Chapter 14 Research about Enforcement of Sanctions.
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Transcript of Chapter 14 Research about Enforcement of Sanctions.
Chapter 14
Research about Enforcement of Sanctions
From the headlines Which measurements represent real
people? Experts on body shapes and sizes Analyze data of the human body for use
In clothing sizing Furniture Technology Buildings
Collect data from 3-dimensional body scans
Survey of 5000 people Shopping for clothing is difficult Finding clothes that fit was biggest
problem Differing sizes by style and brand Shopping is time-consuming Have to try on everything Data have potential to help development
of clothing sizes that match trends in body sizes
Shopping for clothing is difficult
Attempts to enforce sanctions in everyday life are revealed in: Feelings of pressure to conform
Peer pressure Internalization
Efforts by violators to comply with the norm
Complaints about enforcement or non-enforcement
Active efforts to resist enforcement Complacency
Feelings of pressure to conform
Questions to answer How does the enforcement of sanctions relate to
the process of social control? What is the nature of research related to the
enforcement of sanctions? What research methods are used to investigate
the enforcement of sanctions? What tools are used to collect data for research
about the enforcement of sanctions?
Body modifications Alterations to the body itself
Temporary (e.g., weight loss, age) Semi-permanent (e.g., hair color) Permanent (e.g., breast augmentation)
Efforts to enforce sanctions related to the normative body can encourage people to undertake temporary, semi-permanent, or permanent body modifications
Temporary body modification: Weight Obesity is a norm violation Obesity—weighing a certain % more than
“normal” (e.g., 20% above normal weight) Obese are negatively defined by weight Judged as responsible for the obesity Deterred from social interaction Experience sanctions, e.g., finger-pointing,
shame, ridicule
Judged as responsible for the obesity
Interviews of 15 obese women Negative sanctions during childhood
Derision Castigation Ostracism Alienation Name-calling Nicknames Teasing
Emotional reactions to sanctions Hurt Anger Resentment Frustration Loneliness Stigmatization
Cultural appearance norms Had been internalized + Sanctions of significant others
Saliency of norm violation Excess weight – most salient physical
characteristic of obese women Violation of norm is immediately apparent
to others Not consciously aware of how large they
were until Reflection in mirror Picture
Reflection in mirror
Low self-esteem Described themselves as “Overweight” Ugly Guilty Depressed Stupid Still dieted and tried to lose weight
Feeling guilty and out of control
High self-esteem Felt good about themselves Described themselves as “Obese” Educational and professional
accomplishments
Highself-esteem
Result of attempts to enforce sanctions Acquiescence (conformity) to appearance
norms Negative self-image Low self-esteem
Resistance to (refusal to accept) appearance norms Positive self-images High self-esteem
Temporary body modification: Age 22 women aged 61 to 92 interviewed Beauty synonymous with youthfulness and
slimness Ageist beauty norm How do older women cope with effects of aging on
body image embodied experiences relationship between identity and body image
Embodied—giving tangible or visible form to something abstract, e.g., personal or social identity
Double standard—Physical signs of aging are worse for women than men
Body image Perceptions and feelings about the body Perceptual component
How we perceive our bodies Attitudinal component
How we feel about our bodies Body image is a mental picture created by
the interaction of many factors
Body image—perceptions and feelings about the body
Weight concerns women of all ages Normal for women to gain weight as they
age Longitudinal study of older people
Over a number of years Women’s greatest concern was memory loss 2nd greatest concern—weight changes Men were not concerned about weight
Normal for women to gain weight as they age
Weight concerns women of all ages
Descriptions of older women’s bodies Ugly Sagging Yuck Disaster Awful
Evidence of internalization of cultural beauty norms
“As we age,the waist and abdomen losetheir shape”
Loss of physical beauty Unavoidable Part of a natural aging process Outside of their control
Attitudes Negative attitudes toward their
appearance Importance of being healthy and
independent Triviality of emphases on appearance Primacy of good health over physical
attractiveness Sense of loss about what they could do Loss of health, mobility, energy
Triviality of emphases on appearance
Current fashions & fashion models Represent extreme and unattractive role
models for young women Not an influence for these older women
Weight gain the cause of self-criticism and monitoring
Extreme and unattractive role models
Weight gain Moral failure Lack of discipline Due to personal choices Personal responsibility Expressed concern about weight gain Negative sentiments about their weight Dieted
Resistance to enforcement of sanctions--shift in priorities Health
Freedom from disease Freedom from chronic illness Freedom from declining energy
Function More important than physical
attractiveness Healthy people are attractive people
Contradiction Women acknowledged inevitability of the
natural life cycle and changes that accompany aging
Rejected cultural beauty norms But they had negative body images If older women do not aspire to cultural
beauty norms, why are their body images not more positive?
Semi-permanent body modification: Hair color Naturally blonde women interviewed 16% of U.S. females born blonde 5% remain naturally blonde as adults Brown hair is the norm Blonde women are both positive and
negative deviants
Positive deviance Behaviors or conditions that both
Over conform to the norms and Are positively appraised
Violation of a norm
Positive deviance
Negative deviance Behaviors or conditions that
under conform, or fail to conform, to normative expectations
subsequently receive negative evaluations Violation of a norm
Blonde women Positive deviants—receive positive
evaluations for exceeding normative appearance expectations
Negative deviants—receive negative evaluations and negative treatment
Numerous stereotypes about blondes Blondes are treated differently than
women with other hair colors
Positive andnegative deviance
Twenty blonde women Experiences of being blonde as a
Child Adolescent Adult
Blonde stereotypes Positives & negatives of being blonde Cultural definition of hair attractiveness Reactions of others to blonde hair
Cultural advantages for blondes Blonde is a beauty
standard Disproportionately
represented in appearance-based occupations
Positive responses were common
Cultural stereotypes
Innocence–depicted as angels, saints, etc. Sexy/fun—”blondes have more fun” Easy—”sex kitten” Dumb—”dumb blonde” “ditzy blonde”
Dumb blondestereotype
Coping Strategies Ignore remarks or return joke Self-fulfilling prophecy Overcompensate Fight back Become a member of the dominant group
Relationships with other women negatively affected by their attractiveness & hair color
Permanent body modification: Elective mammoplasty – Gagne & McGaughey In-depth interviews with 15 women who
had elective mammoplasty Breast augmentation, breast reduction, or
corrective surgery on the breasts All wanted to achieve normalcy
Plastic surgeryPermanent bodymodification
Sources of the norm Ideals generated by the media Observations of other women Perceptions of men’s observations of
themselves and other women
Cosmetic surgery Seen as a means of developing an
embodied self with which they were comfortable
Congruency between mind and body Prompted people to treat them in the way
they perceived themselves Self-confidence increased
Hegemony Control or influence by one group (e.g.,
men) over another (e.g., women) Changing one’s body to fit hegemonic (i.e.,
male) ideals of attractiveness has potential to Improve social opportunities Improve life at work
command greater respect better able to compete
Hegemonic ideals
Permanent body modification More fashion options Greater control over clothing choices
Social factors influenced decision The media
Women’s magazines Movies Television programs
The fashion industry Clothing mass-produced for “normal” sizes Norm is thin and proportionate
Before surgery
Used bras to maximize, minimize, or modify Techniques to draw attention to or away from
their breasts Techniques to draw attention toward more
attractive parts of their body Wore oversize blouses, T-shirts, and
sweatshirts to disguise their breasts Clothing did not offer a solution to their
problem
Baggy clothes, oversized T-shirts and sweatshirts
After surgery Changed their wardrobes
Accommodate changed body proportions Include items they had longed to wear
Hegemonic gaze—sense that individual women have that everyone is looking at them
Feel discomfort if they fail to meet the cultural beauty norm
Hegemonic gaze
Body supplements—items placed on the body by: Wrapping item around the body Suspending item from the body Wearing pre-shaped items Inserting items into the body Clipping item to the body Adhering item to the body Holding or carrying the item
Dress has ambiguous meanings A message that can be understood in
more than one way It is not clear which meaning is intended Incorrect interpretation of the message is
always possible Aesthetic rules Social rules Cultural customs
What doesthis dress mean?
Uncertainty caused by ambiguous dress meanings is revealed in Efforts to keep school regulations current with
changing styles Inconsistency in enforcing rules Conformity with letter but not spirit of the rules Use of dress to deliberately cause a reaction Use of dress to demonstrate group affiliation Deliberate failure to understand meaning Presumption that meanings are unambiguous Context-dependency of dress meanings
Ridicule in a school context Peer pressure as expressed in ridicule
Used to belittle and exclude Those who did not fit in with the group
Adolescents responded to ridicule by
Doing nothing Concealing stigmatized objects More closely watching what their peers wore Seeking safe havens Defending unpopular choices Adopting popular objects
Ridicule Observing or experiencing ridicule Influenced
Purchase Use Discard Of possessions
Ridicule affected purchase decisions
Learned which items were associated with: Avoidance groups—groups to stay away
from Aspirational groups—groups in which one
would like to become a member Conformed because of
Feelings of inadequacy Concerns about belonging
Symbolic meanings of athletic shoes 30 children, aged 8 to 12, from poor
homes Stereotypes about owners of athletic
shoes Expensive brand name—owner young and rich Inexpensive unbranded—owner old and poor
Child who wore branded athletic shoes Popular Fit in with peers Preferred to talk to
Symbolic meanings of athletic shoes
Attempts to enforce sanctions revealed In peer pressure To wear athletic shoes their friends wore
To make friends and fit in To avoid teasing
Strongest influence on children is their peer group Influence starts as early as age 6 Becomes more important during
adolescence Become aware of peers’ favorite products Consider these preferences when making
their own consumer choices, esp. symbolic consumer products such as dress
Peer group influence
Enforcement of sanctions Children feared their peers
Would refuse to be friends with them Would bully them
If they did not fit in by wearing right brand
Enforcement of sanctions Harassment Threats of being beaten up Bullying Picking on Not talking to someone Embarrassed to be seen with someone
Children’s awareness of brand names Brand awareness—ability to identify the
brand under different conditions. Includes Brand recognition—correctly identify a brand
as being previously seen or heard Brand recall—ability to remember the brand
when provided with a cue 5 and 6 year olds were aware of brands 9 to 11 year olds had more sophisticated
level of awareness
Enforcement of sanctions for violation of dress codes—Garot & Katz’ study Prohibit an embodied way of being Appearance is a central concern of youth
Devote resources Significance of subtle details Variety and innovativeness of appearance
Creative appearance derives from youth culture Self-regulating logic independent of school
concerns
Significance ofsubtle details
Enforcement of dress code Common topic of conversation School employees do not understand
meanings of student dress Look for something tangible to regulate Issues of power and obedience Many people involved—administrators,
teachers, students, parents, other adults
Issues of power and obedience
Enforcement implies character traits of the enforcer Feelings or sensibility Kindness or meanness Sympathetic or not
Non-enforcement noted by peers and other students
Dress codes affect school culture When rules are enforced When exceptions are granted When uncertainties are debated
Evolution of youth styles Rules change frequently Rules are frequently overlooked
Evolution of youth styles
Students use details of dress to: Elicit a response from others Create a self that responds to others’
responses Create a unique appearance Students choose their dress with their
peers in mind, not school authorities
Students use dress to create a unique appearance
Enforcement of dress norms among refugee women Agency—action, medium, or means by
which something is accomplished
Data collected as part of ethnographic case study of a Bosnian Muslim settlement
Extensive participant observations and interviews with 14 women
In Bosnia Muslim women wore elaborate styles
Hair Dress Makeup Emphasized femininity
Bosnian woman in Sarajevo
In Vermont Adopted some local dress practices
Jeans Less elaborate makeup More casual clothing for everyday wear
Ambivalent and critical of norms for women’s dress in U.S.
Refugee women Had new audiences Increased range of permissible dress Changes in structure of everyday life
Resistance to U.S. dress norms Means to communicate a group identity Means to create that group identity for
themselves
Dress communicates nonverbally Meanings change over time and space Meanings do not always translate easily
from one location to another May interpret in new location according to
Dress language of previous location Dress language of recent past
Repeated interactions result in challenges to or modifications of dress norms from the past
Dress practices Rooted in history and culture Actively enforced in social interaction Social sanctions used to enforce and
perpetrate women’s dress codes Dress code enforcers—older women who
used social disapproval, shame, gossip Encouraged and monitored feminine dress
Internalized mechanisms Self-discipline Self-surveillance Panoptic view—all-inclusive view Disciplinary gaze directed upon the self
Women’s dress practices attributed to: Habit Repetition Enforcement by dress code enforcers
Changes to dress practices Brought about by a changed context New exigencies (urgent necessities) New routines New meanings of dress Wider range of dress options New dress code enforcers