Chapter 11Chapter 11

Language Language AcquisitionAcquisition

11.1 First Language 11.1 First Language AcquisitionAcquisition

It is no wonder that parents take such joy in It is no wonder that parents take such joy in observing their children’s first step in the observing their children’s first step in the acquisition of language. Consider the following acquisition of language. Consider the following sequence between a mother and her 3-month-old sequence between a mother and her 3-month-old daughter:daughter:

► Ann :( smiles)Ann :( smiles)► Mom: Oh, what a nice little smile! Yes, isn’t that Mom: Oh, what a nice little smile! Yes, isn’t that

nice? There. There’s a nice little smile.nice? There. There’s a nice little smile.► Ann :( burps)Ann :( burps)► Mom: What a nice wind as well! Yes, that’s better, Mom: What a nice wind as well! Yes, that’s better,

isn’t it? Yes.isn’t it? Yes.► Ann :( vocalizes)Ann :( vocalizes)► Mom: Yes! There’s a nice noise.Mom: Yes! There’s a nice noise.

► First language acquisitionFirst language acquisition (L1 acquisition)(L1 acquisition) is the term is the term most commonly used to describe the process wherebmost commonly used to describe the process whereby children become speakers of their native language ay children become speakers of their native language and languages .nd languages .

► L1 acquisition is remarkable for the speed with which L1 acquisition is remarkable for the speed with which it takes place. The speed of acquisition has led to the it takes place. The speed of acquisition has led to the belief that there is some “innate” proposition in the belief that there is some “innate” proposition in the human infant to acquire language. This is usually callehuman infant to acquire language. This is usually called the “d the “language facultylanguage faculty” with which each newborn ” with which each newborn child is endowed. child is endowed.

► There are basically There are basically two two approaches to the question of approaches to the question of first language acquisition:first language acquisition:

①①The behaviorist approach The behaviorist approach ②②The innateness approachThe innateness approach

11.1.1 The behaviorist 11.1.1 The behaviorist approachapproach

► Let’s see the following example:Let’s see the following example:► Suppose a baby is hungry, she babbles; she does Suppose a baby is hungry, she babbles; she does

not pronounce the right sound [milk] for the milk not pronounce the right sound [milk] for the milk she wants; she gets corrected, she imitates the coshe wants; she gets corrected, she imitates the correct sound and gets understood; she gets the milrrect sound and gets understood; she gets the milk she wants. All the time the baby is observing ank she wants. All the time the baby is observing and imitating the speech sound [milk]; she gets punid imitating the speech sound [milk]; she gets punished ( in the sense that she does not get the milk shed ( in the sense that she does not get the milk she wants) when she falls to produce the right soshe wants) when she falls to produce the right sound [milk] and is rewarded when she hits on the cund [milk] and is rewarded when she hits on the correct sound. orrect sound.

say milk correctly

► The child imitates the speech around it, using a The child imitates the speech around it, using a process of trial and error. It is reinforced in thesprocess of trial and error. It is reinforced in these imitations, or discouraged from them, by the e imitations, or discouraged from them, by the degree of success it achieves in communicating. degree of success it achieves in communicating. This is a standard “This is a standard “stimulus-response-imitatiostimulus-response-imitation-reinforcementn-reinforcement” approach.” approach.

► The important thing is that they all believe that The important thing is that they all believe that all the internal linguistic knowledge of the indiviall the internal linguistic knowledge of the individual is the direct result of combining the linguisdual is the direct result of combining the linguistic event that the individual has observed.tic event that the individual has observed.

B.F. B.F. SkinnerSkinner

11.1.2 The innateness 11.1.2 The innateness approachapproach

► The behaviorist hypothesis of first language acqThe behaviorist hypothesis of first language acquisition has been strongly challenged from the 1uisition has been strongly challenged from the 1960s onwards, especially under the influence of 960s onwards, especially under the influence of Noam Chomsky’s linguistic theories and cognitNoam Chomsky’s linguistic theories and cognitive psychology.ive psychology.

The innateness hypothesisThe innateness hypothesis says that th says that the ability to acquire a human language ie ability to acquire a human language is part of the biologically innate equips part of the biologically innate equipment of the human being. It also claimment of the human being. It also claims that this built-in ability is linked in sos that this built-in ability is linked in some manner to physiological maturatiome manner to physiological maturation.n.

► For example:For example:► Children become competent speakers of a language at a Children become competent speakers of a language at a

comparatively early age before they are ready for other comparatively early age before they are ready for other cognitively complex tasks such as learning mathematics, cognitively complex tasks such as learning mathematics, physics or chemistry. It has also been observed that children physics or chemistry. It has also been observed that children all over the world go through the same stages in language all over the world go through the same stages in language acquisition regardless of their linguistic environment. acquisition regardless of their linguistic environment. Children do not choose their first language; they can learn Children do not choose their first language; they can learn any language equally well as long as they are in the right any language equally well as long as they are in the right linguistic environment. A Chinese child will pick up linguistic environment. A Chinese child will pick up English as his first language if he is born in an English-English as his first language if he is born in an English-speaking country. This probably shows that all human speaking country. This probably shows that all human language share certain universal properties ( such as they all language share certain universal properties ( such as they all have nouns, verbs, and so on) and that human children are have nouns, verbs, and so on) and that human children are born with knowledge of these universal properties.born with knowledge of these universal properties.

11.1.3 11.1.3 Stages of Acquiring the First LanguageStages of Acquiring the First Language

► A good deal of research on the acquisition of A good deal of research on the acquisition of first language focuses on children’s early first language focuses on children’s early utterances. The establishment of stage of utterances. The establishment of stage of acquisition is probably the best-known outcome acquisition is probably the best-known outcome of research on children’s language. of research on children’s language.

► Several stages have been identified: Several stages have been identified:

1.1. Pre-language stage(3~10 months) Pre-language stage(3~10 months)

2.2. The one-word or holophrastic stage(12~18 The one-word or holophrastic stage(12~18 months) months)

3.3. The two-word stage(18~20 months)The two-word stage(18~20 months)

4.4. Telegraphic speech(2~3years old)Telegraphic speech(2~3years old)

11.2 Second Language 11.2 Second Language AcquisitionAcquisition

Q:Q: Why we should master the second language?Why we should master the second language?A: A: This has been a time of the “global village” and This has been a time of the “global village” and

the “World Wide Web”, when communication bthe “World Wide Web”, when communication between people has expanded well beyond their loetween people has expanded well beyond their local speech communities. As never before, people cal speech communities. As never before, people have had to learn a second language so as to obtahave had to learn a second language so as to obtain an education or secure employment. At such a in an education or secure employment. At such a time, there is an obvious time, there is an obvious

need to discover more about how need to discover more about how second languages are learned.second languages are learned.

Second Language Acquisition(L2 acquisition, SLA)Second Language Acquisition(L2 acquisition, SLA) can be defined as the way in which people learn can be defined as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue, a language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside of a classroom.inside or outside of a classroom.

Second Second : For one thing, here second can refer to : For one thing, here second can refer to any language that is learned in addition to the any language that is learned in addition to the mother tongue. Thus, it can refer to the learning mother tongue. Thus, it can refer to the learning of a third or fourth language. Also, second is not of a third or fourth language. Also, second is not used to contrast with foreign. Whether we are used to contrast with foreign. Whether we are learning a language naturally as a result of living learning a language naturally as a result of living in a country where it is spoken, or learning it in a in a country where it is spoken, or learning it in a classroom through instruction, it is customary to classroom through instruction, it is customary to speak generically of second language acquisition. speak generically of second language acquisition.

11.2.1 Contrastive 11.2.1 Contrastive AnalysisAnalysis

► To identify similarities and differences between paTo identify similarities and differences between particular native language(NLs) and target language rticular native language(NLs) and target language (TLs), researchers conducted (TLs), researchers conducted contrastive analysiscontrastive analysis (CA)(CA) from the 1940s and the 1960s. from the 1940s and the 1960s.

1.1. The main difficulties in learning a new language arThe main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language.e caused by interference from the first language.

2.2. These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.analysis.

3.3. Teaching materials can make use of contrastive anTeaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of mother tongue interfalysis to reduce the effects of mother tongue interference erence

11.2.2 Error 11.2.2 Error AnalysisAnalysis

►An errorAn error refers to the production of incorr refers to the production of incorrect forms in speech and writing by a nonnect forms in speech and writing by a nonnative speaker of second language, due to ative speaker of second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of this incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language. hat target language.

►For example:For example: When a Chinese learner of English says “I not gWhen a Chinese learner of English says “I not g

o”(=I will not go) because the equivalent sentenco”(=I will not go) because the equivalent sentence in Chinese is wo bu qu(e in Chinese is wo bu qu( 我不去我不去 ). ).

► Error analysis(EA)Error analysis(EA) refers to the study and analysis refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign languaof the errors made by second and foreign language learners. It developed as a branch of applied lige learners. It developed as a branch of applied linguistics in the 1960s, and achieved considerable nguistics in the 1960s, and achieved considerable popularity in the 1970s. popularity in the 1970s.

► It may be carried out in order toIt may be carried out in order to1.1. Identify strategies which learners use in language Identify strategies which learners use in language

learning;learning;2.2. Try to identify the causes of learner errors;Try to identify the causes of learner errors;3.3. Obtain information on common difficulties in lanObtain information on common difficulties in lan

guage learning, as an aid to teaching or in the preguage learning, as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.paration of teaching materials.

► Error analysis was therefore offered as an alternativError analysis was therefore offered as an alternative to contrastive analysis. Attempts were made to dee to contrastive analysis. Attempts were made to develop classifications for different types of errors on tvelop classifications for different types of errors on the basis of the different processes that were assumehe basis of the different processes that were assumed to account for them. A basic distinction was drawd to account for them. A basic distinction was drawn between intralingual and interlingual errors.n between intralingual and interlingual errors.

Intralingual errorsIntralingual errors Interlingual errorsInterlingual errors

He is comes.He is comes. He comes from China, He comes from China, Beijing.Beijing.

result from faulty or result from faulty or partial learning of partial learning of the target language the target language

caused by the learnecaused by the learner’s native language (lr’s native language (language transfer )anguage transfer )

11.2.3 Interlanguage11.2.3 Interlanguage► For example: The Spanish speaker who says in English For example: The Spanish speaker who says in English

“She name is Mary” is producing a form which is not us“She name is Mary” is producing a form which is not used by adult speakers of English, does not occur in Englied by adult speakers of English, does not occur in English L1 acquisition by children, and is not found in Spanish L1 acquisition by children, and is not found in Spanish either.sh either.

► Evidence of this sort suggests that there is some Evidence of this sort suggests that there is some in-between system while acquiring L2 which cerin-between system while acquiring L2 which certainly contains aspects of both L1 and L2, but wtainly contains aspects of both L1 and L2, but which is an inherently variable system with rules ohich is an inherently variable system with rules of its own. This system is called an f its own. This system is called an interlanguageinterlanguage and is now considered to be the basis of all L2 prand is now considered to be the basis of all L2 production. oduction.

11.3 11.3 Individual Differences in Second Individual Differences in Second Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition

SLA theories acknowledge that there are SLA theories acknowledge that there are some individual differences in L2 some individual differences in L2 acquisition, especially some psychological acquisition, especially some psychological dimensions of differences. Here we will dimensions of differences. Here we will focus on focus on fourfour major dimensions--- major dimensions---language language aptitude, cognitive style, personality traits aptitude, cognitive style, personality traits and learning strategiesand learning strategies..

11.3.1 Language 11.3.1 Language aptitudeaptitude

► Language AptitudeLanguage Aptitude was known as that people was known as that people differ in the extent to which they possess a differ in the extent to which they possess a natural ability for learning an L2, which is natural ability for learning an L2, which is thought to be a combination of various abilities.thought to be a combination of various abilities.

► According to Carroll’s Modern Language Aptitude According to Carroll’s Modern Language Aptitude (MLAT), the components of language aptitude (MLAT), the components of language aptitude are:are: 1.Phonemic coding ability;2.Grammatical 1.Phonemic coding ability;2.Grammatical sensitivity;3. Inductive language learning sensitivity;3. Inductive language learning ability ;4.Rote learning ability ability ;4.Rote learning ability

► Learners who score highly on language aptitude Learners who score highly on language aptitude tests typically learn rapidly and achieve higher tests typically learn rapidly and achieve higher level of L2 proficiency than learners who obtain level of L2 proficiency than learners who obtain low scores.low scores.

11.3.2 11.3.2 Cognitive style: field dependence Cognitive style: field dependence and field independenceand field independence► Field dependenceField dependence is measured by asking learners to is measured by asking learners to

look at complex patterns and identify a number of look at complex patterns and identify a number of simple geometric figures that are hidden within simple geometric figures that are hidden within them. The purpose is to see whether they are able them. The purpose is to see whether they are able to break up what they see (i.e. the whole) into parts to break up what they see (i.e. the whole) into parts and keep these parts separate from the whole. and keep these parts separate from the whole.

► The characteristics of field dependent language The characteristics of field dependent language learners are that they accept the L2 information learners are that they accept the L2 information exactly as it is presented to them by the teacher. exactly as it is presented to them by the teacher. They do not try to analyze or think about it They do not try to analyze or think about it themselves. They are very reliant on in their L2 themselves. They are very reliant on in their L2 learning. They tend to be seen as outgoing are learning. They tend to be seen as outgoing are interested in others and so would be expected to interested in others and so would be expected to develop good interpersonal communication skills in develop good interpersonal communication skills in the L2.the L2.

► Field independentField independent learners, on the other hand, learners, on the other hand, do not assume that the L2 information that do not assume that the L2 information that they are given is necessarily correct. They tend they are given is necessarily correct. They tend to analyze it and think about it themselves to to analyze it and think about it themselves to determine whether it is correct or not. They determine whether it is correct or not. They have a strong sense of personal identify and have a strong sense of personal identify and often seem insensitive to and distant from often seem insensitive to and distant from other people. They might, therefore, be other people. They might, therefore, be expected to be less interested in developing expected to be less interested in developing communication skills in the L2.communication skills in the L2.

► Field independence is typical of learners who Field independence is typical of learners who think about the input that they get. They would think about the input that they get. They would develop a broader and deeper understanding develop a broader and deeper understanding of the structure of the language than those of the structure of the language than those who take all L2 input at face value. Therefore, who take all L2 input at face value. Therefore, they have better performances on structure they have better performances on structure tests.tests.

11.3.3 Personality 11.3.3 Personality traitstraits

IntroversionIntroversion VSVS Extroversion Extroversion

The relationship between language The relationship between language proficiency and extroversion seems to proficiency and extroversion seems to be true when assessing proficiency be true when assessing proficiency and extroversion seems to be true and extroversion seems to be true when assessing proficiency at using when assessing proficiency at using the language, but not when assessing the language, but not when assessing knowledge of the language.knowledge of the language.

11.3.4 Learning 11.3.4 Learning strategiesstrategies

► Language aptitude, cognitive style, and personLanguage aptitude, cognitive style, and personality traits are the general factors that affect thality traits are the general factors that affect the rate and level of L2 achievement. e rate and level of L2 achievement. Learning stLearning strategiesrategies are the particular approaches or techn are the particular approaches or techniques that learners use to try to learn an L2. iques that learners use to try to learn an L2.

► Three Three major types of learning strategies have bmajor types of learning strategies have been identified: een identified:

1.1. Cognitive strategies, Cognitive strategies, 2.2. Metacognitive strategies,Metacognitive strategies,3.3. Social/affective strategies.Social/affective strategies.

► Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operati refer to the steps or operations used in problem solving that need direct anons used in problem solving that need direct analysis, transformation or synthesis of learning malysis, transformation or synthesis of learning materials. aterials.

► Metacognitive strategiesMetacognitive strategies make use of knowledg make use of knowledge about cognitive processes and constitute attee about cognitive processes and constitute attempts to regulate language learning by means of mpts to regulate language learning by means of planning, monitoring and evaluating. planning, monitoring and evaluating.

► Social/affective strategiesSocial/affective strategies concern the ways in w concern the ways in which learners choose to interact with other learnhich learners choose to interact with other learners and native speakers. ers and native speakers.

► Good language learners are also very active, show awarGood language learners are also very active, show awareness of the learning process and their own learning styleness of the learning process and their own learning styles and, above all, are flexible and appropriate in their uses and, above all, are flexible and appropriate in their use of learning strategies. strategies that involve formal pre of learning strategies. strategies that involve formal practice(e.g. rehearsing a new word) contribute to the devactice(e.g. rehearsing a new word) contribute to the development of linguistic competence while strategies involelopment of linguistic competence while strategies involving functional practice(e.g. seeking out native speakers ving functional practice(e.g. seeking out native speakers to talk to) aid the development of communicative skills.to talk to) aid the development of communicative skills.

► The study of learning strategies is of potential value to laThe study of learning strategies is of potential value to language teachers. If strategies that are crucial for learninnguage teachers. If strategies that are crucial for learning can be identified, it may prove possible to train studeng can be identified, it may prove possible to train students to use them. In the next section we will examine this its to use them. In the next section we will examine this idea in a broader context when we discuss the role of insdea in a broader context when we discuss the role of instruction in L2 acquisition.truction in L2 acquisition.

11.4 Instruction and L2 11.4 Instruction and L2 AcquisitionAcquisition

One of the goals SLA is to improve language teaOne of the goals SLA is to improve language teaching. Here we will consider ching. Here we will consider threethree branches of t branches of this research. his research.

The first concerns whether teaching learners grThe first concerns whether teaching learners grammar has any influence on their interlanguage ammar has any influence on their interlanguage development. Do learners learn the structures tdevelopment. Do learners learn the structures they are taught? hey are taught?

The second draws on the research into individuThe second draws on the research into individual learner differences. Do learners learn better if al learner differences. Do learners learn better if the kind of instruction they receive matches theithe kind of instruction they receive matches their preferred ways of learning an L2?r preferred ways of learning an L2?

The third branch looks at the training of strategThe third branch looks at the training of strategies used by “good language learners”.ies used by “good language learners”.

11.4.1 Form-focused 11.4.1 Form-focused instructioninstruction

► Instruction which draws attention to the forms aInstruction which draws attention to the forms and structures of the language within the context nd structures of the language within the context of communicative interaction is called of communicative interaction is called form-focform-focused instruction. used instruction.

► The The grammar-translation methodgrammar-translation method and and the audiothe audiolingual methodlingual method both attempt to teach learners g both attempt to teach learners grammar, and their only difference is how this is trammar, and their only difference is how this is to be fulfilled. More recently, however, language o be fulfilled. More recently, however, language pedagogy has emphasized the need to provide lpedagogy has emphasized the need to provide learners with real communicative experiences. Cearners with real communicative experiences. Communicative language teaching is based on thommunicative language teaching is based on the assumption that learners do not need to be tae assumption that learners do not need to be taught grammar before they can communicate buught grammar before they can communicate but will acquire it naturally as part of the learning pt will acquire it naturally as part of the learning process.rocess.

11.4.2 Learner-instruction 11.4.2 Learner-instruction matchingmatching

► Learner-instruction matchingLearner-instruction matching involves an attem involves an attempt to ensure that the teaching style is suited to tpt to ensure that the teaching style is suited to the learner. It is based on the assumption that lehe learner. It is based on the assumption that learners have different learning styles and that thearners have different learning styles and that they will learn most effectively if the instruction may will learn most effectively if the instruction matches their particular learning styles.tches their particular learning styles.

► Educational research which has investigated thEducational research which has investigated the effects of such instruction is sometimes referree effects of such instruction is sometimes referred to as d to as aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI).aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI).

11.4.3 Strategy 11.4.3 Strategy TrainingTraining

► Most of the research on Most of the research on strategy trainingstrategy training or or learner trainilearner trainingng has concentrated on vocabulary learning. Training st has concentrated on vocabulary learning. Training students to use strategies that concern different ways of udents to use strategies that concern different ways of making associations with target words has generally promaking associations with target words has generally proved successful. ved successful.

► For example, the key word method requires learners to form two For example, the key word method requires learners to form two kinds of associations. First, learners associate the target word witkinds of associations. First, learners associate the target word with a word which is the same or similar to an L1 word, e.g. the Japah a word which is the same or similar to an L1 word, e.g. the Japanese word “ohio”, meaning “morning”, might be associated with nese word “ohio”, meaning “morning”, might be associated with “Ohio”, a state in the United States. Second, the L1 word is linke“Ohio”, a state in the United States. Second, the L1 word is linked to a mental image that incorporates the meaning of the target wd to a mental image that incorporates the meaning of the target word, e.g. the learner thinks of a very cold morning in winter in Ohord, e.g. the learner thinks of a very cold morning in winter in Ohio. It has been shown that these associations can help to memorizio. It has been shown that these associations can help to memorize the target word. e the target word.

The idea of strategy training is attractive The idea of strategy training is attractive because it provides a way helping learners to because it provides a way helping learners to become autonomous, that is, of enabling them to become autonomous, that is, of enabling them to take responsibility for their own learning.take responsibility for their own learning.