Chapter 15 o (aka multiple stimuli without...
Transcript of Chapter 15 o (aka multiple stimuli without...
Chapter 15
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior
Differential Reinforcement: use reinforcement and
extinction to increase occurrence of a desirable target
behavior or decrease occurrence of undesirable
behavior.
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior
(DRA): used to increase frequency of a desirable
behavior and decrease frequency of undesirable
behavior. The desirable behavior is reinforced each time
it occurs, while undesired ones are not reinforced to
decrease them.
When to use DRA:
You need to want to increase the desirable behavior
The behavior needs to be already occurring
occasionally. If not, use shaping or prompting to evoke
it, and then use DRA.
You need to have a reinforcer that can be used each
time the desirable behavior occurs. If you have no
control on reinforcer/have no reinforcer, then you
can’t use DRA
Steps:
1. Define desirable and undesirable behaviors. It
helps to determine whether treatment is successful
2. Identify reinforcer. You must be able to determine
it because they may vary across people. Ways:
Reinforcer can be what reinforces the undesirable
behavior.
Observing/asking the person (Premack principle:
use high-frequency behavior as a reinforcer for a
low-frequency behavior)
Preference Assessment: try a variety of stimuli
and see which ones are reinforces to the person,
and then use reinforcer assessment (to
determine that item is the reinforcer, deliver it
contingent on behavior and show that the
behavior increased). Ways to conduct:
o Single Stimulus assessment: each potential
reinforcer is presented, one at a time to see
which one will be reached. The number of
times the reinforcer has been approached is
recorded, and the one with most is it.
o Paired Stimulus assessment (aka forced
choice): 2 potential reinforcers are presented
and the one that’s reached is recorded.
o Multiple Stimulus Assessment (aka multiple
stimuli without replacement MSWO): several
potential reinforcers presented and the
researcher records which one is approached
first, then second, then third…
Assess reinforcer by making each potential one
contingent on an operant response. If frequency
or duration increases when stimulus is contingent
on response, the stimulus is a reinforcer (e.g.
pressing a button to hear music more than
pressing button to turn fan on, shows that music
is a reinforcer)
3. Reinforce desired behavior immediately and
consistently.
4. Eliminate reinforcement for desirable behavior
5. Use intermittent reinforcement to maintain the
target behavior (continuous is only early on). This
makes the behavior more resistant to extinction.
6. Program for Generalization. It should be reinforced
in as many relevant situations as possible.
Different variations:
Differential Reinforcement of incompatible behavior
(DRI): alternative behavior is physically incompatible
with problem behavior, so the 2 can’t happen
together. E.G: to prevent the problem behavior of
head-slapping, the researchers can reinforce any other
behavior that needs the hands
Differential Reinforcement of Communication (aka
functional communication training): individual with
problem behavior learns to make communication
responses that are functionally equivalent to problem
behavior. E.G: when a person engages in problem
behavior to get attention, he can instead ask for
attention without engaging in that bad behavior, since
both will produce the same end result.
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior
Differential Reinforcement of other behavior (DRO):
reinforcer is contingent on the absence of the problem
behavior. Although the name suggests that you will
reinforce another behavior, you are actually just
reinforcing the absence of the problem behavior.
Steps:
1. Identify reinforcer for the problem behavior; you
need to use functional assessments. Like DRA, if
you can’t use extinction for the problem behavior,
you shouldn’t use DRO (exception: if reinforcer for
absence is more powerful than reinforcer for
existence of problem behavior).
2. Identify reinforcer to use in DRO procedure.
3. Choose the initial DRO time interval. As the
frequency of problem behavior decreases, DRO
intervals get lengthened gradually.
4. Eliminate reinforcer for problem behavior and
deliver reinforcer for absence of the problem
behavior.
5. Reset the interval if the problem behavior occurs.
6. Gradually increase the interval length.
Two types of DRO: whole-interval (whole-behavior
must be absent for the whole interval for the reinforcer
to be delivered; more effective) and momentary
(problem behavior must be absent at the end of the
interval; not effective alone, needs to act with whole-
interval to maintain the behavior).
Differential Reinforcement of Low Responding Rates
Differential reinforcement of low rates of responding
(DRL): reinforcer is delivered contingent on a lower rate
of responding during a period of time.
Variations: full-session DRL (reinforcement is delivered
if fewer than a specified number of responses occurs in
a period of time), spaced-responding DRL (specified
amount of time between responses for the reinforcer to
be delivered), and interval DRL (dividing a session into
intervals and providing the reinforcer if not more than
one response occurred in each interval; similar to
spaced).
Steps:
1. Determine whether DRL is appropriate procedure.
Use it if you want to decrease but not eliminate.
2. Determine acceptable level of behavior (how many
responses per session, interval of time between
each behavior…)
3. Decide whether to use full-session or spaced (this is
more appropriate if time matters vs. just
decreasing overall rate).
4. Inform client about procedure so that she knows
about schedules
5. Implement DRL procedure and give instructions as
well as feedback.
Stereotypic behavior (aka self-stimulatory behavior):
repetitive behavior that does not serve any social
function for the person.
Interresponse Time (IRT): time between responses.
Chapter 16
Defining Antecedent Control Procedures
Antecedent control procedures: antecedent stimuli are
manipulated to evoke desirable behaviors so that they
can be differentially reinforced, and to decrease
undesirable behaviors that interfere with the desirable
behaviors. They involve manipulating some aspect of
the physical/social world. Competing behaviors are
concurrent operants reinforced on concurrent
schedules of reinforcement (i.e. doing bad in school
because you’d rather party than study). There are 6
different antecedent manipulation procedures, but they
should always be used with differential reinforcement:
Present the SD or cues for the desired behavior (e.g. SD
for eating healthily is having healthy food present).
Arranging Establishing Operations for the Desirable
Behavior. By increasing the reinforcing value of the
consequence of a behavior, you make it more likely to
occur (e.g. buying a healthy cookbook would make it
more likely to eat healthily because your food would
be tastier).
Decreasing Response Effort for the Desirable Behavior.
So, arrange antecedent conditions that require less
effort to engage in the behavior to make it more likely
for that behavior to occur (people are inherently lazy).
Remove discriminative Stimulus for undesirable
behavior (e.g. presence of unhealthy food is a stimulus
for eating unhealthy foods)
Presenting abolishing operations for undesirable
behaviors. This isn’t always possible. For example,
when grocery shopping, you’re more likely to buy junk
foods when you’re hungry than when you’re not. So to
eat healthily, eat before grocery shopping, so your
desire to buy junk food is eliminated.
Increase response effort for undesirable behaviors. If
competing behaviors take more effort, they’re less
likely to interfere with desirable behavior. First you’d
have to remove undesirable behavior then make it
harder to get to again.
Research on Antecedent Control Strategies
Antecedent control strategies can be conducted by
manipulating discriminative stimuli (social or physical
environment), response effort, and manipulating
motivating operations (i.e. eliminating escape by
making tasks less aversive so escape would no longer be
reinforcing).
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Using Antecedent Control Strategies
Differential reinforcement and extinction are used in
conjunction with these strategies.
1. Identify and define desirable/undesirable behavior
that you want to change (can response effort be
manipulated?)
2. Analyze antecedent situations related to the
desirable/undesirable behavior.
3. Identify reinforcer for desirable/undesirable behavior
These control strategies, alongside differential
reinforcement and extinction are known as functional
interventions (they’re functional because they decrease
problem behaviors and increase desirable ones by
modifying the A and C). These are non-aversive (since
they don’t depend on punishment). They’re always the
1st step to treatments because the address function of
behavior (consequences) and the antecedents (what
evokes it)
Chapter 17
Punishment is implemented only after functional
interventions (differential reinforcement, extinction or
antecedent control) have been tried.
Time-Out
Time-out (from positive reinforcement): being removed
from a reinforcing activity for a few minutes contingent
on the instance of the problem behavior. Types:
Nonexclusionary time-out: can stay in room, but has
to sit across from where the other people who are
participating in the positively reinforcing behavior are;
used when the person can be removed from the
activity without the need of leaving the room, and if
his presence isn’t disruptive.
Exclusionary time-out: taken out of the room, so that
reinforcer is not available.
Time-out should always be used with differential
reinforcement; otherwise the behavior will re-emerge
after the treatment session.
Considerations: (1) what’s the function of the problem
behavior (time-in environment: where the problem
behavior occurs)? It’s not appropriate to use time-out
for negative reinforcement (sensory stimulation or
automatic reinforcement). (2) Is time-out practical
here? So, the change agent may needs to be able to
control the person, and there must be a room (for
exclusionary time-out) without positive reinforcers to
take the people to. The time-out room must be barren
(except from one chair), well-lit, and without locks. (3) Is
the room safe? (4) Is the time-out period brief? Time-
out should be brief, but if the problem behavior
persists, continue with contingent delay (extend the
time period by 10 sec to 1 min). (5) Can escape from
time-out be prevented? If refraining the escape would
not be successful, don’t use time-out, because then it
would be pointless since the escape will negatively
reinforce the aggressive/escaping behavior. (6) Can
interactions be avoided during time-out? Time-out
should be implemented without emotions from the
change agent. (7) Is time-out acceptable here?
Contingent Observation: contingent on the occurrence
of the problem behavior, the child has to sit and watch
the other children play appropriately.
Response Cost
Response Cost: removal of a specified amount of a
reinforcer (usually money or a privilege) contingent on
the occurrence of a problem behavior. It’s a negative
punishment procedure. Differential reinforcement
should also be used in conjunction.
The processes used to decrease problem behaviors are:
extinction, time-out and response cost. With extinction,
problem behavior is not followed by a reinforcing event
that had maintained the behavior before. With time-
out, the person is removed from access to sources of
reinforcement when problem behavior occurs. With
response cost, a reinforcer is removed (by quantity)
after problem behavior.
Considerations: (1) Which reinforcer will be removed?
(2) Is the reinforcer loss immediate or delayed?
Reinforcers can be delayed and would still be effective
only if you present a verbal statement that they will lose
the reinforcer soon. Delays are usually not appropriate
for people with intellectual disabilities. (3) Is the loss of
reinforcers ethical? (4) Is response cost practical and
acceptable?
Chapter 18
Application of Aversive Activities
Punishment through application of aversive activities:
contingent on the problem behavior, a person will be
made to engage in an aversive activity)low-probability
behavior the person would not choose to engage in).
This follows the Premack principle that when high-
probability behavior is followed by low-probability ones,
the high-probability behavior decrease in occurrence.
Aversive activities are punishers in the form of
behaviors. The change agent is usually required to use
physical guidance to keep the person working on the
aversive activity, but eventually, the person will engage
in the activity on command to avoid physical guidance.
Types of Aversive Activities:
Overcorrection: developed to decrease aggressive and
disruptive behavior for people with intellectual
disabilities. Here, the client is required to engage in an
effortful behavior for an extended period contingent
on each instance of the problem behavior. 2 types:
o Positive Practice: client has to engage in correct
forms of relevant behavior contingent on an
instance of problem behavior (the student who
spells a word incorrectly is required to spell it out
10 times).
o Restitution: procedure in which, contingent on
each instance of the problem behavior, the client
must correct the environmental effects of problem
behavior and restore environment to a condition
better than that which existed before (when a girl
scribbles on one house wall, restitution would be
to make her clean that wall, plus an extra one).
Contingent Exercise: client is made to engage in some
form of physical exercise contingent on an instance of
problem behavior. It’s different than overcorrection
because in overcorrection, the aversive activity is
based on what the problem behavior is (you have to
restore/perform the correction of behavior). For
contingent exercise, you perform an unrelated
exercise that the client is capable of (e.g. to stop a
child from swearing in front of family, each time he
swore, his father would make him clean windows for
10 minutes).
Guided Compliance: person is guided physically
through the requested activity contingent on the
occurrence of the problem behavior. To use this,
physical guidance must be a punisher for the client;
otherwise, it shouldn’t be used. It serves 2 functions:
(1) it’s a positive punishment of problem behavior
(aversive situation happens) and (2) negative
reinforcer for compliance (when you comply, aversive
situation is removed). It’s equally effective as time-out
in children.
Physical Restraint: contingent on problem behavior,
change agent holds immobile the part of the client’s
body that’s involved in the behavior, such that agent is
physically restrained from doing problem behavior.
Some people have physical restraint as a punisher,
others as a reinforcer, so it`s important to know which
(physical restraint will only work for those that see it
as a punisher). This can be used with pica behavior
(ingesting non-food items).
o Response Blocking: change agent prevents
occurrence of a problem behavior by physically
blocking the response.
Application of Aversive Stimulation
Bruxism: behavior in which a person grinds upper and
lower teeth together.
Aversive Stimulation: delivering aversive stimuli after
problem behavior to make it less likely to occur. Types
of aversive stimulation: Electric shocks, aromatic
ammonia (used for self-injurious behavior by breaking
an ammonia capsule and waving it under client`s nose –
like TV show Dexter), spray mist of water on face, facial
screening (touch the face), alarm sounds, and
reprimands (these decreased problem behaviors in
those who received them and those who didn’t).
Positive Punishment (Last Resort)
Positive punishment procedures are used only as a last
resort, after functional interventions have been used.
Negative punishment (time-out and response cost)
procedures are more accepted and common than the
positive ones.
Considerations in Using Positive Punishment
Use functional interventions first.
Implement differential reinforcement w/ punishment
Consider function of problem behavior (for example,
positive punishment through applications of aversive
activities would not work if the problem behavior’s
occurs to get attention, unless change agent doesn’t
display any emotions).
Choose aversive stimulus with care.
Collect data to make treatment decisions (punishment
procedure should produce a rapid decrease in
problem behavior.
Address ethical considerations in use of punishment.
Ethics of Punishment
The client/parents must fully understand punishment
procedure, rationale, how/when it’ll be used, intended
effects or side effects, and possible alternatives.
Informed consent must be given by adult in charge of
client (client himself, parent, or legal representative).
Punishment should never result in harm, and should be
reserved for more severe problems. There must be
written guidelines to eliminate ambiguity. The
punishment procedure must be peer-reviewed (before
or after implementation). Also, everybody involved in
implementing the procedure must be held accountable
for its success.
Chapter 19
Programming for generalization increases likelihood
that behavior change will occur in all relevant situations
Defining Generalization
Generalization: occurrence of behavior in presence of
stimuli that is similar in some way to the SD that was
present during training, or occurrence of behavior in
presence of all relevant stimuli outside training situation
Strategies: Promoting Behavior Change Generalization
Reinforcing Occurrences of Generalization: reinforce
the behavior when it occurs outside of training
situations in presence of relevant stimuli. One
drawback is that it isn’t always possible to provide
reinforcement for the behavior. If you can’t reinforce,
use a different strategy.
Training Skills that Contact Natural Contingencies of
Reinforcement: if you can’t provide reinforcement
when behavior occurs, you should make sure there’s a
natural reinforcer present (e.g. teach students to
‘recruit’ attention from teachers by asking “how’s my
work?” The reinforcement will come from teacher’s
response, and the good academic behavior would
have generalized). Sometimes skills are not natural
reinforcers (skill of assertiveness will not produce a
reinforcer from others, since you just denied them a
request), in that case, other strategies should be used
Modifying contingencies of Reinforcement and
Punishment in Natural Environment: if trainer will not
be able to reinforce behavior in natural environment,
trainer should teach others in the natural environment
to reinforce it.
Incorporating a Variety of Relevant Stimulus
Situations in Training: train clients to respond to a
sufficient number of stimulus exemplars (types of
relevant situations) until behavior generalizes. The bad
thing is, you can’t know in advance how many
stimulus exemplars it will take to generalize the
behavior. One strategy is with general case
programming (using multiple training examples that
sample the range of relevant stimulus situations and
response variations).
Incorporating Common Stimuli: put stimuli from
generalization environment (target situation) into the
training. So, use physical stimuli in the training
alongside the stimulus exemplar/situation.
Teaching a Range of Functionally Equivalent
Responses: teaching client a variety of responses that
all achieve the same outcome (functionally equivalent
responses are the responses that produce the same
outcome).
Incorporating Self-Generated Mediators of
Generalization: mediator of generalization is a
stimulus that’s maintained and transported by client
as part of the treatment (e.g. parents can go to a
lecture on parenting skills and take notes. These notes
are self-generated mediators because they can use
them in a home setting, thus making the lecture
generalizable to the home too). These can also be
physical mediators (‘good luck charms’ can be used in
the training situation; then when taken to the target
situation, will help facilitate generalization). Also, self-
recording can be used (when you have a chart for you
to mark when you perform the target behavior, it will
make it more likely for you to perform the behavior).
Also, self-instruction is a mediator.
Implementing Strategies to Promote Generalization
Guidelines:
Identify target stimulus situations for behavior
Identify natural contingencies of reinforcement for
behavior.
Implement appropriate strategies to promote
generalization.
Measure generalization of behavior change.
Promote Generalized Reductions in Problem Behavior
When you implement behavior modification, your goal
is to reduce/eliminate problem behaviors, AND replace
them with more appropriate behaviors, as well as make
these new skills generalizable.
Chapter 20
Defining Self-Management
Self-Management: person uses behavior modification
to change his own behavior. For behavioral deficits, the
behavior is a good one that isn’t happening because the
positive outcome results in the future and other
behaviors that replace it happen instead because they
have immediate contingencies. For behavioral excesses,
the behavior has a negative impact on the person’s life,
but the person does it because the negativity is delayed
(it’ll happen in the future).
Self-management involves a controlling behavior
(implement self-management strategies to make the
controlled behavior more likely such as manipulating
antecedents and consequences) and controlled
behavior (target behavior).
Types of Self-Management Strategies
Goal-Setting and Self-Monitoring: goal-setting: writing
down the criterion level of target behavior and time
frame for occurrence of the behavior; it’s most
effective when implemented with self-monitoring and
other strategies. Goals should be achievable because it
reinforces your behavior and that you’ll persevere in
the program. Self-monitoring is where you record the
times at which target behavior occurs.
Antecedent manipulations: you manipulate the
environment to make it more likely to act in a certain
way. There are 6 types you can use:
o Present SD or cues for desirable behavior
o Remove SD for competing behaviors
o Arrange establishing operations for desirable
behavior
o Present abolishing operations for competing
behavior
o Decrease response effort for target behavior
o Increase response effort for competing behavior
Behavioral Contracting: write a document in which
you identify target behavior and arrange
consequences contingent on a specified level of the
target behavior in a specific time period. One type of
this is to make the contract without the assistance of a
contract manager (the person who oversees your
program). A problem with this is short-circuiting the
contingency (when person arranges reinforcer for a
target behavior but then takes the reinforcer without
engaging in the target behavior, or when you arrange
for a punisher but don’t give it to yourself when you
deserve it).
Arranging reinforcers and punishers: you could
mentally decide on the consequences. The
disadvantage is that short-circuiting is more likely to
occur, but the advantage is that you don’t need to rely
on another person for assistance. Problems that may
arise if you ask other people with help: (1) you might
not have people that are willing to get involved and (2)
you might get angry with people who withhold
reinforcers. Otherwise, the program is likely to be
more successful. The most common punishment is a
response cost.
Social Support: significant others provide a natural
context or cues for occurrence of target behavior or
when they naturally provide reinforcing consequences
for occurrence of target behavior. This also helps
prevent short-circuiting.
Self-instructions: tell yourself what to do or how to do
something in situations that call for a specific target
behavior. Immediately then, recite self-praise
(statements in which you provide positive evaluations
of your own behavior. These are behaviors too, so
they must be learned before they will occur.
Steps in a Self-Management Plan
1. Make the decision to engage in self-management.
2. Define Target Behavior and competing behaviors.
3. Set goals
4. Self-monitor. Use a data sheet or a recording device.
If behavior is maintained at this step, you don`t need
to implement more strategies. If not, use more
strategies.
5. Conduct a functional assessment. This is to
understand the variables that contribute to
occurrence of target behavior and antecedents.
6. Choose appropriate self-management strategies.
First, choose those that alter antecedents, then
those that alter consequences (to decrease, do this:
eliminate reinforcer for target behavior, arrange
punishers, provide reinforcers for alternatives, or use
BST to teach alternative ones).
7. Evaluate change. If you’ve reached your goal, find a
way to maintain it. If not, find a new procedure.
8. Re-evaluate self-management strategies if
necessary. 2 types of problems that may have
occurred to prevent treatment`s success: may not
have implemented self-management procedures
correctly, or you may have chosen inappropriate
self0management strategies to implement.
9. Implement maintenance strategies.
Clinical Problems
Some problems may be serious (drug addiction,
alcoholism, gambling, abusive behavior), and may
require professional help.
Chapter 21
Defining Habit behaviors
Habit reversal: used to decrease frequency of
undesirable habit behaviors. The habit behaviors aren’t
usually serious; they’re just annoying. Yet, when habit
behavior occurs with high frequency/intensity, it
becomes a habit disorder. There are 3 types of habits:
Nervous habits: repetitive manipulation of objects or
body parts that is most likely to occur when a person
experiences heightened nervous tension (lip-biting.
They aren’t reinforced socially (no benefit socially),
but they relieve tension or for self-stimulation.
Motor tics: repetitive, jerking movements of a
particular muscle group in the body. These are
believed to be associated with heightened muscle
tension. Vocal tics: repetitive vocal sound that does
not serve a social function (throat clearing when it
isn’t necessary…). Tics usually result from a real
problem (a kid may have developed a cold, and so
coughs frequently), but when it continues after the
illness is gone, it’s a tic. Tourette’s disorder: tic
disorder involving multiple motor and vocal tics;
caused by an interaction of genetic, neurobiological,
and environmental factors.
Stuttering: speech dysfluency in which person repeats
words or syllables, prolongs sound of a word, or blocks
on a word (chokes on the word).
Habit Reversal Procedures
Habit reversal procedures are multicomponent. The
components: (1) awareness training (learn the habit
definition and identify when it occurs), (2) competing
response training (learn competing response – behavior
incompatible with habit, practice the competing
response in and out of the session, (3) social support
(significant others are required to encourage client to
engage in competing behaviors), and (4) motivation
strategy (therapist reviews with client all situations in
which habit occurs and affects him negatively, to
increase likelihood that client uses competing response)
Applications of Habit Reversal
The difference between procedures for different habits
is the nature of the competing response:
Nervous habits: these are procedures that client could
perform easily but are incompatible with the nervous
habits (e.g. for a person who bites nails, the
competing behavior would be to grab a pencil and
hold it for a minute).
Motor and Vocal Tics: you’d have to tense the muscles
involved such that the body part involved is held
motionless.
Stuttering: procedures involve relaxation and
uninterrupted airflow over vocal cords during speech
(regulated breathing). The first component:
diaphragmatic breathing (breathe in rhythmic pattern
using muscles of diaphragm to pull air into lungs).
Why Do Habit Reversal Procedures Work?
The most important components are awareness training
(to make the client able to discriminate each instance of
habit) and competing response training (which may
serve as a punisher – since it’s a punishment to do
something you don’t want to, like control your habits).
Self-monitoring (recording the behavior contingent on
it) may also serve as a competing response. Tics and
nervous habits, the competing response is contingent
on behavior occurring, but for stuttering, the person has
to constantly engage in the competing response.
Other Treatment Procedures for Habit Disorders
These procedures are the most preferred, but they
don’t work for everybody. People with intellectual
disabilities and children did not find these effective. For
example, a woman with intellectual disability engaged
in hair-pulling, was only able to stop with a device that
sounded an alarm each time she raised her hand
towards her hair (the device is called an awareness
enhancement device). Differential reinforcement is also
another way to treat habits in these groups of people.
Chapter 22
Defining a Token Economy
Token economy: the purpose is to strengthen clients’
desirable behaviors that occur too infrequently and to
decrease their undesirable behaviors in a structured
treatment environment or educational setting. Here,
tokens are exchanged for backup reinforcers (powerful
reinforces for the clients which makes them highly
desirable items/privileges). Sometimes, there may also
be a response cost component in the program to get rid
of undesirable behaviors.
Implementing a Token Economy
After deciding you want to use the token economy, use
these components to proceed:
1. Identify then define target behaviors. Objective
definitions ensure clients know what is expected of
them.
2. Identify items to use as tokens. These must be
tangible and delivered immediately after each
instance of behavior. They should also not be available
from any other source than the change agent.
3. Identify backup reinforcers. The effectiveness of the
token economy depends on the backup reinforcers.
Things to which a person has a right cannot be used as
token reinforcers (meals, safety…).
4. Decide on the appropriate schedule for reinforcement.
More difficult/important behaviors receive more
tokens. Usually, the program begins with continuous
reinforcement and then becomes an intermittent
schedule.
5. Establish token exchange rate.
6. Establish time and place for exchanging tokens. This
results in more consistent implementation of program
7. Decide whether to use response cost. It should be
included if there are undesirable behaviors that
compete with desirable behaviors. If you want to
include it, you should only introduce it after the
concept of tokens has been understood (so a few
weeks into the program, after trust has been formed).
8. Staff training and management.
Practical Considerations
Change agent should always deliver tokens immediately
to reinforce behavior better.
Change agent should praise client while delivering
tokens to reinforce the behavior even more.
Early in the program, it’s recommended to give backup
reinforcers at the same time to pair them immediately.
The token economy should always be faded out before
the client can leave the treatment group.
Advantages/Disadvantages of a Token Economy
Pros:
o Tokens can be used to reinforce target behavior
immediately
o These are highly-structured economies
o Tokens function as reinforcers regardless of any
establishing operations that may exist for client
because of their generalized condition.
o Tokens are easy to dispense and accumulate
o Tokens can be easily quantified
o Response cost is easier to implement
o Client an learn skills in planning for the future by
saving up his tokens
Cons:
o Time and effort consumption in organizing and
conducting such programs
o Cost of purchasing backup reinforcers
o Staff training and management
Chapter 23
Defining Behavioral Contract
Behavioral Contract: aka contingency/performance
contract; written agreement between 2 parties in which
one or both agree to engage in a specified level of the
target behavior. It is preferred that contracts be timed
so that they can be negotiated and rewritten frequently
Components of Behavioral Contract
1. Identify target behaviors.
2. Stating how the target behavior will be measured.
3. Stating when the behavior must be performed.
4. Identifying reinforcement or punishment contingency.
5. Identifying who will implement the contingency.
Types of Behavioral Contracts
There are 2 types of contracts:
One-party: aka unilateral contract; one person seeks
to change a target behavior and arranges
contingencies with manager, who implements them.
The manager must not stand to gain from
contingencies (this is to prevent managers from being
unfair in implementing contingencies).
Two-Party: aka bilateral contract; both parties identify
target behaviors for change and contingencies that
will be implemented. This is a form of a quid pro quo
contract (one thing is given in exchange for another).
Sometimes, the two-party contract can make it such
that when one party fails, the other would refuse to
continue. The solution is to have a parallel contract
(there`s a separate contingency for each person`s
target behaviors).
Negotiating Behavioral Contract
The contract has to be acceptable to all involved.
Why Do Behavioral Contracts Influence Behavior?
Contracts have delayed consequences so they can`t
produce behavior change by themselves, they need
other behavioral processes.
It acts as a public commitment, thus also providing
social support.
A contract might also influence a target behavior is
through rule-governed behavior (contract states a rule
that the client can use as a self-prompt).
The contract is also an establishing operation in that by
stating that rule, the client puts himself in a state of
anxiety, and the only way to relieve it is to act upon the
rule to escape from the aversive situation.
Chapter 24
Defining Fear and Anxiety Problems
Fear: both operant and respondent behaviors. People
are afraid of a particular stimulus, and when presented
with it, they experience anxiety (autonomic nervous
system is aroused) which acts as an establishing
operation to encourage escape.
Sometimes people actually have fear, but other times,
they`re doing it for attention/other motives, so they
would not be actually experiencing anxiety.
Procedures to Reduce Fear and Anxiety
Relaxation training: strategies that people use to
decrease autonomic arousal that they experience as a
component of fear/anxiety problems. These produce
decreases in muscle tension, heart rate, breathing
rate, and warming of hands. 4 Common techniques:
o Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR):
systematically tense and relax each of the major
muscle groups to leave them more relaxed than
they were in their initial stage.
o Diaphragmatic breathing: aka deep-breathing;
person breathes deeply in a slow, rhythmic fashion.
o Attention-focusing exercises: produce relaxation
by directing attention to a neutral or pleasant
stimulus to remove person’s attention from
anxiety-causing stimulus.
o Behavioral Relaxation training: person is taught to
relax each muscle group in body by assuming
relaxed postures. It’s different than PMR in that the
person doesn’t tense and relax muscles, he just
moves them around. It has 3 components: muscle
tension, correct breathing and attention focusing.
Systemic desensitization: person with a phobia
practices relaxation while imagining scenes of fear-
producing stimuli. The client first needs to develop a
hierarchy of fear-producing stimuli, using a fear-rating
scale (aka subjective units of discomfort – SUDS). It’s
from 0-100, 0 being the absence of fear.
In vivo desensitization: similar to above, except client
gradually approaches to the actual fear-producing
stimulus. When the therapist provides physical
reinforcements (like holding client’s hand or placing a
hand on client’s back), it’s called contact
desensitization.
Flooding: person is exposed to feared stimulus at full
intensity for a prolonged period. Extreme discomfort
arises during early stages
Modeling: used for children; child observes another
person approaching feared stimulus and the child is
more likely to engage in a similar behavior.
Chapter 25
Defining Cognitive Behavior Modification
Cognitive Behavior: a type of covert behavior (like
fear/anxiety reactions; are not visible). Like overt
behaviors, these have to be identified and labeled
objectively so its occurrence can be recorded. Only the
person experiencing the behavior can identify it though
because it’s covert.
Cognitive behavior modification: procedures used to
help people change behaviors that are labeled as
cognitive.
Cognitive behaviors are important in identifying
because they may be distressing to the person.
Cognitive behaviors can also be good in that they serve
as a SD for desirable behaviors. Another function is that
they may function as motivating operations that
influence the power of consequences to function as
reinforcers or punishers. Finally, they can function as
reinforcers or punishers (praise or critical statements).
Cognitive Behavior Modification Procedures
Cognitive restructuring: designed to replace
maladaptive cognitive behaviors with more adaptive
ones; usually used with excesses. Therapist helps
client get rid of distressing thoughts. Steps:
o Help client identify distressing thoughts and where
they occur. This can be done through client`s
reports or through self0monitoring.
o Help client identify emotional response, unpleasant
mood or problem behavior that follows the
distressing thought.
o Help client stop thinking the distressing thoughts
by helping him think rational/desirable thoughts
Different types of cognitive restructuring exist (rational-
emotive therapy, systematic ration restructuring and
cognitive therapy). We’ll focus on cognitive therapy:
help people change behavior, including distorted
thoughts or self-talk. It involves first getting person
to engage in more reinforcing activities, and then
use cognitive restructuring. Questions that help
clients see their cognitive distortions: (1) Where is
the evidence, (2) are there alternative explanations,
and (3) what are the implications? Examples of
cognitive distortions:
All-or-nothing thinking (if it’s not perfect, it’s bad)
Overgeneralization (one bad event means it’s all
going to be bad)
Disqualifying the positive (you only look at bad)
Jumping to conclusions
Magnification and minimization (of bad events)
Labeling and mislabelling (you put negative labels
on yourself, and this influences your self-view)
Personalization (you assume bad things happen
because of you).
Cognitive coping skills training: designed to teach new
cognitive behaviors that are then used to promote
other desirable behaviors; used with deficits. 3 types:
o Self-instructional training (we focus on this only):
Steps:
Identify problem situation and define desirable
behavior most appropriate to the situation.
Identify self-instructions that will be most helpful
in problem situation.
Use behavioral skills training to teach self-
instructions. Self-instructions must be practised in
role play.
o Stress inoculation training
o Problem-solving therapy
Cognitive restructuring and coping skills procedures are
used to help people change their thoughts, but there’s
also another way: accept your thoughts. Acceptance-
based therapies include the acceptance and
commitment therapy (ACT). And the client learns that
he or she has not been able to control troublesome
thoughts in the past. In therapy, the client learns to
accept the thoughts and that they’ll continue to occur,
but that he can still achieve meaningful behavior change
goals. It’s based on the concept that acceptance will
defeat the disruptive effect of these thoughts.