12. Which of the following schematic diagramsrepresent circuits that cannot have currentin them as drawn?

13. Explain the energy changes involved when apositive charge moves because of a nearby,negatively charged object. Use the termselectrical potential energy, work, and kineticenergy in your answer.

14. What causes resistance in an electric circuit?How is resistance measured?

15. How do charges move through an insulatedwire connected across a battery? Use theterms potential difference, current, conductor,and insulator in your answer.

16. If electrons in a circuit are moving in acounterclockwise direction, in what direc-tion is the conventional current moving?

17. How would you ground an electricalappliance?

18. Contrast the movement of charges in aseries circuit and in a parallel circuit. Usea diagram to aid in your explanation.

19. If a string of lights goes out when one of thebulbs is removed, are the lights probablyconnected in a series circuit or a parallel cir-cuit? Explain your answer.

20. What is electric power? Do electric metersmeasure electric power? If not, what do theymeasure?

21. Explain the difference between a fuse and acircuit breaker. If you were designing a cir-cuit for a reading lamp, would you include afuse, a circuit breaker, or neither? Explainyour answer.

22. Electric Force The electric force is propor-tional to the product of the charges andinversely proportional to the square of thedistance between them. If q1 and q2 are thecharges on two objects, and d is the distancebetween them, which of the following repre-sents the electric force, F, between them?

a. F ∝ c. F ∝

b. F ∝ d. F ∝

23. Resistance A potential difference of 12 Vproduces a current of 0.30 A in a piece ofcopper wire. What is the resistance of thecopper wire?

24. Resistance What is the voltage across a 75 Ωresistor with 1.6 A of current?

25. Resistance A nickel wire with a resistance of25 Ω is connected across the terminals of a3.0 V flashlight battery. How much currentis in the wire?

26. Power A portable cassette player uses 3.0 V(two 1.5 V batteries in series) and has 0.33 Aof current. What is its power rating?

27. Power Find the current in a 2.4 W flashlightbulb powered by a 1.5 V battery.

28. Power A high-voltage transmission line car-ries 1.0 x 103 A of current. The power trans-mitted is 7.0 x 108 W. Find the voltage of thetransmission line.

(q1q2)2

d

q1q2

d2

d2

q1q2

q1q2

d


USING VOC ABULARYUSING VOC ABULARY

d.

a.

b.

BUILDING MATH SKILLSBUILDING MATH SKILLS

c.


35. Applying Knowledge At a given voltage,which light bulb has the greater resistance,a 200 W light bulb or a 75 W light bulb?

36. Interpreting and CommunicatingA metal can is placed on a woodentable. If a positively charged ballsuspended by a thread is broughtclose to the can, the ball will swingtoward the can, make contact, then moveaway. Explain why this happens, and predictwhat will happen to the ball next. Use pres-entation software or a drawing program tomake diagrams showing the charges on theball and on the can at each phase.

37. Working Cooperatively With a small groupof classmates, make a chart about electricalsafety in the home and outdoors. Use whatyou have learned in this chapter and infor-mation from your local fire department.Include how to prevent electric shock.

38. Allocating Resources Use the electric billshown below to calculate the averageamount of electrical energy used per dayand the average cost of fuel to produce theelectricity per day.

29. Interpreting Graphs The graph below showshow electrical potential energy changes asthe distance between two charges changes.Is the second charge positive or negative?

30. Understanding Systems Why is charge usu-ally transferred by electrons? Which materi-als transfer electrons most easily? In whatsituations can positive charge move?

31. Applying Knowledge Why does the electri-cal resistance of your body decrease if yourskin gets wet?

32. Problem Solving Humid air is a better elec-trical conductor because it has a higherwater content than dry air. Do you expectshocks from static electricity to be worse asthe humidity increases or as it decreases?Explain your answer.

33. Understanding Systems The gravitationalforce is always attractive, while the electricforce is both attractive and repulsive. Whataccounts for this difference?

34. Designing Systems How many ways canyou connect three light bulbs in a circuitwith a battery? Draw a schematic diagramof each circuit.

556 C H A P T E R 1 6

R E V I E WC H A P T E R 16

DEVELOPING LI FE/WORK SKILLSDEVELOPING LI FE/WORK SKILLS

TH INKING CR ITIC ALLYTHINKING CR ITIC ALLY

BUILDING GR APHING SKILLSBUILDING GR APHING SKILLS

COMPUTERS K I L L

New England Electric 1–888–555–5555

Elec

tric

al

pote

ntia

l ene

rgy

Distance


39. Concept Mapping Copy the unfinishedconcept map below onto a sheet of paper.Complete the map by writing the correctword or phrase in the lettered boxes.

40. Connection to Social Studies The units ofmeasurement you learned about in thischapter were named after three famousscientists—Alessandro Volta, André-MarieAmpère, and Georg Simon Ohm. Create apresentation about one of these scientists.Research the life, work, discoveries, andcontributions of the scientist. The presenta-tion can be in the form of a report, poster,short video, or computer presentation.

41. Connection to EngineeringResearch one of the four typesof electrical cells. Write a reportdescribing how it works.

42. Connection to Environmental ScienceResearch how an electrostatic precipitatorremoves smoke and dust particles from thepolluting emissions of fuel-burning indus-tries. Find out what industries in your com-munity use a precipitator. What are the

advantages and costs of using this device?What alternatives are available? Summarizeyour findings in a brochure, poster, or chart.

43. Connection to Chemistry Atoms are heldtogether partly because of the electric forcebetween electrons and protons. Chemicalbonding is also explained by the attractionbetween positive and negative particles.Prepare a poster that explains the types ofbonding within substances using informa-tion from this book and the library. Giveexamples of common substances that con-tain these bonds. Describe the relativestrengths of the bonds and the types ofatoms these bonds form between.

44. Connection to Engineering The commoncopying machine was designed in the 1960s,after the American inventor Chester Carlsondeveloped a practical device for attractingcarbon black to paper by causing a chargeimbalance on the paper. Research how thisprocess works and determine why the lastcopy made when several hundred copies aremade can be noticeably less sharp thanthe first copy. Create a report, poster, orbrochure that summarizes your findings.

Art Credits: Fig. 2 , Uhl Studios, Inc.; Fig. 3, Kristy Sprott; Fig. 4, Kristy Sprott; Fig. 5-7, Kristy Sprott;Section 1 Review, Kristy Sprott; Fig. 8, Kristy Sprott; Quick Activity, Stephen Durke/WashingtonArtists; Fig. 14, Boston Graphics; Quick Lab, Stephen Durke/Washington Artists; Chapter Review,“Developing Life/Work Skills”; Chapter Review, “Understanding Concepts”, Kristy Sprott;Chapter Review, “Building Graphing Skills”, Kristy Sprott.

Photo Credits: Chapter Opener photo of fusion chamber at Sandia National Laboratory byWalter Dickenman, Sandia Lab/David R. Frazier Photolibrary; inset photo of video arcade byDiMaggio/Kalish/Corbis Stock Market; Fig. 1, Michelle Bridwell/HRW; Fig. 2, Peter Van Steen/HRW;Fig. 5, Fundamental Photographs, New York; “Quick Activity,” Charles D. Winters/PhotoResearchers, Inc.; Fig. 10, Sam Dudgeon/HRW; “Science and the Consumer,” Peter Van Steen/HRW;Fig. 13, SuperStock; Figs. 14-16, Sam Dudgeon/HRW; “Schematic Diagram Symbols” Table, HRWPhotos; Fig. 17, Sam Dudgeon/HRW; Fig. 18, Peter Van Steen/HRW; Fig. 19, Michelle Bridwell/HRW;“Skills Practice Lab,” Peter Van Steen/HRW; “Career Link,” Sam Dudgeon/HRW.


INTEGR ATING CONCEPTSINTEGR ATING CONCEPTS

conductors c.

a.

electric chargevoltage b.

is moving

which can becharged by

e.d. contact friction

in a circuitdepends on

in a circuitdepends on

which transferseasily in

which does nottransfer easily in

which can becharged by

WRITINGS K I L L

www.scilinks.orgTopic: Electrostatic Precipitators

SciLinks code: HK4045


Constructing ElectricCircuits

Procedure1. In this laboratory exercise, you will use an instrument

called a multimeter to measure voltage, current, andresistance. Your teacher will demonstratehow to use the multimeter to make eachtype of measurement.

2. As you read the steps listed below, refer to the dia-grams for help making the measurements. Writedown your predictions and measurements in your labnotebook. SAFETY CAUTION Handle the wires onlywhere they are insulated.

Circuits with a Single Resistor3. Measure the resistance in ohms of one of the resis-

tors. Write the resistance on a small piece of maskingtape, and tape it to the resistor. Repeat for the otherresistor.

4. Use the resistance equation to predict the current inamps that will be in a circuit consisting of one of theresistors and one battery. (Hint: You must rearrangethe equation to solvefor current.)

5. Test your predictionby building the circuit.Do the same for theother resistor.

Circuits with Two Resistors in Series6. Measure the total resistance across both resistors

when they are connected in series.

How can you show how the currentthat flows through an electric circuitdepends on voltage and resistance?

> Construct parallel and series circuits.

> Predict volt-age and current by using the resist-ance law.

> Measure voltage, current, and resistance.

battery holderconnecting wires (3)dry-cell batterymasking tapemultimeterresistors (2)

USING SCIENTIFIC METHODS

Introduction

Objectives

Materials

558 C H A P T E R 1 6

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Resistor

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7. Using the total resistance you measured, predict the current that will be in a cir-cuit consisting of one battery and both resistors in series. Test your prediction.

8. Using the current you measured, predict the voltage acrosseach resistor in the circuit you just built. Test your prediction.

Circuits with Two Resistors in Parallel9. Measure the total resistance across both resistors when they

are connected in parallel.

10. Using the total resistance you measured, predict the totalcurrent that will be in an entire circuit consisting of one bat-tery and both resistors in parallel. Test your prediction.

11. Predict the current that will be in each resistor individually inthe circuit you just built. Test your prediction.

Analysis1. If you have a circuit consisting of one battery and one resistor,

what happens to the current if you double the resistance?

2. What happens to the current if you add a second, identicalbattery in series with the first battery?

3. What happens to the current if you add a second resistor inparallel with the first resistor?

4. Reaching Conclusions Suppose you have a circuit consist-ing of one battery plus a 10 resistor and a 5 resistor inseries. Which resistor will have the greater voltage across it?

5. Reaching Conclusions Suppose you have a circuit consist-ing of one battery plus a 10 resistor and a 5 resistor inparallel. Which resistor will have more current in it?

Conclusions6. Suppose someone tells you that you can make the battery

in a circuit last longer by adding more resistors in parallel. Is that correct? Explain your reasoning.

+

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+

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V

R

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560 C A R E E R L I N K

PhysicistPhysicists are scientists who are try-ing to understand the fundamentalrules of the universe. Physicists pur-sue these questions at universities,private corporations, and govern-ment agencies. To learn more aboutphysics as a career, read the inter-view with physicist Robert Martinez,who works at the University of Texasin Austin, Texas.

What kinds of problemsare you studying?

We’re working on a technique that will allowus to study single molecules. We could lookat, say, molecules on the surface of a cell.What we’re doing is building a kind ofmicroscope for optical spectroscopy, whichis a way to find out the colors of molecules.Studying the colors of molecules can tell uswhat those molecules are made of.

How does this allow you toidentify molecules?

Atoms act as little beams, and the bondsact as little springs. By exciting them withlight, we can get them to vibrate and giveoff different colors of light. It’s a little bitlike listening to a musical instrument andtelling from the overtones that a piano isdifferent from a trumpet or a clarinet.

??

What facets of your work doyou find most interesting?

The thing that I like about what we’re doingis that it’s very practical, very hands-on. Also,the opportunity exists to explore whole newareas of physics and chemistry that no onehas explored before. What we are doinghas the promise of giving us new tools—new “eyes”—to look at important problems.

What qualities do youthink a physicist needs?

You’ve got to be innately curious about howthe world works, and you’ve got to think it’sunderstandable and you are capable ofunderstanding it. You’ve got to be coura-geous. You’ve got to be good at math.

??

??

“I think of our currentproject a little bit likethe nineteenth centuryexplorers did. Theydidn’t know what they

would find on theother side of theridge or theother side of theocean, but theyhad to go look.”

Robert Martinezuses a microscopethat he has devel-oped to identifysingle molecules.

??

CareerLinkCareerLinkCareerLinkCareerLinkCareerLink


561

Can you remember anyexperiences that were par-ticularly valuable for you?

When I was growing up, my dad was a pipefitter for the city of Los Angeles, and I got to be his apprentice. I got a lot of practicalexperience that way. I think it’s important to take the lawn mower engine apart, takethe toaster apart—unplug it first—and seehow it works.

Which part of your educa-tion was most important?

I liked graduate school a great deal. When Istarted in research, I had an adviser whowas very hands off. What I got was the free-dom to go as high as I could or to fall onmy face. It was a place where I couldstretch out and use things I had under mybelt but didn’t getto use in the classroom. Outside of school, my dad was my best teacher. He was very bright and had a lot of practicalexperience.

??

??

??

www.scilinks.orgTopic: PhysicistSciLinks code: HK4105

“I think that children are bornscientists. It’s just a matter

of keeping your eyes open—keeping your curiosity alive.”

—Robert Martinez

What advice would yougive someone interested inphysics?

If it interests you at all, stick with it. If youhave doubts, try to talk to people whoknow what physicists do and know aboutphysics training. The number of people withphysics training far exceed the number ofpeople who work as physicists. A good frac-tion of engineering is physics, for instance.


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