Chapter 13 Powerpoint
Transcript of Chapter 13 Powerpoint
![Page 1: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Energy for SustainabilityRandolph & Masters, 2008
Chapter 13:Transportation Energy and
Efficient Vehicles
![Page 2: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Transportation and Energy
Transportation Energy Trends Vehicle technologies and efficiency
HEV, BEV, FCEV Alternative fuels
Biofuels Land Use and Transportation
Compact, mixed-use development Transit oriented development Anti-sprawl urban growth boundaries Urban Heat Island
![Page 3: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Transportation Energy Trends
U.S. Transportation: 28% of total energy (2005), 25% (1975).
Transportation consumes 68% of the U.S. petroleum, 55% of world oil.
Transportation relies almost exclusively on oil: 96% of transportation energy came from oil in 2005. Natural gas (3%) pumps natural gas pipelines.
Transportation contributes 32% of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions in 2005.
Transportation is the primary source of urban air pollution, including in the U.S. 82% of carbon monoxide emissions, and 56% and 42% respectively of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds, which combine to form urban smog.
![Page 4: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
More Transportation Trends
What if the oil-intensive U.S. patterns of transportation, dominated by personal vehicles, are adopted by developing countries, like China? Oil markets, GHG emissions, and urban air pollution? There are about 800 million vehicles in the world today and that number could grow to 3.25 million by 2050, led by China and India, each of which now has a middle class population exceeding the total U.S. population.
Transportation energy consumption data include operating energy to fuel transport of people and materials. However, like building energy use data, they do not include the embodied energy required for the construction and maintenance of the infrastructure of roads, parking lots, airports, and rail, with its
energy intensive concrete, asphalt, and steel.
![Page 5: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Growth of U.S. Vehicles per 1000 People, 1900-2002, with 2002 values for selected countries and regions.
![Page 6: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
![Page 7: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
NRDC Vision: Eliminate Gasoline by 2050
Smart growth to reduce VMT Vehicle efficiency Biofuels
![Page 8: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
U.S. Transportation Energy by Mode, 2004
![Page 9: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
![Page 10: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
![Page 11: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
U.S. Transportation Petroleum
![Page 12: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Highway energy by mode
![Page 13: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
U.S. Passenger Travel Intensity, 2004
![Page 14: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
![Page 15: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Congestion
Personal vehicles: our oil fix
![Page 16: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Vehicle Types
Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) Otto cycle gasoline engine
Flex-fuel Otto cycle takes up to E-85 biofuel Diesel engine
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) All Electric Vehicle (BEV) Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV)
![Page 17: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
![Page 18: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Diesel and Flex-fuel Engines
Diesel vehicles: The diesel engine differs from the Otto gasoline engine in that it takes air
into the cylinder and compresses it, then injects distillate (diesel) fuel. The higher compression ratio (piston downstroke to upstroke volume) of
the diesel engine (about 15 or 20:1 compared to 8 or 10:1 for the Otto cycle) heats the compressed air hot enough to ignite the fuel without a spark, driving the piston downward and turning the crankshaft.
European diesel sales
U.S. next?
![Page 19: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Clean diesel: Volkswagon, Daimler BlueTec System
![Page 20: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Flex-fuel gasoline/biofuel vehicles The fuel may contain anywhere from zero to 85%
ethanol (E85) Ethanol contains more oxygen than gasoline. The
vehicles come equipped with an oxygen sensor which determines the amount of ethanol in the fuel at any time. It provides this information to the onboard computer, which then adjusts the engine to maximize efficiency and performance.
Cost: <$100/vehicle 7-8 million on the road; ~1 million sold each year
![Page 21: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Series
![Page 22: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Parallel
![Page 23: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Parallel-Series
![Page 24: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
U.S. Hybrid Electric Vehicle Sales, 2000–2007
Year Number Sold
2000 9350
2001 20,287
2002 35,000
2003 47,525
2004 88,000
2005 210,000
2006 268,000
2007 352,000
2008 ~500,000?
70% Toyota, 4.7% U.S. car sales
![Page 25: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Big Hybrids boom over next decade?
By 2010, 5-6% of all cars sold in America will be HEVs, assuming current oil prices (ABI Research & Automotive Technology Research Group).
By 2011, about 35 HEV models will be on the market, with that number exceeding 50 in 2012 (J.D. Power).
By 2015, HEVs will make up 3% of the total U.S. light vehicle market (J.D. Power).
By 2015, HEVs will make up 80% of the U.S. market (Booz Allen Hamilton).
By 2025, HEVs will account for 1.5 million vehicles or a 7% market share (U.S. EIA).
By 2030, HEVS will be 30% of the U.S. new car market (ExxonMobil).
![Page 26: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
![Page 27: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Driven by higher fuel cost
![Page 28: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Efficiency: U.S. CAFE Standards & Sales
![Page 29: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Efficiency Standards around the World
![Page 30: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
U.S. Air Pollutant Emission Rates
![Page 31: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
U.S. Standard
California Std(+12 states)
![Page 32: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Vehicle GHG Score
![Page 33: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
California AB 1493 Pavley Act
30% reduction in vehicle GHG emissions by 2016 with phase-in starting 2009
15 states poised to adopt California standard when approved by EPA
Request for waiver of preemption under CAA denied by EPA in December 2007
CA and other states taking EPA to court Supreme Court 2007 Massachusetts v. EPA decision
requiring EPA to consider CO2 as air pollutant will influence this debate
![Page 34: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Emerging Technologies: Plug-In Hybrid Vehicle (PHEV)
![Page 35: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Plug-In Hybrid Vehicle:simply add an extra battery bank
![Page 36: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Retrofit packages: Hymotion
![Page 37: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
PHEV offer certain advantages
With greater use of the electric drive, the vehicle uses less gasoline and is more efficient than conventional HEV on a mpg of gasoline basis. Some PHEV Prius retrofits have achieved 100 mpg over 1000 miles of travel.
With greater use of the electric drive in city driving, the PHEV is a zero emission vehicle (ZEV) that can reduce emissions and improve urban air quality.
![Page 38: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Electric Drive Vehicles: Gas-equivalent “Price per Gallon” and CO2 Emissions
One-quarter the cost of gasoline
(at 10¢/kWh, $3/gal)
One-half the CO2 emissions as gasoline
(at average U.S. electricity sources: 52% coal)
![Page 39: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Where do you get the electricity?
Vehicles charged at night by grid power during off-peak hours
Plug-in Vehicles can enhance Distributed Renewable Generation Your PV garage roof is your filling station Night-time demand provides a market for grid
wind power or other intermittent generation.
![Page 40: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
The PV Garage could easily charge a vehicle for 30-45 all-electric miles per day
![Page 41: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
All Electric Vehicles
![Page 42: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
The Tesla Roadster
![Page 43: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
0 6 12 18 24
Syst
em
lo
ad
(G
W)
Noon 6 pm MN 6 am Noon
No EVs
20% EV
40% vehicle-miles EV
Current electric capacity in California could supply 40% of VMT
What about grid capacity to charge vehicles?
![Page 44: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Vehicles-to-Grid (V2G) Electricity Storage A large fleet of Plug-in Hybrids and/or all Electric
Vehicles enable a vehicle-to-grid (V2G) power storage system.
Batteries in electric vehicles (charged primarily at night) can provide a bank of electricity storage for the grid when they are parked and plugged in at parking ramps and lots during the day when peak power is needed.
![Page 45: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
A vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system would require careful control and accounting to manage large numbers of vehicles supplying high-value, quick response grid services
![Page 46: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Distant dream or sooner than most think?
Rising interest in plug-in hybrids, V2G Austin, Texas: promoting plug-ins and V2G to
make better use of wind energy capacity Google: plug-ins and on-site solar
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oDjSbWTJbdo&eurl=http://www.google.org/recharge/overview.html
![Page 47: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Lovins’ Winning the Oil End Game
The scenario calls for halving the amount of oil used in the U.S. and substituting alternatives for the other half.
By taking critical steps now, the U.S. could save as much oil as it gets from the Persian Gulf by
2015; set the stage by 2025 for the option of transitioning
to a hydrogen economy (what Lovins refers to as the “checkmate move in the Oil Endgame); and
have a flourishing economy without oil by 2050.
![Page 48: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Hypercar RevolutionLight-weight, composite material, aerodynamic hybrid: 66 mpg
![Page 49: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
The four integrated steps include:
Doubling the efficiency of using oil, primarily through ultralight vehicle design
Applying creative business models and public policies for adoption of superefficient vehicles.
Providing another one-fourth of U.S. oil needs by a major domestic biofuels industry.
Substituting natural gas for oil using gas saved by profitable efficiency techniques that could save half of the projected 2025 use of natural gas.
![Page 50: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
![Page 51: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
![Page 52: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
![Page 53: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
![Page 54: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
![Page 55: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Honda Home Energy Natural Gas Reformer for Hydrogen
![Page 56: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
![Page 57: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Hydrogen Fuel Cells
![Page 58: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
![Page 59: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
![Page 60: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
![Page 61: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
![Page 62: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Entering the Age of Gases?
![Page 63: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
H2 Industry says FCV necessary
![Page 64: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Well-to-Wheels Life-cycle Assessment
![Page 65: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
DOE’s Hydrogen Themes Hydrogen is “The Freedom Fuel”
Hydrogen provides independence and an environmental choice
Hydrogen solves foreign oil dependency and improves the environment
Hydrogen is everywhere—"it’s right in our backyard“
A hydrogen economy includes other fuels
Hydrogen—it works (it is an ongoing business today)
Hydrogen is safe
Hydrogen is a long-term energy solution
Hydrogen is the “man on the moon” equivalent for this generation
![Page 66: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
But…there are challenges Hydrogen production: hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and a key
element of water. The challenge is splitting it from water or other substances and this requires energy.
Steam methane reforming; Electrolysis of water; Emerging technologies include thermochemical water splitting, solar photolytic processes, and fossil fuel H2 production with carbon sequestration.
It is critical that the production process be carbon-free, energy efficient, and modular to enhance distributed production.
Hydrogen transport and delivery is best provided by pipeline using the natural gas pipeline system. Household or business gas distribution pipelines and metering can be used for personal fueling of mobile uses like automobiles, but a new delivery infrastructure (refueling stations) would also be needed.
Hydrogen storage presents technical challenges especially for mobile applications. Hydrogen can be compressed and liquefied, but emerging technologies for metal and chemical hydride storage may offer the best options for stability and volume.
Hydrogen conversion includes traditional combustion in boilers, engines, and turbines, and also conversion to electricity in fuel cells. Advance in fuel cell technologies, which can convert H2 to electricity at efficiencies of 60% or more, provide the trump card for hydrogen transportation and electricity generation.
Hydrogen applications are diverse from on-site distributed electricity generation to vehicle transportation, both using efficient fuel cells.
![Page 67: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
From Science August 2004 Issue: “Toward the Hydrogen Economy”
If ever a phrase tripped lightly over the tongue, “the hydrogen economy” does. It appeals to the futurist in all of us, and it sounds so simple: We currently have a carbon economy (and CO2 and global warming). We will eventually be able to power our cars and industries with climate-neutral hydrogen, which produces only water.
Well, can we? There are problems, and they’re serious. To convert the U.S. economy in this way will require a lot of hydrogen: about 150 million tons of it in each year. That hydrogen will have to be made by extracting it from water or biomass, and that takes energy…. At normal human-scale temperatures, is an invisible gas: light, jittery, and slippery; hard to store, transport, liquefy, and handle safely; and capable of releasing only as much energy as human beings first pump into it. Using hydrogen as a common currency for an energy economy will be far from simple….
[What is needed is a] mix of social and economic changes that might actually reduce current emissions.
But current U.S. policy offers few incentives for that. Instead, it is concentrating on research programs [like hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles and hydrogen from fossil fuels] designed to bring us a hydrogen economy that will not be carbon-free and will not be with us any time soon.
The trouble with the plan to focus on research and the future, of course, is that the exploding trajectory of greenhouse gas emissions won’t take time off while we are all waiting for the hydrogen economy. Meanwhile, our attention is deflected from the hard, even painful measures that would be needed to slow our business-as-usual carbon trajectory. Postponing action on emissions reduction is like refusing medication for a developing infection: It guarantees that greater costs will have to be paid later.
![Page 68: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Well-to-Wheels Assessment
GREET
![Page 69: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
California Energy Commission WTW
![Page 70: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Our simple assessment
![Page 71: Chapter 13 Powerpoint](https://reader033.fdocuments.in/reader033/viewer/2022061115/5464a7a7b4af9f58568b4652/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)