Loss Control 587

INTRODUCTIONLoss control is a component of service deliv-

ery that adds value to the only product the fireservice has to offer: service. Loss control is thepractice that promotes fire fighting as a craft.Most fire events abound with loss control oppor-tunities. It is common for fire officials to noticebetter morale and efficiency among firefighterswho have significantly contributed to reducingfire loss by successfully applying loss controlprinciples.

This chapter explains the philosophy of losscontrol and gives details of two of the most effectivemeans of loss control: performing proper salvageand overhaul. Planning, procedures, and equip-ment are discussed.

PHILOSOPHY OF LOSS CONTROL

[NFPA 1001: 3-3.13; 3-3.13(a)]

The philosophy of loss control is to minimizedamage and provide customer service through ef-fective mitigation and recovery efforts before, dur-ing, and after an incident. Loss control is a majorpart of customer service, which builds goodwillwithin the community. A fire department oftenreceives words of appreciation and praise by thenews media and letters of thanks from citizens forsaving their property and cherished possessions.This praise gives firefighters a feeling of accom-plishment — particularly when the appreciationcomes from those people who have had their be-longings saved.

Performing proper salvage and overhaul — twoaspects of loss control — are of significant impor-tance to both firefighters and property owners/occupants because they are the most effective means

Chapter 16

Loss Control

of loss control. Properly applied suppression tech-niques plus prompt and effective use of good sal-vage and overhaul procedures will minimize thetotal losses. Effective salvage procedures coordi-nated with a thorough and systematic overhaulwill also facilitate prompt restoration of the prop-erty to full use.

Salvage operations consist of those methodsand operating procedures associated with firefighting that aid in reducing primary and second-ary damage during fire fighting operations. Pri-mary damage is caused by the fire; secondarydamage is caused by the suppression activities.Both can be minimized through salvage efforts.Some of these damages cannot be avoided becauseof the need to do forcible entry, apply water, ventthe building, and search for fires throughout astructure. Salvage starts as soon as adequate per-sonnel are available and may be done simulta-neously with fire attack.

Overhaul operations consist of searching forand extinguishing hidden or remaining fires.Protecting the scene after the fire and preservingevidence of the fire’s origin and cause are compo-nents of overhaul. Overhaul operations are notnormally started until the fire is under control.

SALVAGE

[NFPA 1001: 3-3.13(a); 3-3.13(b); 3-5.3(a); 3-5.3(b)]

Proper salvage operations involve early plan-ning, knowing the procedures necessary to do thejob, and being familiar with the various coversand equipment used. Some improvising can bedone when equipment is limited. A final part ofsalvage is protecting the property from theweather.

588 ESSENTIALS

PlanningEfficient salvage operations require planning

and training for fire officers and firefighters (Fig-ure 16.1). Standard operating procedures (SOPs)should be developed to address early and well-coordinated salvage operations. Special preplansmay be needed for buildings with high-value con-tents that are especially susceptible to heat andsmoke damage.

In commercial occupancies, an awareness ofthe value associated with contents vital to businesssurvival is important. The value of contents, par-ticularly in commercial occupancies, can easilyexceed the replacement cost of structural materi-als. Equipment such as computers and file cabinetsfilled with records, computer disks, etc., are criticalto a business’s restoration.

Figure 16.1 Firefighters must train regularly in salvage and overhaultechniques.

Fire organizations can facilitate salvage effortsbefore a fire incident by working with the losscontrol representatives of various local busi-nesses. Identifying critical records and compo-nents needed for business continuation andsuggesting implementation of continuous losscontrol measures, such as stock protection,benefits both the business firm and the firedepartment.

ProceduresSalvage operations can often be started at the

same time as fire attack. For instance, the contentsof the room(s) immediately below the fire floor canbe covered while fire is being combated on the floorabove. Contents of a room can be gathered andcovered quickly before a ceiling is pulled. Catchingdebris with a cover also saves time and effort incleanup as well as leaving a more professionalappearance.

When possible, building contents should bearranged into close piles that can be covered witha minimum of salvage covers. This allows morecontents to be protected than if the contents werecovered in their original position. When arranginghousehold furnishings, group the furniture in anarea of the room away from the wall (Figure 16.2).If a reasonable degree of care is taken, one average-sized cover will usually protect the contents of oneresidential room. If the floor covering is a remov-able rug, slip the rug out from under furniture aseach piece is moved, and roll the rug to make iteasier to move.

A dresser, chest, or high object may be placed atthe end of a bed. If there is a rolled rug, place it ontop to serve as a ridge pole, allowing water to runoff both sides of the covered furniture. Other furni-ture can be grouped close by; pictures, curtains,lamps, and clothing can be placed on the bed. Itmay sometimes be necessary to place a salvagecover into position before some articles are placedon the bed. In this event, the bed and furniture willbe protected until other items are placed under thecover.

Furniture sitting on wet carpet will absorbwater like a sponge, quickly ruining the items eventhough they may be well covered. To prevent thisdamage, raise the furniture off the wet floor with

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water-resistant materials. Precut plastic foamblocks are ideal but canned goods from the kitchencan also be used (Figure 16.3).

Commercial occupancies provide challenges forfirefighters who are trying to perform salvage func-tions (Figure 16.4). The actual arranging of con-tents to be covered may be limited when largestocks and display features are involved. Displayshelves are frequently built to the ceiling anddirectly against the wall. This construction featuremakes contents difficult to cover. When waterflows down a wall, it naturally comes into contactwith shelving and wets the contents. Contents

Figure 16.2 Gather furniture into the center of the room so that it can becovered.

Figure 16.3 Precut plasticfoam blocks can be used toraise furniture off a wet floor.

Figure 16.4 Some commercial occupancies, such as this departmentstore, have large quantities of stock to protect.

stacked too close to the ceiling also present asalvage problem. Ideally, there should be enoughspace between the stock and ceiling to allowfirefighters to easily apply salvage covers.

Stock should be stored on pallets, and a lack ofskids or pallets under stock susceptible to waterdamage is a common obstacle to efficient salvageoperations (Figure 16.5). Some examples of con-tents that have perishable characteristics are food

Figure 16.5 Placing boxes on skids provides protection from smallamounts of water on the floor.

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stuffs, materials in cardboard boxes, feed, paper,and other dry goods. When the number of salvagecovers are limited, it is good practice to use avail-able covers for water chutes and catchalls eventhough the water must be routed to the floor andcleaned up afterward (see Improvising With Sal-vage Covers section).

Firefighters must be extremely cautious of high-piled stock such as boxed materials or rolled paperthat has become wet at the bottom. The wetnessoften causes the material to expand and push outinterior or exterior walls. Wetness also reduces thestrength of the material and may cause the piles tocollapse (Figure 16.6). Some rolls of paper canweigh a ton (1.02 t) or more. If these rolls of paperwere to fall on firefighters, it could seriously injureor kill them.

Large quantities of water may be removed bylocating and cleaning clogged drains, removingtoilet fixtures, creating scuppers, making use ofexisting sanitary piping systems, or affixing chutesmade of salvage covers, plastic, or other availablematerials. Water left on cabinets and other hori-zontal surfaces may ruin finishes over a period ofhours. Cabinets and table tops can be wiped offquickly and easily with disposable paper towels.This simple service can save the building owner/occupant a great deal of potential loss.

Figure 16.6 Rolled paper storage can be hazardous to firefighters. If thebottom rolls become wet, the entire stack is likely to collapse. The rollsin this picture each weigh in excess of 2,500 pounds (1 130 kg).

Salvage Covers and EquipmentSalvage covers are made of waterproof canvas

materials or vinyl and are found in various sizes.These covers have reinforced corners and edgehems into which grommets are placed for hangingor draping. Synthetic covers are lightweight, easyto handle, economical, and practical for both indoorand outdoor use (Figure 16.7). Many departmentsuse disposable plastic covers. Suitable plastic ma-terial is available on rolls, and covers can be cutfrom the rolls in different sizes to serve variouscover needs. Firefighters must be familiar with thesalvage covers used in their departments.

NOTE: It is very difficult to adapt plastic coversto traditional salvage cover folds (see Methods ofFolding/Rolling and Spreading Salvage Covers sec-tion).

A variety of equipment is used along withsalvage covers. Every firefighter needs to knowhow to use these pieces of equipment and how toproperly maintain salvage covers.

Figure 16.7 Synthetic salvage covers require less care than natural fibercovers.

SALVAGE COVER MAINTENANCE

The proper cleaning, drying, and repairing ofreusable salvage covers increases their span ofservice. Ordinarily, the only cleaning that is re-quired for canvas salvage covers is wetting orrinsing with a hose stream and scrubbing with abroom. Covers that are extremely dirty and stainedmay be scrubbed with a detergent solution andthen thoroughly rinsed (Figure 16.8). Permittingcanvas salvage covers to dry when dirty is not agood practice. After carbon and ash stains havedried, a chemical reaction takes place that rots thecanvas. Foreign materials are difficult to removewhen dry, even with a detergent. Canvas salvagecovers should be completely dry before they are

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folded and placed in service. This practice is essen-tial to prevent mildew and rot. There is no particu-lar objection to outdoor drying of salvage coversexcept that the wind tends to blow and whip themabout.

Synthetic salvage covers do not require as muchmaintenance as canvas ones. These covers may befolded wet, but it is usually better to let them dryfirst so they will not get a mildew smell (Figure16.9).

After salvage covers are dry, they should beexamined for damage. Holes can be located by firstplacing three or four firefighters side-by-side alongone end. Then have them pick up the end and passit back over their heads while walking toward theother end, looking up at the underside of the cover(Figure 16.10). Light will show through even thesmallest holes. Holes should be marked with chalk(Figure 16.11). The holes can be repaired by plac-ing duct or mastic tape over them or by patchingwith iron-on or sew-on patches, depending uponthe material.

Figure 16.8 Extremely dirtysalvage covers can bescrubbed with a detergentsolution.

Figure 16.9 Syntheticsalvage covers can berinsed clean.

Figure 16.10 Firefighters areexamining a salvage cover fordamage.

Figure 16.11 Any holes in the canvasshould be marked with chalk.

Figure 16.12 Salvage equipment stored in a plastic tub is easily carried.Courtesy of Phoenix (AZ) Fire Department.

SALVAGE EQUIPMENT

For conducting salvage operations at a fire, it issuggested that salvage equipment be located in areadily accessible area on the apparatus. Indi-vidual fire department SOPs dictate on whichapparatus the salvage equipment is carried andwho performs the primary salvage operations onthe fire scene. This avoids delay in beginning sal-vage operations, although salvage and loss controlare everyone’s responsibilities.

Smaller tools and equipment should be kept ina specially designated salvage toolbox or othercontainer to make them easier to carry. Loss con-trol materials and supplies may be kept in a plastictub and brought into the structure early in the fireevent (Figure 16.12). The materials and supplies

592 ESSENTIALS

are then readily available for loss control activities.The tub itself provides a useful water-resistantcontainer to protect items such as computers, pic-tures, and other water-sensitive materials.

The following is a list of typical salvage equip-ment that should be carried on the apparatus. Theuse of this equipment, however, is not limited tosalvage operations. Some of these items are dis-cussed in the paragraphs that follow.

• Electrician’s pliers

• Sidecutters

• Various chisels

• Tin snips

• Tin roof cutter (can opener)

• Adjustable wrenches

• Pipe wrenches

• Hammer(s)

• Sledgehammer

• Hacksaw

• Crosscut handsaw

• Heavy-duty stapler and staples

• Linoleum knife

• Wrecking bar

• Padlock and hasp

• Hinges

• Screwdriver(s)

• Battery-operated power tools

• Hydraulic jack

• Assortment of nails

• Assortment of screws

• Roofing or tar paper and roofing nails

• Plastic sheeting

• Wood lath

• Mops

• Squeegees

• Water scoops

• Scoop shovels

• Brooms

• Mop wringers with buckets

• Automatic sprinkler kit

• Water vacuum

• Submersible pump and discharge hose

• Sponges

• Chamois

• Paper towels

• Assortment of rags

• 100-foot (30 m) length of electrical cablewith locking-type connectors, 14-3 gauge orheavier

• Pigtail ground adapters, 2 wire to 3 wire,14-3 gauge or heavier with 12-inch (300mm) minimum length

• An approved ground fault interruption de-vice

• Salvage covers

• Floor runners

• Duct tape

• Plastic bags

• Cardboard boxes with tape dispenser

• Styrofoam blocks

Automatic sprinkler kit. The tools found in asprinkler kit are needed when fighting fires inbuildings protected by automatic sprinkler sys-tems. These tools are used to stop the flow of waterfrom an open sprinkler before it has had time tocompletely drain after shutdown. A flow of waterfrom an open sprinkler can do considerable dam-age to merchandise on lower floors after a fire hasbeen controlled in a commercial building. Sprin-kler tongs or a stopper and a sprinkler wedge aresuggested tools for a sprinkler kit. The SOPs ofsome departments may require additional equip-ment necessary to restore a system to service. Usecaution when replacing sprinklers; some typesrequire use of a special wrench to prevent damageto the sprinkler.

Carryalls (debris bags). Carryalls, some-times referred to as debris bags or buckets, are usedto carry debris, catch falling debris, and provide awater basin for immersing small burning objects(Figure 16.13).

Floor runners. Costly floor coverings can beruined by mud and grime tracked in by firefighters.These floor coverings may be protected by usingfloor runners. Floor runners can be unrolled froman entrance to almost any part of a building.

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Commercially prepared vinyl-laminated nylon floorrunners are lightweight, flexible, tough, heat andwater resistant, and easy to maintain (Figure 16.14).

Dewatering devices. Dewatering devices areused to remove water from basements, elevatorshafts, and sumps (Figure 16.15). Fire departmentpumpers should not be used for this purpose be-cause they are intricate and expensive machinesand are not intended to pump the dirty, grittywater found in such places. Trash-type pumps arebest suited for salvage operations. A jet siphondevice may be used for the removal of excess water.These devices can be moved to any point where aline of hose can be placed and an outlet for watercan be provided.

Water vacuum. One of the easiest and fastestways to remove water is the use of a water vacuumdevice. Dirt and small debris may also be removedfrom carpet, tile, and other types of floor coverings

Figure 16.13 A carryall can be used to haul debris from a building.

Figure 16.14 Floorrunners are used toprotect carpets andother floor coveringsfrom foot traffic.

Figure 16.15 Portablepumps may be used toremove water from astructure.

with this equipment. The water vacuum applianceconsists of a tank (worn on the back or placed onwheels) and a nozzle. Backpack-type tanks nor-mally have a capacity of 4 to 5 gallons (15 L to 20L) and can be emptied by simply pulling a lanyardthat empties the water through the nozzle orthrough a separate drain hose (Figure 16.16). Floormodels on rollers may have capacities up to 20gallons (80 L) (Figure 16.17).

Figure 16.16 Some watervacuums are designed to beworn on the back.

Figure 16.17 A floor model water vacuum.

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Methods of Folding/Rolling and SpreadingSalvage Covers

One of the key factors in successful salvageoperations is the proper handling and deploymentof salvage covers. The following sections highlightbasic principles of salvage cover storage and de-ployment by one or two firefighters.

ONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH A ROLLED SALVAGE

COVER

The principal advantage of the one-firefightersalvage cover roll is that one person can quicklyunroll a cover across the top of an object and unfoldit (Figure 16.18). Skill Sheet 16-1 describes theprocedure for preparing a salvage cover roll for aone-firefighter spread. Folding the cover requirestwo firefighters. A salvage cover rolled for a one-firefighter spread may be carried on the shoulder orunder the arm. Use the steps described in SkillSheet 16-2 for a one-firefighter spread with a rolledsalvage cover.

Figure 16.18 A firefighter performing a one-firefighter salvage coverspread.

ONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH A FOLDED SALVAGE

COVER

Some departments prefer to carry salvage cov-ers folded, as opposed to rolled (Figure 16.19). Theprocedures in Skill Sheet 16-3 highlight folding asalvage cover for one-firefighter deployment. Twofirefighters are needed to make this fold, and theywill be performing the same functions simulta-neously. This folded salvage cover may be carriedin any manner, however, carrying it on the shoul-der is convenient. The steps described in SkillSheet 16-4 can be used when one firefighter spreadsa folded salvage cover.

Figure 16.19 A folded salvage cover.

TWO-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH A FOLDED SALVAGE

COVER

Large salvage covers cannot be easily handledby a single firefighter. Therefore, they must befolded for two-firefighter deployment. The proce-dure in Skill Sheet 16-5 can be used to make thetwo-firefighter fold. The most convenient way tocarry this fold is on the shoulder with the openedges next to the neck. It makes little differencewhich end of the folded cover is placed in front ofthe carrier because two open-end folds will beexposed. The cover should be carried so that thecarrier can grab the lower pair of corners, and thesecond firefighter can grab the uppermost pair(Figure 16.20).

The balloon throw is the most common methodfor two firefighters to deploy a large salvage cover.The balloon throw gives better results whensufficient air is pocketed under the cover. This

Figure 16.20 Proper method for carrying a folded cover for a two-firefighter spread.

Loss Control 595

pocketed air gives the cover a parachute effect thatfloats it in place over the article to be covered(Figure 16.21). The steps described in Skill Sheet16-6 are for making the balloon throw.

Figure 16.21 Firefighters performing a balloon throw.

Improvising With Salvage CoversIn addition to simply covering building con-

tents, salvage covers may also be used to catch androute water from fire fighting operations. The fol-lowing section details some of these special situa-tions.

REMOVING WATER WITH CHUTES

Using a chute is one of the most practicalmethods of removing water that comes through theceiling from upper floors. Water chutes may beconstructed on the floor below fire fighting opera-tions to drain runoff through windows or doors(Figure 16.22). Some fire departments carry pre-pared chutes, approximately 10 feet (3 m) long, asregular equipment, but it may be more practical tomake chutes using one or more covers. Effectivewater diversion is limited only to the imaginationof the fire personnel. Plastic sheeting, a hammer-type stapler, and duct tape allow quick and easyconstruction of water diversion chutes. Skill Sheets16-7 and 16-8 describe the procedures for con-structing water chutes.

CONSTRUCTING A CATCHALL

A catchall is constructed from a salvage coverthat has been placed on the floor to hold smallamounts of water (Figure 16.23). The catchall mayalso be used as a temporary means to control largeamounts of water until chutes can be constructedto route the water to the outside. Properly con-structed catchalls will hold several hundred gal-

Figure 16.22 Ladders and tarps can be used to create water chutes thatwill channel excess water from the building.

lons (liters) of water and often save considerabletime during salvage operations. The cover shouldbe placed into position as soon as possible, evenbefore the sides of the cover are rolled. Two peopleare usually required to prepare a catchall to makemore uniform rolls on all sides. The steps requiredto make a catchall are shown in Skill Sheet 16-9.

Figure 16.23 A completed catchall.

Covering OpeningsOne of the final parts of salvage operations is

the covering of openings to prevent further damageto the property by weather. Cover any doors orwindows that have been broken or removed withplywood, heavy plastic, or some similar materialsto keep out rain (Figure 16.24). Plywood, hinges, ahasp, and a padlock can be used to fashion atemporary door. Cover openings in roofs with ply-wood, roofing paper, heavy plastic sheeting, or tarpaper. Use appropriate roofing nails if roofing, tarpaper, or plastic is used. Tack down the edges withlaths between the nails and the material.

596 ESSENTIALS

OVERHAUL[NFPA 1001: 3-3.7(b); 3-3.12; 3-3.12(a); 3-3.12(b); 4-3.2(a)]

Overhaul is the practice of searching a firescene to detect hidden fires or sparks that mayrekindle and to identify the possible point of originand cause of fire (Figure 16.25). Afterwards, thebuilding, its contents, and the fire area are placedin as safe and habitable a condition as possible andprotected from the elements. Any possible incendi-ary evidence of arson is preserved. Salvage opera-

Figure 16.24 Window openings may be covered with plastic to temporarilykeep out the elements.

Figure 16.25 Properoverhaul reduces thechance of a rekindledfire.

tions performed during fire fighting will directlyaffect any overhaul work that may be needed later.Many of the tools and equipment used for overhaulare the same as those used for other fire fightingoperations. Some of the tools and equipment usedspecifically for overhaul, along with their uses,may include the following:

• Pike poles and plaster hooks — Open ceil-ings to check on fire extension.

• Axes — Open walls and floors.

• Battery-powered saws, drills, and screw-drivers — Make small, neat openings andsquare up larger holes made with largertools. These tools are also useful for build-ing “packaging” tasks such as constructingtemporary doors and window coverings.

• Carryall, buckets, and tubs — Carry debrisor provide a basin for immersing smolder-ing material.

• Shovels, bale hooks, and pitchforks — Movebaled or loose materials.

It is essential for firefighters to wear properprotective clothing including self-contained breath-ing apparatus (SCBA) while performing overhauland extinguishing hidden fires unless the atmo-sphere has been proven safe for a lower level ofprotection by reliable testing methods. Overhauloperations should be visually directed by a super-visor/officer not directly engaged in overhaul tasks.If a fire investigator is on the scene, he should beinvolved in planning and supervising the overhaulactivities.

Charged hoselines should always be availablefor the extinguishment of hidden fires; however,the same size lines used to bring the fire undercontrol are not always necessary. Fire departmentpumpers can often be disconnected from hydrants;however, local policies may dictate that at least onesupply line be left in place as a precaution. Typi-cally, 1¹⁄₂-inch (38 mm) or 1³⁄₄-inch (45 mm) attacklines are used for overhaul. During minor overhauloperations, water fire extinguishers or booster hosesmay be used to extinguish small fires. However, atleast one attack line should still be available in theevent it is needed. Regardless of the type of hosebeing used, the nozzle should be placed so that it

Loss Control 597

will not cause additional water damage. Leakingcouplings should be tightened or repaired. Don’tallow water damage from leaking hoselines. Usinga 100-foot (30 m) length of hose as the first sectionon attack lines would greatly lower the probabilitythat any couplings other than those at the nozzlewould even be inside a building.

Before starting a search for hidden fires, it isimportant to evaluate the condition of the area tobe searched. The intensity of the fire and theamount of water used for its control are two impor-tant factors that affect the condition of the build-ing. The intensity of the fire determines the extentto which structural members have been weakened,and the amount of water used determines theadditional weight placed on floors and walls due tothe absorbent qualities of the building contents.Consideration should be given to these factors forthe protection of personnel during overhaul.

The firefighters should also be aware of otherdangerous building conditions such as the follow-ing:

• Weakened floors due to floor joists beingburned away

• Concrete that has spalled due to heat

• Weakened steel roof members (tensilestrength is affected at about 500°F (260°C)

• Walls offset because of elongation of steelroof supports

• Weakened roof trusses due to burn-throughof key members

• Mortar in wall joints opened due to exces-sive heat

• Wall ties holding veneer walls melted fromheat

The firefighter can often detect hidden fires bysight, touch, sound, or electronic sensors (Figure16.26). The following are some of the indicators foreach:

• Sight— Discoloration of materials— Peeling paint— Smoke emissions from cracks— Cracked plaster— Rippled wallpaper

— Burned areas

Figure 16.26 A firefighter checking for hidden fire with an infrared heatdetector.

• Touch — Feel walls and floors for heat withthe back of the hand (Figure 16.27).

• Sound

— Popping or cracking of fire burning

— Hissing of steam

• Electronic Sensors

— Thermal (heat) signature detection

— Infrared signature detection

Typically, overhaul begins in the area of actualfire involvement. The process of looking for exten-sion should begin as soon as possible after the firehas been declared under control. The overhaulplan can then be systematically carried out. If it isfound that the fire extended to other areas,

Figure 16.27 A firefighter using the back of his hand to feel for heat.

598 ESSENTIALS

Figure 16.29 Pull ceilings to check for fire extension.

firefighters must determine through what mediumit traveled. When floor beams have burned at theirends where they enter a party wall, fire personneloverhaul the ends by flushing the voids in the wallwith water. The far side of the wall should also bechecked to see whether the fire or water has comethrough. Insulation materials should be thoroughlychecked because they can harbor hidden fires for aprolonged period. Usually, it is necessary to re-move the material in order to properly check it orextinguish fire in it.

An understanding of basic building construc-tion will assist the firefighter in searching forhidden fires. When the fire has burned aroundwindows or doors, there is a possibility that thereis fire remaining within the frames or casings.These areas should be opened to ensure completeextinguishment. These areas can be opened bysimply pulling off the molding to expose the innerparts of the frame or casing (Figure 16.28). Whenfire has burned around a combustible roof or cor-nice, it is advisable to open the cornice and inspectfor hidden fires.

When concealed spaces below floors, above ceil-ings, or within walls and partitions must be openedduring the search for hidden fires, the furnishingsof the room should be moved to locations wherethey will not be damaged. Only enough wall, ceil-ing, or floor covering should be removed to ensurecomplete extinguishment. Weight-bearing mem-bers should not be disturbed.

Figure 16.28 A firefighter pulling molding to look for hidden fire.

When opening concealed spaces, considerationshould also be given to the restoration of the area.During fire fighting, openings should be made inconstruction to check for extension and allow ex-tinguishment. However, when conditions allow,firefighters should make neat, planned openings toassure extinguishment, demonstrating workman-like professionalism for future restoration.

If it is not appropriate to use small inspectionopenings due to obvious fire involvement, ceilingsare opened from below using an appropriate over-haul tool. To open a plaster ceiling, a firefightermust first break the plaster and then pull off thelath. Metal or composition ceilings may be pulledfrom the joist in a like manner. When pulling, thefirefighter should not stand under the space to beopened. The firefighter should always be posi-tioned between the area being pulled and thedoorway to keep the exit route from being blockedwith falling debris (Figure 16.29). The pull shouldbe down and away to prevent the ceiling fromdropping on the firefighter’s head. No firefightershould attempt to pull a ceiling without wearingfull protective clothing, including eye and respira-tory protection.

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Quite frequently, small burning objects areuncovered during overhaul. Because of their sizeand condition, it is better to submerge entire ob-jects in containers of water than to try drenchingthem with streams of water. Bathtubs, sinks, lava-tories, and wash tubs are all useful for this pur-pose. Larger furnishings, such as mattresses,stuffed furniture, and bed linens, should be re-moved to the outside where they can be easily andthoroughly extinguished. Firefighters should re-member that all scorched or partially burned ar-

ticles may prove helpful to an investigator in pre-paring an inventory or determining the cause ofthe fire.

The use of wetting agents is of considerablevalue when extinguishing hidden fires. The pen-etrating qualities of wetting agents usually permitcomplete extinguishment in cotton, upholstery,and baled goods. The only way to assure fires inbales, rags, cotton, hay, alfalfa, etc., is to break themapart. Special care should be taken to eliminate indi-scriminate use and direction of hose streams.

600 ESSENTIALS

SKILL SHEET 16-1 PREPARING A SALVAGE COVER ROLL FORA ONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD

NOTE: Two firefighters must make initial folds to reducethe width of the cover to form this roll. Steps 1 through8 are performed simultaneously by both firefighters onopposite sides of the cover. Steps 9 through 12 may beperformed by both firefighters who are stationed at thesame end of the roll.

Step 1: Grasp the cover with the outside hand midwaybetween the center and the edge to be folded.

Step 2: Place the other hand on the cover as a pivotmidway between the outside hand and the center.

Step 3: Bring the fold over to the center of the cover. Thiscreates an inside fold (center) and an outside fold.

Step 4: Grasp the cover corner with the outside hand.

Step 5: Place the other hand as a pivot on the cover overthe outside fold.

Step 6: Bring this outside edge over to the center, and placeit on top of and in line with the previously placed first fold.

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Step 7: Fold the other half of the cover in the same mannerby using Steps 1 through 6.

Step 8: Straighten the folds if they are not straight.

Step 9: Fold over about 12 inches (300 mm) at each end ofthe cover to make clean, even ends for the completed roll.

Step 10: Start the roll by rolling and compressing one endinto a tight compact roll; roll toward the opposite end.

Step 11: Tuck in any wrinkles that form ahead of the roll asthe roll progresses.

Step 12: Secure the completed roll with inner tube bandsor Velcro® straps or tie with cords.

602 ESSENTIALS

Step 1: Start at one end of the object to be covered.

Step 2: Unroll a sufficient amount to cover the end.

SKILL SHEET 16-2 ONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH A ROLLEDSALVAGE COVER

Step 3: Continue to unroll toward the opposite end.

Step 4: Let the rest of the roll fall into place at the other end.

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Step 5: Stand at one end.

Step 6: Grasp the open edges where convenient, one edgein each hand.

Step 7: Open the sides of the cover over the object bysnapping both hands up and out.

Step 8: Open the other end of the cover over the object inthe same manner.

Step 9: Tuck in all loose edges at the bottom.

NOTE: In addition to covering stacks of objects, therolled cover may be used as a floor runner. Just unrollthe cover and spread it out as wide as necessary.

604 ESSENTIALS

NOTE: Two firefighters must make initial folds to reducethe width of the cover. Steps 1 through 8 are performedsimultaneously by both firefighters on opposite sidesof the cover. Steps 9 through 13 may be performed byboth firefighters who are stationed at the same end ofthe fold.

SKILL SHEET 16-3 PREPARING A FOLDED SALVAGE COVER FOR AONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD

Step 1: Grasp the cover with the outside hand midwaybetween the center and the edge to be folded.

Step 2: Place the other hand on the cover as a pivot midwaybetween the outside hand and the center.

Step 3: Bring the fold over to the center of the cover. Thiswill create an inside fold (center) and an outside fold.

Step 4: Grasp the cover corner with the outside hand.

Step 5: Place the other hand as a pivot on the cover overthe outside fold.

Step 6: Bring this outside edge over to the center, and placeit on top of and in line with the previously placed first fold.

Loss Control 605

Step 7: Fold the other half of the cover in the same mannerby using Steps 1 through 6.

Step 8: Straighten the folds if they are not straight.

Step 9: Grasp the same end of the cover, with the coverfolded to reduce width.

Step 10: Bring this end to a point just short of the center.

Step 11: Use one hand as a pivot, and bring the folded endover and place on top of the first fold.

606 ESSENTIALS

Step 12: Fold the other end of the cover toward the center,leaving about 4 inches (100 mm) between the two folds.

Step 13: Place one fold on top of the other for the completedfold; the space between the folds now serves as a hinge.

Loss Control 607

Step 1: Lay the folded cover on top of and near the centerof the object(s) to be covered.

Step 2: Separate the cover at the first fold.

SKILL SHEET 16-4 ONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH AFOLDED SALVAGE COVER

Step 3: Select either end, and continue to unfold thesalvage cover by separating the next fold.

Step 4: Continue to unfold this same end toward the end ofthe object(s) to be covered.

Step 5: Grasp the end of the cover near the center with bothhands to prevent the corners from falling outward.

Step 6: Bring the end of the cover into position over the endof the object(s) being covered.

608 ESSENTIALS

Step 7: Unfold the other end of the cover in the samemanner over the object(s).

Step 8: Stand at one end.

Step 9: Grasp the open edges where convenient, one edgein each hand.

Step 10: Open the sides of the cover over the object(s) bysnapping both hands up and out.

Step 11: Open the other end of the cover over the object(s)in the same manner.

Step 12: Tuck in all loose edges at the bottom.

Loss Control 609

NOTE: Two firefighters must make initial folds to reducethe width of the cover. Steps 1 through 11 are performedsimultaneously by both firefighters. Steps 12 through19 are performed by the respective firefighters. Steps20 through 24 are performed simultaneously by bothfirefighters.

Step 1: Grasp opposite ends of the cover at the centergrommet with the cover stretched lengthwise.

Step 2: Pull the cover tightly between each firefighter.

Step 3: Raise this center fold high above the ground.

Step 4: Shake out the wrinkles to form the first half-fold.

SKILL SHEET 16-5 PREPARING A FOLDED SALVAGE COVER FOR ATWO-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD

Step 5: Spread the half-fold upon the ground.

Step 6: Smooth the half-fold flat to remove the wrinkles.

Step 7: Stand at each end of the half-fold and face thecover.

Step 8: Grasp the open-edge corners with the handnearest to these corners.

Step 9: Place the corresponding foot at the center of thehalf-fold, thus making a pivot for the next fold.

610 ESSENTIALS

Step 10: Stretch that part of the cover being folded tightlybetween each firefighter.

Step 11: Make the quarter-fold by folding the open edgesover the folded edge.

Step 12: Firefighter #1: Stand on one end of the quarter-fold.

Step 13: Firefighter #2: Grasp the opposite end and shakeout all the wrinkles.

1

2

Step 14: Firefighter #2: Carry this end to the opposite end,maintaining alignment of outside edges.

Step 15: Both Firefighters: Place the carried end on theopposite end, aligning all edges.

Step 16: Both Firefighters: Position at opposite ends.

Step 17: Firefighter #2: Stand on the folded end of thecover.

Step 18: Firefighter #1: Shake out all wrinkles.

Step 19: Firefighter #1: Align all edges.

Loss Control 611

Step 20: Grasp the open ends, and use the inside foot asa pivot for the next fold.

Step 21: Bring these open ends over, and place them justshort of the folded center fold.

Step 22: Continue this folding process by bringing the openends over and just short of the folded end.

NOTE: During this fold, the free hand may be used as apivot to hold the cover straight.

Step 23: Complete the operation by making one more foldin the same manner.

Step 24: Bring the open ends over and to the folded endusing the free hand as a pivot during the fold.

612 ESSENTIALS

Step 1: Stretch the cover along one side of the object(s) tobe covered.

Step 2: Separate the last half-fold by grasping each side ofthe cover near the ends.

SKILL SHEET 16-6 TWO-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH AFOLDED SALVAGE COVER

Balloon Throw

Step 3: Lay the side of the cover closest to the object(s) onthe ground.

Step 4: Make several accordion folds in the inside hand.

Step 5: Place the outside hand about midway down the endhem.

Step 6: Place the inside foot on the corner of the cover tohold it in place.

Step 7: Pull the cover tightly between each firefighter.

Loss Control 613

Step 8: Swing the folded part down, up, and out in onesweeping movement in order to pocket as much air aspossible.

Step 9: Pitch or carry the accordion folds across theobject(s) when the cover is as high as each firefighter canreach. This action causes the cover to float over theobject(s).

Step 10: Guide the cover into position as it floats over theobject(s).

Step 11: Straighten the sides for better water runoff.

614 ESSENTIALS

SKILL SHEET 16-7 CONSTRUCTING A WATER CHUTE

Without Pike Poles

Step 1: Open the salvage cover.

Step 2: Lay the cover flat at the desired location.

Step 3: Roll the opposite edges of the salvage cover towardthe middle until there is a 3-foot (1 m) width between therolls.

Step 4: Turn the cover over.

Step 5: Adjust the chute to collect and channel water byelevating one end.

Step 6: Extend the other end out a door or window.

Loss Control 615

SKILL SHEET 16-8 CONSTRUCTING A WATER CHUTE

With Pike Poles

Step 1: Open the salvage cover.

Step 2: Lay the cover flat at the desired location.

Step 3: Place pike poles at opposite edges of thesalvage cover with the pike extending off the end of thecover.

Step 4: Roll the edges over the pike poles toward themiddle until there is a 3-foot (1 m) width between the rolls.

Step 5: Turn the cover over, keeping the folds in place.

616 ESSENTIALS

Step 6: Place the chute to collect and channel water.

NOTE: This can be done by hooking the pike poles over aladder rung or similar object.

Step 7: Extend the other end out a door or window.

NOTE: A completed water chute is shown.

Loss Control 617

Step 1: Open the salvage cover.

Step 2: Lay the cover flat at the desired location.

SKILL SHEET 16-9 CONSTRUCTING A CATCHALL

Step 3: Roll the sides inward approximately 3 feet (1 m).

Step 4: Lay the ends of the side rolls over at a 90-degreeangle to form the corners of the basin.

Step 5: Roll one end into a tight roll on top of the side rolland form a projected flap.

618 ESSENTIALS

Step 6: Lift the edge roll.

Step 7: Tuck the end roll to lock the corners.

Step 8: Roll the other end in a like manner.

Step 9: Lock the corners. A completed catchall is shown.