Chapter 15: Stress, Coping, and Health. Chapter Outline 1. What is stress? 2. Responding to stress...

Chapter 15: Stress, Coping, and Health

Chapter Outline

1. What is stress?2. Responding to stress3. Coping with stress4. Stress and health5. Posttraumatic stress disorder

© John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

What Is Stress?

Stress—response to a situation that threatens, or appears to threaten, one’s sense of well being

Stressor—something that triggers a stress response

Two types of stressors Acute stressor—short-term finite stressful situation

Studying for finals, competing in a football game Chronic stressor—long-term stressor with no definitive

end Poverty, high-pressure job

Our appraisal and perception of a situation triggers the emotional state connected to stress


Ways of Experiencing Stress

Feeling frustrated—an emotion experienced when something prevents us from reaching a goal

Feeling pressure—an expectation or demand that one should act in a certain way

Feeling conflict—discomfort due to two or more incompatible goals or impulses Approach-approach conflict—equally desirable

options Avoidance-avoidance conflict—equally undesirable

options Approach-avoidance conflict—both good and bad

in any available choice


Three Types of Conflict


Ways of Experiencing Stress

Feeling endangered—Life-threatening situations produce stress


Kinds of Stressors

Daily hassles—small, everyday problems that accumulate to become a source of stress—micro-stressors Bad or rude drivers Cannot find keys or

cell phone


Kinds of Stressors

Life changes—altered circumstances requiring adjustment Marriage, death, finals, break

up, starting university or a new school

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)—assigns life change units to various events that can occur in one’s life Does not apply equally to all

cultures or populations High scores on the SRRS are

related to health problems


Kinds of Stressors

Traumatic events—unexpected disruptive events Natural disaster, witness

or victim to violence Posttraumatic stress

disorder (PTSD)—an anxiety disorder caused by a major traumatic event, characterized by lingering and persistent, frightening thoughts or memories of the event, along with anxiety and depression


Kinds of Stressors

Chronic negative situations—continued negative situation Living in a dangerous place, poverty, illness, job stress

Sociocultural conditions—challenges associated with minority groups Immigrating, racism, and prejudice Stereotype threat—suspicions, confusion, and resulting

vigilance experienced by minority group members as they interact with majority group members Significant stressor for minority group members, but

often invisible to those in the majority group


Responding to Stress

The fight-or-flight response—during stress, your body makes you feel like you either want to fight or run. How? HPA pathway—hypothalamus, pituitary,

adrenal gland Hypothalamus—stimulates nerves in the

sympathetic nervous system to stimulate organs to respond

Pituitary gland releases ACTH hormone Adrenal glands release stress hormones


Responding to Stress


The Fight-or-Flight Response

Under fire—riot police were in extreme danger during the riot following the Vancouver Canuck loss in 2011


The Tend-and-Befriend Response

Some theorists argue that the fight-or-flight response may be a largely male response, and suggest that evolution may have selected a “tend-and-befriend” response to cope with stress in females

Regardless of the mechanism, in general females are more likely to have extensive and well-maintained social networks than are males


The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Three stage response to ongoing stress

1. Alarm Body’s reaction to initial

exposure to stressor (fight-or-flight)

2. Resistance Body’s attempt to

stabilize if stressor continues

May result in vulnerability to disease

3. Exhaustion Further exposure to

stressor depletes energy and resistance


The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Alarm stage—as the wildfire moved closer to Slave Lake, Alberta, in 2011, residents moved into an alarm mode, struggling to flee the fire as quickly as possible.


Emotional Responses to Stress

In addition to bodily arousal, stress triggers emotions and changes mood The greater the amount of stress, the more

negative the emotions associated with stress Anxiety, fear, anger, apprehension

As stressors subside, mood becomes more positive


Cognitive Responses to Stress

Appraisal is key in ability to handle stressful situations

Richard Lazarus—cognitive-mediational theory of emotions Primary appraisal—

appraisal of stressor (how big a stressor is it)

Secondary appraisal—appraisal of resources and one’s ability to deal with stressor


Individual Responses to Stress

Autonomic reactivity and stress Differences in intensity of autonomic nervous system (ANS)

reaction Example: Individuals consistently displayed either high or low

cardiovascular activity in response to stressor

Explanatory style and stress Generally optimistic style Generally pessimistic style

Social support and stress More social support seems to correlate with less stress

Support may increase self-confidence in dealing with stressors Social feedback may alter one’s perception of stressor Presence of others reduces bodily arousal and negative emotions


Individual Responses to Stress

Personality and stress Hardy, or stress-resistant personality—welcome

challenges, take control, view stressors as growth opportunities

Type A personality—style resulting in continual stress Personality traits: competitive, impatient, angry, hostile

Type B—experience lower levels of stress Personality traits: more relaxed, less aggressive, less

hostile Type C—particularly vulnerable to stress

Personality traits: positive attitudes but unable to express or acknowledge negative feelings, tend to turn the anger inward


Coping with Stress

Coping—cognitive and behavioural strategies to manage stress Lashing out—psychological or

physical Self-defence—defensive,

avoidant behaviours to protect oneself from stress

Self-indulgence—alcohol, drugs, overeating

Constructive strategies Problem-focused coping—

efforts aimed at a stressor Emotion-focused coping—

changing feelings about the stressor


Stress and Health

Strong relationship between stress and health Psychosomatic or psychophysiological

Interaction between psychological and biological factorsCoronary heart disease

•Psychological (e.g., Type A) and biological (e.g., obesity)

Life change and illnessLife stressors (SRRS) linked to physical

illness


Type A Personality and Hostility


Stress and Health

Stress and the immune system Psychoneuroimmunology—studies links between

stress, the immune system, and health Immune system—organs, tissues, and cells that identify

and fight bodily invaders (e.g., viruses, bacteria, cancer cells)

Lymphocytes—white blood cells, key in fighting bacterial and viral invaders

Biochemical activity Norepinephrine Cortisol Cytokines


Stress and the Common Cold


Behaviour, Personality, and Social Support

Behavioural changes in response to stress can affect the immune system Anxiety and/or depression may trigger other behaviours

Examples: Smoking, alcohol or drug use, sleep deprivation

These behaviours result in slowed immune systemPersonality traits improve immune system functioning

and resilience in dealing with stress Examples: Optimism, constructive coping, and ability to

“bounce back” People exhibiting Type C behaviour pattern appear to

be more at risk for cancerSocial support helps to shield us from the negative effects

of stress Examples: Church, family, community


The Benefits of Stress

When is stress a good thing? Eustress—optimal

stress level Promotes physical and

psychological health Inoculation—dealing

with small levels of stress to improve functioning in increasingly stressful situations


Stress and Performance


Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

PTSD—anxiety disorder in response to a traumatic event

Symptoms of PTSD Memories, dreams, or nightmares about event Avoid activities, thoughts, feelings,

conversations that are reminders of the event Depression, anxiety, guilt, fear, helplessness Sleep problems; may feel detached from others

What events cause PTSD? Most commonly combat, natural disasters,

abuse, and victimization


Who Develops PTSD?

Can occur at any age, even in childhood 10% of Canadians during course of lifetimeTwice as common in women than menBiological factors

Intense biochemical reactions that continue far beyond fight-or-flight Examples: Increased cortisol and norepinephrine in

rape victims and others who experienced severe stressors

May have exaggerated sympathetic nervous system responses and blunted HPA axis responses to stress

May have a smaller hippocampus or the biochemical arousal may eventually shrink the hippocampus


Personality, Childhood Experiences, and Social Support

After a traumatic event: Personality traits associated with decreased

likelihood of developing PTSD Examples: Optimism, constructive coping, more

resilient Childhood experiences may increase risk of

developing PTSD Examples: Poverty, abuse, family psychological

disorders, experienced a catastrophe at a young age Social environment

Individuals with weak social support are more likely to experience PTSD


Copyright

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein.

Chapter 15: Stress, Coping, and Health. Chapter Outline 1. What is stress? 2. Responding to stress...

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Transcript of Chapter 15: Stress, Coping, and Health. Chapter Outline 1. What is stress? 2. Responding to stress...