Chapter 12

Token Economies

Token Economies

• token economies are reinforcement systems that employ a monetary system(token reinforcers) and backup reinforcers

• token economies employ widespread use of tokens within groups of individuals

• token economies can be used to control a wide range of behaviors

• token economies typically use diverse consequences

Starting a Token Economy

• identify target behaviors• define target behaviors so that all involved can

identify instances of appropriate and inappropriate behavior

• conduct a functional analysis• recruit and train staff• establish baselines

Tokens• tokens can take many forms but should be:

– durable– easy to handle– difficult to steal– difficult to counterfeit

• systems can have graded value for tokens• systems can associate different types of tokens

with different behaviors• systems can use group or individual contingencies

Backup Reinforcers and Punishers

• use direct and indirect assessment procedures to identify backup consequences

• use a wide variety of backup consequences• some systems use response cost procedures to

punish inappropriate behavior

Managing the Consequences

• ensure backup reinforcers are on hand• clearly describe criteria for earning and

exchanging tokens• award tokens as immediately as possible• use reinforcers such as praise along with tokens• keep accurate records of behaviors and

consequences• provide bonuses for high-level performance

Managing the Consequences (continued)

• train those administering tokens• incorporate methods to ensure accuracy when self-

reinforcing with tokens

How Many Tokens to Deliver

• less pleasant activities might earn more• those with less ability might earn more• use more tokens on the first few days• gradually thin schedules

Determining Exchange Rates

• costs should relate to the number of tokens that can be earned

• cost in tokens might reflect the actual cost of items• high-demand items might cost more• offer lower cost for backups that have therapeutic

value• exchange systems should take into account

intellectual and cognitive abilities

Phasing Out the Program

in programs that target long-term change, the token system should be phased out

• use natural reinforcers such as praise and feedback with tokens

• fade the use of tokens• increase the number of tokens required to buy

backups• increase the delay between earning tokens and

redeeming them

Achievement Place: General Model

Achievement Place was designed as a residential token economy program for juvenile boys classified "predelinquent"

• boys lived with other boys and a pair of teaching parents and continued to go to their own schools

• tokens were points earned or lost• points were recorded on an index card carried by

each boy

Achievement Place: General Model (continued)

• most backups were privileges and consumables• boys could bid to serve as manager and earn

points based on the performance of others

Achievement Place: Self-Regulation

the program was designed to move boys toward self-regulation; boys moved through three phases:

• daily point system where points were exchanged at the end of each day

• backups could be exchanged at the end of each week

• a merit system where privileges were taken freely as long as appropriate behavior was maintained by social reinforcers

A Day in One's Life at Achievement Place

• social structure of Achievement Place was similar to a family (the teaching-family model)

• daily routines were similar to those established in most homes

• evening family conference used to discuss the day's events

How Effective Is the Achievement Place Approach?

• effective in improving a wide variety of behaviors while boys are in attendance

• short- and long-term improvements after involvement in these programs does not seem to be any better than other programs

Token Economies in Classrooms I

Birnbrauer and colleagues describe a system for a special education classroom

• students earned tokens for correct performance on:– academic tasks– cooperative behavior– extra activities

• tokens were written marks• backups were trinkets or special items identified for

individuals

Token Economies in Classrooms II

Boegli and Wasik describe a schoolwide program used with kindergartners through sixth graders

• target behaviors included those related to: – academic work – classroom conduct

• students had regular access to a store• students also could use tokens to bid on other

objects in auctions

Token Economies in Worksites I

Nelton describes a system developed for workers at a manufacturing plant

• target behaviors included: – absenteeism – discipline problems

• points were earned when: – attendance was excellent – no formal disciplinary actions were pending

Token Economies in Worksites I (continued)

• points were lost for absences• points could earn a special jacket

Token Economies in Worksites II

Fox and colleagues describe a token economy targeting miner safety

• miners earned trading stamps for not having injuries

• group and individual contingencies were applied• stamps could be used to buy merchandise like

sporting goods and appliances

Token Economies in Institutional Settings

Ayllon and Azrin implemented an early system in a psychiatric hospital

• target behaviors included:– personal hygiene – self-help skills

• tokens were coins• backups were items available in a store • backups also included opportunities to engage in

special activities

Implementing Token Economies in Psychiatric Settings

token economies are more effective than other traditional treatments, but systems have not been widely implemented; several factors have made it a less preferred procedure:

• staff resist the approach• high initial costs for staffing and reinforcers

Implementing Token Economies in Psychiatric Settings (continued)

• patients must learn and adapt to these systems• token economies are hard to monitor in outpatient

settings• implementation has been restricted by legal

rulings and ethical concerns

Problems and Benefits of Token Economies

• gains may be temporary, but new skills are often gained

• costs often are high, but cost of continuing a program is often justified by economic benefits

• some characterize token economies as demeaning, but participants in token systems give them high marks