CHAPTER 14 EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND CONQUEST 1450-1650

Unit 1 Exploration

Economic Expansion and Innovation

In 1350 Europeans knew only what they had known about the world for 1000 years-and very very marginal players in International Trade. By 1650 it is all different. A true “global” economy began to transform the social order- and Europe was on it’s way to becoming a superpower.

EUROPEAN EXPLORATION WAS BORN FROM A DESIRE TO GET INTO WORLD

TRADE (SPECIFICALLY ASIAN TRADE)WHICH HAD BEEN MAKING PEOPLE

RICH FOR CENTURIES

World Contacts Before Columbus

The Trade World of the Indian Ocean

From around 800-1400 Indian ocean trade dominated world commerce. A crossroads of exchange between China, India, the Middle East, and Africa. (Europe is on periphery)

Run primarily through cosmopolitan port cities (Malacca, Calicut, Quilon)- it’s a business, and fighting over good “spots” keeps people from making $$.

Trade goods like silks, cottons, porcelains, pepper, sandalwood, sugar, dyes, opium (that one will come back later)

Chinese Exploration

Chinese don’t really like foreigners (then or now) and would frequently limit trade with outside civilizations. But when Mongols ruled (1271-1368) they traded. And when Ming dynasty reconquered China entered a period of dynamic growth- which included exploration’

Zheng He – head of 7 expeditions, which went as far as Egypt (some say to S. America) BUT Chinese decided they didn’t like what they found (except Giraffes, they loved them some Giraffes) and make a decision NOT to continue.

Trading States of Africa

Many parts of Africa were connect to the Islamic Empire: Mamluk Egypt and the Swahili States.

There was also the Christian Kingdom of Eithiopia (limited contact with Europe- Coptic Christian)

Had sporadic contact with Europe

Gold and Slaves

Africa was main source for gold in the middle east and Europe. Came out of West Africa – transported across the Sahara via caravan. Nations that were part of the trade (Ghana, Mali, Songhay) had “legendary” wealth. (King solomon’s mines etc)

Slaves were another key resource BEFORE exploration (most destined for middle east)

Ottoman and Persian Empires

One of the things that makes the middle east so important in world history is it’s location- right in the middle. Had become Islamic in 700s – had 2 great empires as exploration began.

Ottoman Turks: Control eastern Mediterranean and north Africa. Loved expansion (eastern Europe looks nice….)

Persian (Safavid) Controlled area around what is today Iran

Both fight over Indian Ocean and Silk Road trade

Genoese and Venetian Middlemen

Genoa and Venice controlled trade with the Ottomans, and therefore access to Asian/Indian trade as a whole. Venice had eastern Mediterranean , Genoa did black sea

Bought spices etc (pepper) most valuable, which they sold at a significant markup. Sold European goods (and there weren’t many that Muslims/Asians wanted) like wool, guns and slaves – but even so- they have to spend a lot of gold.

Slavery and Administration

Slaves (primarily from eastern Europe – Muslims like blondes too) were a major product of Italian slaves. Brought them to North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and the Canary Islands (In Atlantic)

Italian/Islamic experience in colonial administration, slavery and international trade will be models for Iberians (Spanish and Portuguese)

EUROPE HAS BEEN AN AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY SINCE THE FALL OF ROME- DURING

THE 16 T H CENTURY FOCUS WILL BEGIN TO TURN FIRST TO TRADE, THEN TO BUSINESS -

WHICH WILL BEGIN TO CREATE THE MODERN ECONOMY

European Voyages of Discovery

Causes of European Exploration

• High demand for the spices (pepper, nutmeg, ginger, mace, cinnamon and cloves) etc that travel the silk road and Indian ocean routes. Know they are getting overcharged by Ottomans (and Italians) so goal is to find a way to bypass

• After downturn of Black Death, population began to grow again in the 1400s- pop. Rose 50% between 1470-1620. Cities grew correspondingly (London went from 50-200k)

Mixture of Motivations

Eagerness for exploration heightened by lack of econ opportunity in Europe –BUT land in Europe was scarce, younger sons and lower classes need opportunity, and you might strike it rich

“Glory, God, and Gold” were Motivations for exploration. Believed in the power of man, had strong religious fervor (this is the reformation…) They know the Ottomans are too big to beat- but there might be others out there would could be

Exploration is also a manifestation of Humanist curiosity and desire for knowledge

Technology and the Rise of Exploration

• Before Europeans could explore- needed to improve sailing techniques. Redesigned ships (flat bottom from Med.) to go in deeper waters and to carry cannon. Portuguese invented Caravel: deep hulled ship with both Lateen and Square sails- good for many types of waters. Sternpost rudder

Borrowed Technology

• From Arabs: Got access to Ptolemy’s Geography- which showed an improved (though highly inaccurate) view of world. Also Lanteen (triangular) sail (tack against wind) mathematical calculations and Astrolabe (latitude)

From Chinese: Gunpowder (cannons will be very helpful in conquistadoring) the sternpost rudder, and compass.

Portuguese Empire Overseas

• Interesting place for this to start- has been a very marginal place – BUT they are near the ocean and are good sailors (comparatively)

• Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)- founded navigation/sailing school, and funded exploration of W. African coast.

• Chased Muslims across straight of Gibraltar during reconquista and attacked Morocco in early 1400s. Saw wealth of Sahara trade- wanted in, started with islands (Madeira/Azores)

Diaz/Di Gama

• As time went by, Portuguese continued to push down the coast of Africa

• Bartholomew Dias 1488- rounded Cape

• Vasco di Gama 1497- reached India – and proved you can sail from Europe to Asia. Fought for control of Muslim trading ports- and slowly but surely got them (guns)

The Problem of Christopher Columbus

• Famous/Infamous: is it more important that he DID things, or is it more important HOW he did them?• Columbus says it’s faster to go west to reach Asia.

(wrong) He’s Genovese, and really wanted to cut Venice out of Asian trade. (Irony is Exploration a huge blow to Italian economy -Econ/Political decline of Italy begins) And Spanish are annoyed with Portugal, who won’t join their new nation, and have access to African/Indian trade…..

• Plus - Columbus is also really religious- and he is a fan of the Spanish converso activities

•

October 12 1492

Tried to get financial backing from Genoa and Portugal before he went to Spain. His goal was to reach China via India and Japan (Ptolemy)

Left Spain August 3rd- sailed west for 33 days –and landed in the Bahamas….thinking he was in the “Indies” (Europeans called Islands of Asia the East Indies. Caribbean will become West Indies)

He describes the natives (Taino)he found as “handsome, peaceful and primitive” who would “make good slaves”

He sailed on to other Islands- certain he was in reach of Japan. Landed on Haiti and Cuba – and returned to Spain in January

Subsequent Voyages

Columbus and the Spanish returned- this time with intent to conquer. Enslaved Hispaniola. Continued to explore other Islands- searching for gold and other civilizations.

Columbus was a great sailor, but a lousy governor. Rebellion broke out, the Spanish had to send troops to investigate, and Columbus was taken back to Spain. Died 1506- fully believing he had found Asia

Later Explorers: Amerigo Vespucci

1st to realize (out loud) that Euro had found a new world- NOT Asia. Explored in Brazil

Continent named for him b/c he told German Cartographer he was first to reach South America. (actually Pedro Cabral 1500)

Treaty of Tordesillas

1493Spain and Portugal fear bumping into each other

during exploration- go to Pope for mediation.Pope draws an imaginary line down a map of the

world (adjusted a few years later)Spain gets everything to the west: N/S America

(except Brazil- the adjustment) Orients them towards the Americas- where they take over and introduce profound change

Portugal gets everything to east- Africa/India (and Brazil) Did get to “claim all land” like Spain- but est. trade routes were there. Less domination, more joining in the party.

Magellan

1519 Commissioned by Charles V to find out if you CAN sail west and end up in the east. 5 ships, 270 men. The short answer is yes…..but it is NOT faster

Tricky parts are Cape Horn in S America (Straights of Magellan) and crossing the Pacific (took 98 days, men ate rats and sawdust)

Magellan killed in the Philippines (which he names after Philip II) but 1 ship and 18 men made it back to Spain after nearly 3 years of travel

So Spain decides Sailing west is a bad plan. Focus on New world.

English/French

Excited by Iberian success (especially treasure- though other Euros never really hit that jackpot) Spent a LOT of time looking for another way to sail west- the mythical Northwest Passage.

John Cabot (for England) and Jacques Cartier (for France) explore eastern Canada

No treasure, but cod fishing and furs provide early profits here

Spanish Conquest in the New World

The territories claimed by Spain contained the 2 largest civilizations in the new world. Spain’s plan is to dominate- there’s a reason their dudes are called “conquistadors”. Actually more like imperialism of 1800s – Spain’s plan was to subjugate established civilizations.

Hernando Cortez: defeated Aztecs/Mexica in 1519. Was a fairly quick victory, esp when you consider he had 600 men. (allied with tribes who resented Aztec rule) BUT, Mexica ruled a tribute empire, which constantly demanded tribute (and human sacrifices) from surrounding tribes- so they weren’t that popular

Victory came as much from smallpox as it did from Spanish guns. Aztecs had a pretty sweet supply of gold/treasure- and Spain liked that.

Incan Empire

Francisco Pissarro: defeated in Inca 1532, which was much harder. Most of empire is in mountains- BUT Spanish happened to attack at the end of an Incan civil war, that helped. (Captured and ransomed the Emperor Atahualpa, then killed him)

Colonies existed to serve mother country (mercantilism) in Spain’s case- to produce treasure. 25% of kings income came from mines of Peru.

Early French and English Settlement

• Britain: Walter Raleigh went during reign of Elizabeth I (funded lost colony of Roanoke, and Seadogs to steal Spanish $$) Jamestown founded 1607, Plymouth 1620. British colonies founded for econ/religious reasons, not treasure/conquest0- their plan for Indians was to get them to leave.

• France: Samuel Champlain founded Quebec 1608. Fur trade base of econ rather than agriculture (too cold- Calvinists not allowed to go)Had best relationship with Native Americans- trade. Also got involved in Caribbean (most valuable- sugar)

THE ONE OF THE LARGEST ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS (AND IN SOME

WAYS, DISASTERS) IN WORLD HISTORY. NOTHING WILL EVER BE THE SAME

The Impact of Conquest

Colonial Administration

All lands belong to the Crown (proto absolutism) Econ Administered by the “House of Trade” in Seville, and Politics administered by the “Council of the Indies”

Spain Divided territory into 4 “viceroyalties” New Spain (Mexico and Southwest), Peru, La Plata (Argentina), New Granada (Columbia)

Viceroy, Audiencia, Corregidores, all in New World- all Spanish (peninsulares). Massive land grants given to those in favor with king/queen

Portuguese system is very similar

France/England

France also maintained a royal monopoly on political power- but were much more hands off (they care far more about being fabulous at home than having good colonies) Run with military governors and Intendents (not nobles)

British/Dutch colonies were unique in that early settlement was associated with joint stock companies. British allowed colonies to est their own assemblies- and soon English colonists in new world had more political power than ordinary Englishmen at home (spoilers- that will be a thing later)

Impact on Indigenous Peoples

No way of knowing with any accuracy how many people were here when Europeans arrived. Estimates go as high as 100 million (same size as pop of Asia) more realistically around 50 million (same size as pop of Europe). Lifestyles varied widely based on geography

Native population decimated by European disease (smallpox, measles, typhus, Influenza)– but perhaps things were worse for those who DIDN’T die (at least in some areas) b/c what came next was often slavery

Encomienda

Encomienda: Europeans claimed land, and the people who lived on it as their serfs. Supposed to “civilize” them (convert to Christianity etc) but became a brutal system.

Overwork in agriculture or mining (Peru) typical, as was malnutrition. Given ANY opportunity – natives tried to escape. Overall, really a bummer for the Spanish (poor babies) who just weren’t getting what they wanted

Begin to import slaves from Africa (works better)- and becomes basis of agricultural econ in Caribbean, Brazil et…(sugar)

Bartolome de Las Casas and Missionaries

Missionaries (Jesuits most common) came with the Conquistadors to convert Native populations. Established missions, which helped assimilate natives to European expectations.While Catholicism was imposed by force, clergy got to

know natives better than other Europeans. Batholme de Las Casas: published “A Very Brief

Account of the Destruction of the Indies” which denounced Spanish treatment of natives. Backed by Pope, who had already declared that natives were humans and therefore should not be enslaved…. believed that cruelty hurt conversion. Recommended African slavery- said it would help “protect” natives from exploitation

Life in the Colonies

Europeans were bringing THEIR culture, really not interested in picking up native habits- BUT the degree to which that was successful often depended on women

In general, the more European Women who came to colony, the more “European” it became. British colonies most – Spain/French much less, which meant that European men had relationships with native (or African) women

Mixed Populations

Social division by Race (new thing for Europeans) Sociodad de la Castas. Brought Patriarchal society and imposed in on Americas

Europeans- either peninsulare or CreoleMestizo (euro/native)Mulatto (Euro/African)IndianSlave (African)

Columbian Exchange

• Global diffusion of plants and animals From Americas (West)

• Beans, squash, tomato, sweet potato, peanuts, chilies, chocolate, corn, potato, avocado, pineapple

• From Euro/Asia (East) Wheat, Rice, sugar, olives, grapes, coconuts, bananas, horse, cow, citrus, melon, sheep, goat, rabbit, rat.

• And disease….Smallpox, typhus, measles, deadliest for natives. America did give Euro Syphilis and Malaria. But food improvements increased pop. With time

SUSTAINED CONTACT BETWEEN EAST/WEST HEMISPHERES HAD

PROFOUND IMPACT- BIOLOGICALLY AND COMMERCIALLY.

WORLD RADICALLY ALTERED BY GLOBAL NETWORKS OF EXCHANGE

Global Exchanges

Sugar and Slavery

Slavery Introduced to European colonies by the Iberians- Had never really been a part of European society. Colonial slavery was unique in scope and scale. 60% of pop. Of Brazil slave, 90% of population of Caribbean- and it is tied to the 1st global product: Sugar.

Sugar grows year round (tropical) and requires insane amounts of labor.- but the profits are extraordinary.

Spanish Silver and Economic Effects

1500s were “golden age” for Spain- but New World silver was the base of their wealth. Mines in Peru produced 60% of the world’s supply (main type of coin) 35 million lbs of silver came in via Seville each year. So Spain didn’t need to produce (and they had kicked their best craftsmen out anyway) they bought.

Influx of silver to Spain created high inflation (2% a year) Prices doubled in 50 years, quadrupled in 100.

People with “fixed” incomes (nobles) don’t do well with this- business do- and we start to see a shift in importance of business (rather than land) econ

When treasure runs out for Spain- so does their power.

Birth of the Global Economy

The world is more linked by 1600 than it has ever been. Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch carry products around the world. (it’s always been segment by segment)

Portuguese trade all around the world: slaves from Africa, Silks/porcelains from Asia, Horses from Middle east, Peacocks/Spices from India, Sugar from Brazil

Spanish have such a high demand for Chinese silk that they spend 12 million a year on it – burning lots of their silver supply (Chinese will only trade for cash)

Mercantilism

Purpose of colonies is to help mother country. Colonies supposed to provide raw materials (fur, timber etc..) and a market for finished goods. Only allowed to trade with mother country.

.

The Dutch

Independence gave them a desire to compete with Spain. Too small to conquer- and not strong enough for kings to finance. Use Joint Stock companies (Business, investment) and focus on trade- specifically the carrying trade.

Started with Spices - and 1st voyage of Dutch East India Co (1599) made 100% profit

Asians liked them better than Portuguese- Calvinists don’t try to convert. Gained access to Indonesia,

south Africa, and Ceylon. (Plus new amsterdam in US) Will take over slave trade from Portuguese.

DISCOVERY STARTED CONVERSATIONS ABOUT “SUPERIORITY” AND

“ INFERIORITY” IN WHICH THE EUROPEANS START TAKING A PRETTY

HIGH VIEW OF THEMSELVES…. .

Changing Attitudes and Beliefs

New Ideas About Race

Africans were not the 1st people “dehumanized” by Europeans. Jews in Europe, and the Irish (from the English) had faced discrimination for centuries. And nobles certainly saw peasants as inherently “less” than they were.

But the scale of African racism is new- and needed justification. Started with the idea of Christianity- saving souls, but soon came to idea that Africans could never be truly equal to whites – “darkness” was permanently lesser.

Begin to define race in new way- not culture, ethnicity.

Michel de Montaigne

French noble- but he disapproved of noble mindset of war/sport over intellect..Humanist- wanted to know himself, believed he had

to do that to live well.A Skeptic: expressed doubts that total knowledge

can ever be obtained. A reflection of the questions raised by age of exploration- including race- can we ever really “know” they world?

Developed Essay as a writing style-expressing his thoughts/ideas- and inviting debate. (whole purpose is to defend yourself and persuade others) A break with the writers of the past- anticipated the thoughts of the enlightenment

Miguel de Cervantes

Spanish- very upset by what was going on in Spain (Inquisition, forced expulsions/conversions)

Don Quixote- a satire that ridiculed the noble mindset and showed gap between ideals and reality. Don Quixote himself sees only the ideal- doesn’t recognize the real world, Sancho sees only reality- doesn’t recognize ideal. Careful to avoid politics- but commented on cruelty and hypocrisy of humanity

William Shakespeare

Elizabethan age was a golden age of British literature- esp. for drama (1st time since classical age where it has been a major art form)

Shakespeare’s plays reflected the concerns of his age- the nature of power, the crisis of authority, and the rise of nationalism

3 major “categories” of plays Dramas : Romeo and

Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth or King Lear

Comedies : The Tempest, A Midsummer night’s Dream, Much Ado about Nothing, or The Taming of the Shrew

Histories : Julius Caesar, Anthony and Cleopatra, Richard III, or Henry V