Chapter 14

New Directions In Thought and Culture

The Scientific Revolutionscience: called “natural philosophy”; “new science”

Not necessarily “new.”Not rapid, rather a complex movement with many false starts and brilliant people suggesting wrong as well as useful ideas.

scientist: term not coined until 1830s

challenged Scholasticism, Aristotelian philosophy. (late middle ages)

Impact of new science viewed in the context of two other factors that simultaneously challenged traditional roles of European thought and culture:

The Reformation which brought division of religious unity, war, and theological dispute.Impact of the New World and its discoveries. Acquisition of new knowledge.

The Ptolemaic System

Almagest (150 C.E)

Ptolemy’s math + physical cosmology of Aristotle = standard explanation of earth and heavens.

Geocentricism

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)

Polish priest & astronomerOn the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)

heliocentric versus geocentric view of the solar systemchallenged Ptolemaic/Aristotelian models in use since antiquity

Copernican system no more accurate than Ptolemaic—important as a new paradigm—slow to gain ground.Major impact: provide another way of confronting some of the difficulties inherent in Ptolemaic astronomy.

Did not replace the old astronomy, but allowed people to rethink.Copernican Theory was a minority school of thought for at least a century after its introduction.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)

Tyco Brahe (1546–1601)Danish astronomer

rejected Copernican view.

Mercury, Venus revolve around sun but sun, moon and other planets revolved around the earth.

recorded vast body of astronomical data drawn on by his assistant Kepler

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)

German astronomer who advocated Copernican viewfigured out planets move in elliptical, not circular, orbits.The New Astronomy, 1609.Combination of Copernican theory and Brahe’s empirical data to solve the problem of planetary motion.

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)Italian mathematician & natural philosopherbroke ground using telescope in 1609—found heavens much more complex than previously understood.Saw stars where none had been known to exist, mountains on the moon, spots moving across the sun, moons orbiting Jupiter.became high-profile Copernican advocatearticulated concept of a universe governed by mathematical laws

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)Starry Messenger (1610) and Letters on Sunspots (1613) he argued that newly found observable physical evidence , required a Copernican interpretation of the heavens.Not only popularized Copernican theory, but articulated the concept of a universal subject to mathematical laws.Nature displayed mathematical regularity in its most minute details.Universe was rational, but not of medieval scholastic logic, rather math.

The Case of GalileoCouncil of Trent (1545-1563) states only the church has the authority to interpret the Bible.

Galileo’s championing of Copernican theory creates problem for the church.

The church could not surrender Bible interpretation to a layman and also had the difficulty moving beyond the literal reading of the Bible, lest the Protestants accuse it of abandoning the scriptures.

1615 Galileo offers his interpretation on how scripture should be interpreted to accommodate the new science.

The Case of Galileo1615 and 1616 goes to Rome to discuss views openly and aggressively.

1616, Copernicus’s On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres officially condemned by the Catholic church for the disagreement of the literal word of the Bible. (No empirical evidence yet)

1623 Pope Urban VIII (friend of Galileo) gives permission for Galileo to continue the discussing the Copernican system. (Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems, 1632).

Book makes “mockery” of Pope Urban VIII, which leaves pope feeling humiliated and betrayed.

The Case of GalileoPope orders investigation of Galileo’s book.

Actual issue in Galileo’s trial in 1633 was whether he disobeyed the mandate of 1616.

Condemned, required to renounce view, and placed under “house arrest” for the last 9 years of his life.

Controversy continued until 1992, when Pope John Paul II formally orders the reassessment of the case.

The Roman Catholic Church admits errors had occurred.

Isaac Newton (1642–1727)

Isaac Newton (1642–1727)

discovered laws of gravity—all physical objects in the universe move through mutual attraction (gravity); explained planetary orbitsexplained gravity mathematically. Made no attempt to explain the nature of gravity itself.Principia Mathematica (1687)

Impact on Philosophy

Scientific revolution major reexamination of Western philosophy

Nature as mechanism—clock metaphor; God as clockmaker

Purpose of studying nature changes:search for symbolic/sacramental meaning search for usefulness/utility

path to salvation path to human physical improvement

Francis Bacon (1561–1626)

Francis Bacon (1561–1626)English lawyer, government official, historian, essayistConsidered father of empiricism, scientific experimentationReal accomplishment was setting an intellectual tone conducive to scientific inquiryAttacked scholastic adherence to intellectual authorities of the pastOne of the first European writers to champion innovation and change as goals contributing to human improvement

René Descartes (1596–1650)

René Descartes (1596–1650)Gifted mathematician, inventor of analytic geometryMost important contribution: scientific method relying more on deduction (deriving specific facts from general principles) than empiricismDiscourse on Method (1637)—rejection of scholastic philosophy and education in favor of mathematical models; rejection of all intellectual authority except his own reason.“Cogito Ergo Sum”Concluded (God-given) human reason was sufficient to comprehend the worldDivided world into two categories: mind (thinking) & body (extension)

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)Most original political philosopher of 17th c.Enthusiastic supporter of New ScienceTurmoil of English Civil War motivated his Leviathan (1651)Leviathan: rigorous philosophical justification for absolutist governmentHumans not basically social, but basically self-centeredState of nature is a state of war; life in this state is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

John Locke (1632–1704)

John Locke (1632–1704)Most influential philosophical and political thinker of the 17th c.Contrast with HobbesFirst Treatise of Government: argued against patriarchal models of government Second Treatise of Government: government as necessarily responsible for and responsive to the governedHumans basically creatures of reason and goodwillLetter Concerning Toleration (1689): argument for religious tolerationEssay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): described human mind as birth as a “blank slate” with content to be determined by sensory experience—reformist view, rejects Christian concept of original sin

The Rise of Academic Societies

The New Science threatened vested academic interests and was slow to gain ground in universitiesEstablishment of “institutions of sharing”:

Royal Society of London (1660)Academy of Experiments (Florence, 1657)French Academy of Science (1666)Berlin Academy of Science (1700)

Women in the Scientific Revolution

Generally excluded from the institutions of European intellectual life.Monasteries and universities had been institutions associated with celibate male clerical culture.Except in a few instances, women were excluded until the late 19th century.Queen Christina of Sweden (r. 1623–1654): brought Descartes to Stockholm to design regulations for a new science academyMargaret Cavendish (1623–1673)

Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy (1666)Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668)

Maria Winkelmann—accomplished German astronomer, excluded from Berlin Academy, when her husband died, on the basis of gender.

Discovered a comet in 1702, but was not given credit until 1930

New Science and Religion

Three major issues:

Certain scientific theories and discoveries conflicted with Scripture.Who resolves such disputes: religious authorities or natural philosophers?New science’s apparent replacement of spiritually significant universe with purely material one.

Attempts to Reconcile Reason and Faith

Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), French mathematicianopposed both dogmatism and skepticismerroneous belief in God is a safer bet than erroneous unbelief

Francis Bacontwo books of divine revelation: the Bible and naturesince both books share the same author, they must be compatible

Economics: technological and economic innovation seen as part of a divine plan—man is to understand world and then put it into productive rational use

Continuing SuperstitionBelief in magic and the occult persisted through the end of the 17th c.Many Europeans remained preoccupied with sin, death, and the devil

Between 1400-1700, an estimated 70,000-100,000 were sentenced to death. Charges:

• harmful magic (maleficium) and diabolical witchcraft.• Also believed that witches attended sabbats, to which they believed to

fly.• Of indulging in sexual orgies with the devil, who appeared as a he-

goat.• Cannibalism (especially the devouring of Christian children)• Varieties of ritual acts and practices, often sexual in nature, that

denied or perverted Christian beliefs.Why did this occur?

Continuing SuperstitionRoots found in both popular and elite culture.

Village society: Magic from “cunning folk” helped people cope with natural disasters and disabilities

Christian clergy: Practiced high magic (Eucharist, Penance, Confession, Exorcism)

Witch Hunts

Who Were the Witches?80% of victims were women, most single, and over 40 years of age.Misogyny?Males against females? Conspiracy?3 Types of Women:

Widows: living alone after their husband died, often dependant on help from others, unhappy.Midwives: Unpopular when mothers and newborns died during childbirth.Women Healers and Herbalists: Their work gave them moral and spiritual authority over people church wished to reserve for priests.

Hunts target specific women

End of the Witch-Hunts

Emergence of a more scientific view.

Mind and Matter came to viewed as two separate realities.

“Witch’s Curse” was mere words.

Advance in medicine.

Began to get out of hand.

Baroque Art17th c. painting, sculpture, architecture1600-1750From Portuguese word “barocca”, meaning “ a pearl of irregular shape.”Implies strangeness, irregularity, and extravagance. The more dramatic, the better.subjects depicted in naturalistic rather than idealized mannerMichelangelo Caravaggio (1573–1610)

Baroque ArtDramatic, emotional. Colors were brighter than bright; darks were darker than dark. Counter-Reformation art. Paintings & sculptures in church contexts should speak to the illiterate rather than to the well-informed. Ecclesiastical art --> appeal to emotions. Holland --> Real people portrayed as the primary subjects.

“St. Francis In Ecstasy.”Carivaggio, 1595

The Flagellation of ChristCaravaggio

“David and Goliath”Caravaggio

“Salome With The Head of the Baptist”Caravaggio

“The Cardsharps”Caravaggio, 1595

“Christ on the Cross”Diego Velasquez, 1656

“The Elevation of the Cross”

Peter Paul Ruebens

1610-1611

Baroque Art – Bernini

The Ecstasy of St. Theresa - Bernini

The Rape of Proserpina - Bernini

Chair of St. Peter - Bernini

Samson and Delilah - Rubens