Chapter 13

Motivation & Emotion

What motivates our behaviors; our

thoughts?Jot down reasons in your

notebooks…

Close your eyes…

Imagine the future

HOPE

The overall perception that our goals can be met with energy and

ability

Motivation

A need or desire that serves to energize behavior and to direct it toward a goal

it’s a hypothetical concept We infer motivation from behaviors we

observe Four motives: hunger, sex, belonging,

achievement*interplay between nature (the physiological

“push”) and nurture (the cognitive & cultural “pull”)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lgjK8S-3DSQ

Perspectives

1. Instinct theory2. Drive-reduction theory3. Arousal theory4. Incentive 5. Hierarchy of needs

Instinct Theory5759 supposed human instincts Rather than explaining human behavior, early

instinct theorists were simply naming them To name a behavior is NOT to explain it Instinct: to qualify, a complex behavior must have

a fixed pattern throughout a species and be unlearned (i.e., infant’s rooting & sucking)

James & McDougall – instincts foster survival and social behavior

Too much variation in how people behave for it to be instinctive

Instinct theory collapsed drive-reduction theory

Idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce the need by say, eating or drinking

Physiological aim for drive-reduction is homeostasis (internal balance)

Pushed by our need to reduce drives Pulled by incentives (i.e., smells,

attractiveness)

Arousal

Some motivated behaviors increase arousal

Even when all biological needs are satisfied, we feel driven to experience stimulation

When basic needs are met and homeostasis is achieved, the “arousal

theory” states that people are motivated to

maintain an optimal level of arousal, some

more than others.Who is a thrill seeker?

Hierarchy of Motives

Theorized by Maslow (1970)

Some motives are more compelling than others

Self-actualization – the need to become what one believes he or she is capable of being

Self-actualization – creativity, problem solving, spontaneity

Esteem – self-esteem, confidence, respect of self and from others

Love & belongingness – friendship, family, relationships

Safety – security of body, employment, morality, family

Physiological – food, water, breathing, sleep

Drives and Incentives

• Incentive–Positive and negative

Review

1. Define: motivation.2. What is self-actualization? Whose

theory includes this concept? 3. What is homeostasis? 4. What are four basic human motives?5. Briefly describe the theories of

motivation.

In 1991, Walter Hudson died at 47 years of age. His death was reported in newspapers and magazines throughout the United States, even though he was not a distinguished artist, writer, scientist, executive, or politician. Hudson was one of the heaviest men in the world. He was so big that he was unable to leave his house, and when he died, workmen had to cut a hole in his bedroom wall so his body could be removed. At his peak, he weighed 1,400 pounds and had a 119-inch waist. At one point, he actually lost 800 pounds. Later, however, as so many other people do, he regained most of the weight he had lost.

Imagine you’re on a long trip, your stomach growls

with hunger, you pull off the nearest exit to find a

restaurant, what perspectives is exemplified

here?Imagine you’re so hungry

that you displace your concern for all other things,

which perspective is exemplified?

The Focus on Hunger Psychological and biological needs Food = more than just a means to survive How strong is the motivation to satisfy

hunger? How far would you go to satiate the hunger

pang? “Alive”

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2217141/I-eat-piece-friend-survive-Torment-1972-Andes-plane-crash-survivor-haunted-ordeal-40-years-later.htm l

Walter Hudson – What would motivate a person to allow this to happen?

Physiology Stomach contracts when we’re hungry Without a stomach hunger persists The level of sugar (glucose) in the blood and the

hypothalamus are key influences on feelings of hunger – glucostatic theory

Lateral hypothalamus - “start eating”; automatically regulates caloric intake to prevent energy deficits and maintain a stable body weight

Ventromedial hypothalamus – depresses hunger; “stop-eating” hunger

Arcuate nucleus/paraventricular nucleus

The Physiology of HungerBody Chemistry and the Brain

• Appetite hormones–Ghrelin–Insulin –CCK –Leptin

• Set point• Basal metabolic rate

Psychological Influences

Part of knowing when to eat is our memory of our last meal (amnesia patients)

“externals” – eating is triggered more by the sight and presence of food rather than internal factors

Learning that some food/drinks cause a feeling of well-being and relaxation

Environmental Factors

Palatability

Quantity

Variety

Presence of others

Level of Analysis for Our Hunger Motivation

Taste Preferences

What influences when we feel hungry and what we feel hungry for?

Body chemistry/environmental factors Preferences for sweet/salty are genetic

and universal Others are conditioned Culture - spices “neophobia” – aversion from unfamiliar,

novel foods

Obesity

Seems to run in families May have a gene so they do not receive

the biological signal that they have eaten enough to sustain them

Metabolism – more fat slower metabolism

Vicious cycle

Obesity

Obesity

Obesity and Weight ControlThe Social Effects of Obesity

• Social effects of obesity

• Weight discrimination

• Psychological effects of obesity

Weight Discrimination

Weight Discrimination

Obesity and Weight ControlThe Physiology of Obesity

• Fat Cells

Obesity and Weight ControlThe Physiology of Obesity

• Set point and metabolism

Obesity and Weight ControlThe Physiology of Obesity

• The genetic factor

• The food and activity factor–Sleep loss

–Social influence

–Food consumption and activity level

Obesity and Weight ControlLosing Weight

• Realistic and moderate goals

• Success stories

• Attitudinal changes

Eating Disorders

Fat is BAD! Barbie – 5’7”, 32-16-

29 <100,000 women 25-50% of Americans

are on a diet at any given moment

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFxVATYTrbs (Media)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4d-p2P5gsLU (Barbie)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v9e-wRrLGX4 (binge)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fF0lAlo80fU (THIN) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tIDPVq20UBQ

(Dying to be thin) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05c0jd66Xns

Anorexia Nervosa

Disorder in which a person becomes significantly underweight (15% or more) yet feels fat and is obsessed with losing weight

Limits food intake 9 times out of 10 in females begins in

adolescence Families: competitive, high-achieving,

protective, set high standards, concerned about how others perceive them

Bulimia Nervosa

Disorder marked by repeated episodes of overeating followed by compensatory vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

Most are women Late teens/early 20s Preoccupied with food Weight fluctuates within or above normal range Easy to hide Depressed/anxious About ½ anorexics display binge-purge-depression cycle Families: higher incidence of alcoholism, obesity,

depression

Students:

91% of women surveyed on a college campus had attempted to control their weight through dieting. 22% dieted “often” or “always.”

86% report onset of eating disorder by age 20; 43% report onset between ages of 16 and 20.

Anorexia is the third most common chronic illness among adolescents.

95% of those who have eating disorders are between the ages of 12 and 25.

25% of college-aged women engage in bingeing and purging as a weight-management technique.

The mortality rate associated with anorexia nervosa is 12 times higher than the death rate associated with all causes of death for females 15-24 years old.

Over one-half of teenage girls and nearly one-third of teenage boys use unhealthy weight control behaviors such as skipping meals, fasting, smoking cigarettes, vomiting, and taking laxatives.

In a survey of 185 female students on a college campus, 58% felt pressure to be a certain weight, and of the 83% that dieted for weight loss, 44% were of normal weight.

Men: • An estimated 10-15% of people with anorexia or bulimia are male.9

• Men are less likely to seek treatment for eating disorders because of the perception that they are “woman’s diseases.”10• Among gay men, nearly 14% appeared to suffer from bulimia and over 20% appeared to be anorexic.11

Media, Perception, Dieting: • 95% of all dieters will regain their lost weight within 5 years.3

• 35% of “normal dieters” progress to pathological dieting. Of those, 20-25% progress to partial or full-syndrome eating disorders.5• The body type portrayed in advertising as the ideal is possessed naturally by only 5% of American females.3• 47% of girls in 5th-12th grade reported wanting to lose weight because of magazine pictures.12• 69% of girls in 5th-12th grade reported that magazine pictures influenced their idea of a perfect body shape.13• 42% of 1st-3rd grade girls want to be thinner (Collins, 1991).• 81% of 10 year olds are afraid of being fat (Mellin et al., 1991).

Sexual Motivation

The Physiology of SexThe Sexual Response Cycle

• Sexual response cycle–Excitement phase

–Plateau phase

–Orgasm

–Resolution phase• Refractory period

Mate Preferences

What do males look for in women?Women in men?

Levels of Analysis for Sexual Motivation

Sexual Orientation

• Sexual orientation–Homosexual orientation

–Heterosexual orientation

Environmental?

Biological?

Achievement Motivation Performance goals Learning goals Intrinsic rewards External rewards Cognitive consistency – think & behave how

we believe we’re supposed to Balance theory – birds of a feather flock

together Cognitive-dissonance theory –

behaviors/thoughts consistent

What are your sources of

achievement?What motivates YOU?

How can we motivate others?

The Need to Belong

Aristotle – “social animal” “Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu” – South

American “a person is a person through other persons”

What is necessary for your happiness? What is it that makes your life meaningful? How do we maintain relationships? Have you ever felt out of the loop? If so, how did it make you feel?

Would you like to never be sad

again?

What would our lives be like without emotion?

EMOTION

Interplay of physiological activation, expressive behavior, and conscious experience (which comes first?)

There are two controversies surrounding emotional experience

1. Physiological arousal precedes or follows emotional experience?

2. Cognition precedes or follows emotion?

Affective forecasting

Theories of Emotion

1. James-Lange Theory: experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological response to emotion-arousing stimuli

* Does a racing heart signal fear, anger, or love?2. Cannon-Bard Theory: emotion-arousing

stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion

* Can we experience emotion apart from thinking?

3. Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory: emotions have two ingredients – physical arousal and a cognitive label (experience of emotion grows from our awareness of our body’s response but emotions are physiologically similar)

- arousal from emotions can “spillover”

- arousal fuels emotions; cognition channels it

Robert Zajonc (zi-yence)

Emotional reactions can be quicker than our interpretations of a situation; we therefore, feel some emotions before we think

“The heart is not always subject to the mind.”

- Some neural pathways involved in emotion bypass the cortical areas involved in thinking

Richard Lazarus

Disagrees with Zajonc Our brains process and react to vast

amounts of information without our conscious awareness, though some emotional responses do not require conscious thinking but there is some sort of cognitive appraisal

How do we know what we’re reacting to?

Theories of emotions

• James-Lange theory

Theories of emotions

• Cannon-Bard theory

Theories of emotions

• Two-factor theory–Schachter-Singer

Theories of emotions

Review…1. What is at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy of

motives?

2. What are the 3 components of emotion?

3. “I am happy because I’m smiling”. What theory of emotion would explain this statement?

4. What is emotional “spillover”?

5. What were Schachter’s 2 ingredients?

6. Describe “happiness” in 5 words.

Physiology of Emotion

Autonomic nervous system controls our arousal

Parasympathetic nervous system calms us Prolonged arousal is taxing to our bodies Arousal for optimal performance varies by

task Well-learned tasks require HIGH arousal Difficult tasks require lower arousal

(Yerkes-Dodson law)

Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System

Complex emotions such as guilt, happiness, and love arise from our interpretations and expectations

Highly emotional people “personalize” and “generalize”

Simple likes, dislikes, and fears may involve no conscious thinking

It’s all about how we INTERPRET things

Emotions Carroll Izard identified 10 basic emotions:

Joy*

Interest-excitement*

Surprise*

Sadness*

Anger*

Disgust*

Contempt

Fear*

Shame

Guilt

FEAR

Survival Avoid harm Can learn to fear anything We may be biologically prepared to

learn some fears more quickly than others

How should we handle our anger?

What causes anger?

ANGER…is “a short madness” that “carries the mind away” and that can be “many times more hurtful than the injury that caused it.”

Catharsis: emotional release, “releasing” aggressive energy releases aggressive urges

- expressing anger can be temporarily calming if it does not leave us feeling guilty or anxious

What are the pitfalls for expressing anger?- angry outbursts may be reinforcing

*What should you do?1. WAIT – what goes up must come down2. Deal in constructive/healthy ways –

exercise, confide in a friend

HAPPINESS It brightens our lives! Feel-good, do-good phenomenon Psychology tends to focus on negative

emotions, but there is an increasing interest in subjective well-being

Tend to bounce back from “bad days” fairly quickly

Emotional ups and downs tend to balance out Even tragedy is not permanently depressing Happiness is relative – adaptation/comparison

We overestimate the long-term emotional impact of

very bad news and underestimate our capacity

to adapt!

Positive events are also temporary Money does NOT increase happiness

long-term

LOVE over money higher life satisfaction!

HappinessWealth and Well-Being

Crap

REVIEW!

Compare & Contrast anorexia and bulimia. What is the difference between Zajonc and

Lazarus’s views on emotion? Provide ONE intrinsic reward and ONE

extrinsic reward. What is a psychological influence of hunger? What are the TWO key physiological

influences of hunger?

Expressing Emotion

Does nonverbal language of emotion vary with culture or is it universal? (Myers, p.487)

• We read fear and anger mostly from the eyes

• Happiness from the mouth• Introverts tend to do better at reading

others• Extroverts are easier to read

Gender and Nonverbal Behavior

Females are better at reading people’s emotional cues

Women’s nonverbal sensitivity helps explain their greater emotional responsiveness in positive/negative situations

Surveys – women are more likely to describe themselves as empathetic

Females react more visibly Differ in emotions they express best (women

– happiness; men – anger)

Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior

Detecting Emotion

• Nonverbal cues–Duchenne smile

Detecting Emotion Hard-to-control facial muscles reveal signs of

emotions you may be trying to conceal (inner part between eyebrows)

Authentic expressions fade quickly Cultural differences – some more reserved The SMILE is universal Emotional expressions enhance survival

(surprise widens eyes – more info is taken in) Are we born with the ability to express emotion??

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5G6ZR5lJgTI

Stress and Health

Stress and Illness

• Stress–Stress appraisal

Stress and IllnessThe Stress Response System

• Selye’s general adaptation syndrome (GAS)–Alarm

–Resistance

–exhaustion

Stress and IllnessGeneral Adaptation Syndrome

Stress and IllnessStressful Life Events

• Catastrophes

• Significant life changes

• Daily hassles

Stress and the Heart

• Coronary heart disease

• Type A versus Type B–Type A

–Type B

Stress and Susceptibility to Disease

• Psychophysiological illnesses

• Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)–Lymphocytes

• B lymphocytes

• T lymphocytes

–Stress and AIDS

–Stress and Cancer