Chapter 10 Thinking and Language. Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology The study of mental...

Chapter 10Chapter 10Thinking and LanguageThinking and Language

Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology

Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology The study of mental processes by which The study of mental processes by which

the information humans receive from the information humans receive from their environment is modified, made their environment is modified, made meaningful, stored, retrieved, meaningful, stored, retrieved,

used, and communicated to used, and communicated to

othersothers

Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology

ThinkingThinking The manipulation of mental The manipulation of mental

representationsrepresentations

CognitionCognition (from a Latin word meaning “to think”) (from a Latin word meaning “to think”)

Includes reasoning, problem solving, Includes reasoning, problem solving, and decision makingand decision making

Mental Representations: The Mental Representations: The Ingredients of ThoughtIngredients of Thought

As fast as you can, tell me how many As fast as you can, tell me how many windows are in the house where you windows are in the house where you live.live.

So…more window means more time to So…more window means more time to count them in your head? Mentally count them in your head? Mentally walking through a bigger house in your walking through a bigger house in your head would take longer the “walking” head would take longer the “walking” through a smaller onethrough a smaller one


ConceptConcept Categories of object, events, or ideas Categories of object, events, or ideas

with common properties. with common properties. Concepts may be either concrete or Concepts may be either concrete or

abstractabstract


Types of ConceptsTypes of Concepts Artificial Concept (Formal Concept):Artificial Concept (Formal Concept):

Can be clearly defined by a set of rules Can be clearly defined by a set of rules or properties such that each member of or properties such that each member of the concept has all the defining the concept has all the defining properties and no nonmember doesproperties and no nonmember doesExamples: Examples:

Registered VotersRegistered Voters,,

Double-blind experimentsDouble-blind experiments


Types of ConceptsTypes of Concepts Natural Concepts:Natural Concepts: have no set of have no set of

defining features but instead have defining features but instead have characteristic features– members of this characteristic features– members of this concept must have at least some of concept must have at least some of these characteristicsthese characteristicsExample: Example:


Types of ConceptsTypes of Concepts Prototypes: Prototypes: Objects or events that best Objects or events that best

represent a natural concept, an example of a represent a natural concept, an example of a concept that closely matches the defining concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a conceptcharacteristics of a concept

Example: Poems are passages that rhymeExample: Poems are passages that rhyme

(See sample- powerpoint)(See sample- powerpoint)


Representing ConceptsRepresenting Concepts Schemas: Schemas: Generalization we develop Generalization we develop

about categories of objects, events, and about categories of objects, events, and peoplepeople

Scripts Scripts Schemas about familiar Schemas about familiar sequences of events or activitiessequences of events or activities


Propositions: Propositions: Simple ideas about the Simple ideas about the relationships between and among relationships between and among concepts. They may be true or falseconcepts. They may be true or false Example: Apples are redExample: Apples are red


Mental Models:Mental Models: A personal theory, a A personal theory, a concept about how a system functions. concept about how a system functions. Mental models tend to be incomplete, and Mental models tend to be incomplete, and therefore naturally evolvingtherefore naturally evolving

Example: You may have a mental model of Example: You may have a mental model of how your car workshow your car works

Thinking StrategiesThinking Strategies

Reasoning: Reasoning: the process through which the process through which people generate and evaluate arguments, people generate and evaluate arguments, and reach conclusions about themand reach conclusions about them Formal ReasoningFormal Reasoning Informal ReasoningInformal Reasoning


Formal Reasoning:Formal Reasoning: Includes mental Includes mental procedures that yield valid conclusionsprocedures that yield valid conclusions

(deductive reasoning)(deductive reasoning) Algorithms:Algorithms:

Every possible solution is explored. Every possible solution is explored. Guarantees problems will be solved Guarantees problems will be solved eventually, although this method is eventually, although this method is

VERY time consumingVERY time consuming

Try to find another word using all the letters of

CINERAMA

If you used an algorithm to solve this you would have generated 20,160 possible combinations


Syllogisms:Syllogisms: An argument made up of An argument made up of two propositions, called premises. They two propositions, called premises. They require deductive reasoning.require deductive reasoning.

Is the following reasoning valid?Is the following reasoning valid?All cats are animalsAll cats are animals

All cats have four legsAll cats have four legs

Therefore, all animal have four legsTherefore, all animal have four legs


Three Sources for Making Errors in Three Sources for Making Errors in Formal ReasoningFormal Reasoning 1. Bias about conclusions:1. Bias about conclusions: People may People may

be swayed by their preconceived notionsbe swayed by their preconceived notions


Three Sources for Making Errors in Three Sources for Making Errors in Formal ReasoningFormal Reasoning

2. Conversion Effect The assumption 2. Conversion Effect The assumption

that the premises are symmetrical that the premises are symmetrical

when often they are notwhen often they are not

Example: If A implies B, then B implies AExample: If A implies B, then B implies A

Example: Some A are B

Some B are C

Therefore some A are C

(Let’s substitute Women, democrats, and men)


Three Sources for Making Errors in Three Sources for Making Errors in Formal ReasoningFormal Reasoning

3. Limits on working memory: 3. Limits on working memory: WhenWhen

the amount of material that needs to bethe amount of material that needs to be

manipulated exceeds the capacity of manipulated exceeds the capacity of

working memory, logical errors canworking memory, logical errors can

easily resultseasily results


Cultural Differences in Formal ReasoningCultural Differences in Formal Reasoning Chinese people have much more difficulty in Chinese people have much more difficulty in

considering hypothetical propositions that are not considering hypothetical propositions that are not currently true (counterfactual arguments) than do currently true (counterfactual arguments) than do AmericansAmericans


Estimate the percentage of accused felons Estimate the percentage of accused felons that plead insanity. Of that percentage, that plead insanity. Of that percentage, how many (what percent) are ultimately how many (what percent) are ultimately acquitted?acquitted?

Then fill out the sheet in your note taking Then fill out the sheet in your note taking guide, estimating which event is more guide, estimating which event is more likelylikely


Informal Reasoning:Informal Reasoning: Comes into play when we are trying to access Comes into play when we are trying to access

the believability of a conclusion based on the the believability of a conclusion based on the evidence availably to support.evidence availably to support.

(inductive reasoning)(inductive reasoning) Examples: Examples: - Jurors use informal reasoning when weighing - Jurors use informal reasoning when weighing

evidence for (or against) a theory.evidence for (or against) a theory.-Air crash investigators use it in their effort to -Air crash investigators use it in their effort to

discover and eliminate the causes of discover and eliminate the causes of commercial aviation accidents.commercial aviation accidents.

Thinking StrategiesThinking Strategies Heuristics:Heuristics: General rules or rules of General rules or rules of

thumb usually providing shortcuts, but may thumb usually providing shortcuts, but may produce more errors than algorithms. This produce more errors than algorithms. This type of reasoning is possible when the type of reasoning is possible when the person has some knowledge and person has some knowledge and experience to draw on for the solutionexperience to draw on for the solution


Anchoring Heuristic (Framing Effect):Anchoring Heuristic (Framing Effect): Occurs when you estimate an event’s probability of Occurs when you estimate an event’s probability of

occurrence and then make adjustments to that occurrence and then make adjustments to that estimate based on additional information. We estimate based on additional information. We tend, however, to make adjustments that are too tend, however, to make adjustments that are too small.small.

Example: Mississippi River (anchoring)Example: Mississippi River (anchoring) Beef: 20% fat rather than 80% lean (framing)Beef: 20% fat rather than 80% lean (framing) Surgeon: 2% death rate rather than 98% success Surgeon: 2% death rate rather than 98% success

raterate

Is the Mississippi River longer or shorter than 500 miles?

500 miles

Is the Mississippi River longer or shorter than 5000 miles?

5000 miles


Representativeness Heuristics: Representativeness Heuristics: A rule of thumb for judging the likelihood

of an event in terms of how well it seems to represent, or match, particular a prototype or stereotype. It may lead one to ignore other relevant information


A stranger tells you about a person who is short, slim, and likes to read poetry, and then asks you to guess whether this person is more likely to be a professor of classics at an Ivy League university or a truck driver. Which would be a better guess?


Availability Heuristics: Availability Heuristics: A rule of thumb for estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are likely

Problem SolvingProblem Solving

The most efficient approach to problem The most efficient approach to problem solving would be to follow the following solving would be to follow the following steps:steps:

1.1. Diagnose the problem (elaboration stage)Diagnose the problem (elaboration stage)

2.2. Formulate a plan for solving itFormulate a plan for solving it

3.3. Execute the planExecute the plan

4.4. Evaluate the results to determine if the Evaluate the results to determine if the problem remainsproblem remains


Strategies for Problem SolvingStrategies for Problem Solving Decomposition

Dividing the problem into smaller more manageable Dividing the problem into smaller more manageable subproblemssubproblems

Working Backward An example is starting at the finish box of a maze and An example is starting at the finish box of a maze and

working to the startworking to the start Analogies Try to think of other problems that are similar because Try to think of other problems that are similar because

similar strategies may worksimilar strategies may work Incubation Sometimes it is necessary to put the problem aside for Sometimes it is necessary to put the problem aside for

while and approach it with a fresh perspectivewhile and approach it with a fresh perspective

Come up with an example of a time when you used each of these problem solving strategies


Two Disadvantages of Using Case Two Disadvantages of Using Case Studies to Solve ProblemsStudies to Solve Problems

1. Striking-Feature Syndrome1. Striking-Feature Syndrome

When an unusual feature in a caseWhen an unusual feature in a case chosen for study is given too much weightchosen for study is given too much weight 2. Causal Uncertainty2. Causal Uncertainty

One can not conclude a causal One can not conclude a causal relationship between variables with a relationship between variables with a case study because the person may case study because the person may being studying an atypical casebeing studying an atypical case


Factors that Influenced the Success Factors that Influenced the Success of the Wright Brothersof the Wright Brothers

1. Time1. Time 2. Familiarity with the tools in the 2. Familiarity with the tools in the problemproblem 3. Rapport with each other3. Rapport with each other 4. Skillful4. Skillful 5. Decomposition5. Decomposition


Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving Multiple HypothesisMultiple Hypothesis Mental SetsMental Sets Confirmation BiasConfirmation Bias Belief PerseveranceBelief Perseverance


Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving Multiple Hypothesis: Multiple Hypothesis: One should One should

systematically set out to test each systematically set out to test each hypothesis separately. At times, hypothesis separately. At times, however, the availability heuristic causes however, the availability heuristic causes people to concentrate on people to concentrate on

the first hypothesis that the first hypothesis that

comes to mind and ignore comes to mind and ignore

other possibilitiesother possibilities


Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving Mental Sets:Mental Sets: The tendency for old The tendency for old

patterns of problem patterns of problem solving solving to persist. In to persist. In other words, other words, the inability the inability to see a to see a problem problem from a fresh from a fresh perspectiveperspective

Directions: Connect all nine dots using four (and only 4) straight lines. You cannot retrace a line and you cannot lift your pen


Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving Mental Sets:Mental Sets:

Functional Fixedness: Functional Fixedness: The The tendency to use familiar objects in tendency to use familiar objects in familiar ways rather than in creative familiar ways rather than in creative waysways Flexible, rational thinking becomes more Flexible, rational thinking becomes more

difficult in times of stress and tensiondifficult in times of stress and tension

Problem SolvingProblem Solving Example of a functional fixednessExample of a functional fixedness During the Korean War, a paratrooper readying for a During the Korean War, a paratrooper readying for a

mission was given the last parachute—a left-handed one. mission was given the last parachute—a left-handed one. “It’s the same as the others,” explained the ordnance “It’s the same as the others,” explained the ordnance sergeant, “but the rip cord hand is on the left side of the sergeant, “but the rip cord hand is on the left side of the harness.” At 8,000 feet, the soldiers jumped one by one, harness.” At 8,000 feet, the soldiers jumped one by one, and all went well—except for this one man who fell straight and all went well—except for this one man who fell straight to his death. Investigators discovered that under the stress to his death. Investigators discovered that under the stress of the jump the man had become fixated on the familiar way of the jump the man had become fixated on the familiar way to open a chute. The right side of his uniform, where to open a chute. The right side of his uniform, where normally he found the rip cord, was completely torn off. normally he found the rip cord, was completely torn off. Even his chest flesh had been gouged by his bloody right Even his chest flesh had been gouged by his bloody right hand. Inches to the left was the rip cord, apparently hand. Inches to the left was the rip cord, apparently untoucheduntouched


Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving Confirmation Bias:Confirmation Bias: A tendency to A tendency to

search for information that confirms search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions and avoid one’s preconceptions and avoid information that refutes one’s information that refutes one’s preconceptionspreconceptions

Which card/s must you turn over to prove the following statement false?

"If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side."


Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving Belief Perseverance (Ignoring Belief Perseverance (Ignoring

negative evidence): negative evidence): Clinging to our beliefs in the face of Clinging to our beliefs in the face of

contrary evidence.contrary evidence.

Once a belief is formed it takes more Once a belief is formed it takes more compelling evidence to change it than compelling evidence to change it than it did to create it originallyit did to create it originally


Building Problem-Solving SkillsBuilding Problem-Solving Skills Experts are better at seeing analogies Experts are better at seeing analogies

between current and past problems. between current and past problems. They also perceive similarity between They also perceive similarity between problems on a deeper level than problems on a deeper level than novices. However, experts are also novices. However, experts are also more prone to functional fixedness more prone to functional fixedness and mental setsand mental sets

Decision MakingDecision Making

Risky decisions are decisions made Risky decisions are decisions made when the result is uncertainwhen the result is uncertain


Evaluating Options: Evaluating Options: Multiattribute decision making Multiattribute decision making

involves choosing between options involves choosing between options that have both positive and negative that have both positive and negative features, or attributesfeatures, or attributes


Evaluating Options:Evaluating Options: Comparing Attributes: It is difficult to Comparing Attributes: It is difficult to

consider all attributes simultaneously consider all attributes simultaneously (we can’t hold them all in working (we can’t hold them all in working memory) As a result, we tend to focus memory) As a result, we tend to focus on the attribute that is most important to on the attribute that is most important to us)us)Utility: Any subjective measure of valueUtility: Any subjective measure of value

College Distance From home

Cost AcademicReputation

Party School

Total


Evaluating Options:Evaluating Options: Estimating Probabilities:Estimating Probabilities: In addition In addition

to considering the attributes of our to considering the attributes of our options we must also consider the options we must also consider the probabilities and risks of their possible probabilities and risks of their possible outcomesoutcomesExpected Value: Expected Value: The total amount of The total amount of

benefits you could expect to receive if the benefits you could expect to receive if the decision was repeated on several decision was repeated on several occasions (We should try to maximize the occasions (We should try to maximize the expected value)expected value)


Biases and Flaw in Decision MakingBiases and Flaw in Decision Making Gains, Losses, and Probabilities:Gains, Losses, and Probabilities: Weber’s Weber’s

law applies here. How much a difference in law applies here. How much a difference in value means to us is partly dependent on value means to us is partly dependent on what we already havewhat we already have


Biases and Flaw in Decision MakingBiases and Flaw in Decision Making Gains, Losses, and ProbabilitiesGains, Losses, and Probabilities

Gambler’s Fallacy: Gambler’s Fallacy: The false belief that The false belief that events in a random process will correct events in a random process will correct themselvesthemselves


Biases and Flaw in Decision MakingBiases and Flaw in Decision Making Gains, Losses, and ProbabilitiesGains, Losses, and Probabilities

Overconfidence:Overconfidence: The tendency for people The tendency for people to be unrealistically confident about the to be unrealistically confident about the accuracy in their predictionsaccuracy in their predictions Benefits of overconfidence:Benefits of overconfidence:

Overconfident people live more happily and find Overconfident people live more happily and find it easier to make tough decisionsit easier to make tough decisions

Chinese people are more likely to be Chinese people are more likely to be overconfident than Americansoverconfident than Americans

Decision MakingDecision Making Biases and Flaw in Decision MakingBiases and Flaw in Decision Making

How Biased Are We?How Biased Are We? Individualist Cultures vs. Collective Individualist Cultures vs. Collective

CulturesCultures People in individualist cultures may People in individualist cultures may

tend to assign higher utilities to tend to assign higher utilities to attributes that promote personal goals, attributes that promote personal goals, whereas those in collectivite cultures whereas those in collectivite cultures might place greater value on attributes might place greater value on attributes that bring the group harmonythat bring the group harmony


Group Processes in Problem Group Processes in Problem Solving and Decision MakingSolving and Decision Making Group Polarization: Group Polarization: The enhancement The enhancement

of a group’s prevailing attitudes through of a group’s prevailing attitudes through discussiondiscussion

Group PolarizationGroup Polarization Henry is a writer who is said to have considerable Henry is a writer who is said to have considerable

creative talent but who so far has been earning a creative talent but who so far has been earning a comfortable living by writing cheap Westerns. comfortable living by writing cheap Westerns. Recently he has come up with an idea for a potentially Recently he has come up with an idea for a potentially significant novel. If it could be written and accepted, it significant novel. If it could be written and accepted, it might have considerable literary impact and be a big might have considerable literary impact and be a big boost to his career. On the other hand, if he is not boost to his career. On the other hand, if he is not able to work out his idea or if the novel is a flop, he will able to work out his idea or if the novel is a flop, he will have expended considerable time and energy without have expended considerable time and energy without remuneration.remuneration.

What is the What is the lowestlowest probability for success that you probability for success that you would consider acceptable for Henry to attempt to would consider acceptable for Henry to attempt to write the novel?write the novel?

Group PolarizationGroup Polarization Roger, a married man with two children of school age, has a Roger, a married man with two children of school age, has a

secure job that pays him about 50,000 per year. He can secure job that pays him about 50,000 per year. He can easily afford the necessities of life, but few of the luxuries. easily afford the necessities of life, but few of the luxuries. Except for a life insurance policy he has no savings. Roger Except for a life insurance policy he has no savings. Roger has heard from reliable sources that the stock of a relatively has heard from reliable sources that the stock of a relatively unknown Company X might triple its present value if a new unknown Company X might triple its present value if a new product currently in production is favorably received by the product currently in production is favorably received by the buying public. On the other hand, if the product is rejected, buying public. On the other hand, if the product is rejected, the stock might decline considerably in value. Roger is the stock might decline considerably in value. Roger is thinking of investing his life insurance money in this thinking of investing his life insurance money in this company. company.

What is the lowest probably of chance that the stock will What is the lowest probably of chance that the stock will triple that you would consider acceptable for Roger in invest triple that you would consider acceptable for Roger in invest in Company X stock?in Company X stock?

LanguageLanguage

Language:Language: Our spoken, written or Our spoken, written or gestured words and how we gestured words and how we

combine them to communicate combine them to communicate

meaning.meaning.

LanguageLanguage

The Elements of LanguageThe Elements of Language Language has two basic elements:Language has two basic elements:

1.1. Symbols: Symbols: WordsWords

2. Grammar: 2. Grammar: a set of rules in a language a set of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and that enables us to communicate with and understand othersunderstand others

LanguageLanguage

From Sounds to SentencesFrom Sounds to Sentences Phonemes:Phonemes:

Basic Sounds- examples b, ch, shBasic Sounds- examples b, ch, sh Once we learn the phonemes of our language it is Once we learn the phonemes of our language it is

difficult to learn how to pronounce the phonemes difficult to learn how to pronounce the phonemes of another languageof another language

The English language has 40 phonemesThe English language has 40 phonemes Changing the phoneme in a word changes the Changing the phoneme in a word changes the

word’s meaning (i.e. bat = cat). However, word’s meaning (i.e. bat = cat). However, phonemes themselves are not meaningfulphonemes themselves are not meaningful

How many phonemes (sounds) are How many phonemes (sounds) are in the following words?in the following words?

ChinsChins ThreeThree WishWish HabitsHabits ThingThing PleasePlease PsychologyPsychology SunSun BookkeeperBookkeeper DogDog

LanguageLanguage

From Sounds to SentencesFrom Sounds to Sentences Morphemes:Morphemes:

The smallest meaningful unit in a language. The smallest meaningful unit in a language. For example I, a. For example I, a.

Usually, however a morpheme is a Usually, however a morpheme is a combination of two or more phonemes.combination of two or more phonemes. Examples: car, fun, and pre/suffixes such as Examples: car, fun, and pre/suffixes such as

un and edun and ed

How many morphemes are in the How many morphemes are in the following words?following words?

PeoplePeople RedevelopmentRedevelopment SwimmingSwimming OrangeOrange GrandmotherGrandmother George’sGeorge’s HouseboatsHouseboats EducationEducation MisspellMisspell

LanguageLanguage From Sounds to SentencesFrom Sounds to Sentences

MorphemesMorphemesOverregulatization of morphemes: Overregulatization of morphemes: Since Since

children generally avoid or discount children generally avoid or discount exceptions to a rule, they will often exceptions to a rule, they will often overextend new grammatical morphemes to overextend new grammatical morphemes to cases in which the adult form is irregular. cases in which the adult form is irregular.

For example: “I brushed my tooths”For example: “I brushed my tooths” ““She goed to the store”She goed to the store”

LanguageLanguage

From Sounds to SentencesFrom Sounds to Sentences Words: Words: Made up of one or more Made up of one or more

morphemesmorphemes

LanguageLanguage

Count the number of morphemes in the Count the number of morphemes in the following sentencefollowing sentence

Sometimes a single phoneme can beSometimes a single phoneme can be

a morpheme as in I.a morpheme as in I. ( sound)( sound)

Answer = 15: Some time s a single phon Answer = 15: Some time s a single phon (a unit of something) (meaning)(a unit of something) (meaning)

eme can be a morph eme as in Ieme can be a morph eme as in I

LanguageLanguage

Rules of SyntaxRules of Syntax Grammatical rules for combining words Grammatical rules for combining words

into grammatically sensible sentences.into grammatically sensible sentences.

For example: in English, adjectives For example: in English, adjectives come come beforebefore nouns nouns

LanguageLanguage Semantics:Semantics:

Meaning (or the study of meaning) as derived Meaning (or the study of meaning) as derived from morphemes, words, and sentences.from morphemes, words, and sentences.

For example: They are hunting dogsFor example: They are hunting dogs

(the rules of syntax tells us that this is a proper (the rules of syntax tells us that this is a proper sentence. The rules of semantics, however, tells sentence. The rules of semantics, however, tells us that it depends on the context of which the us that it depends on the context of which the sentence is written whether it refers to people sentence is written whether it refers to people looking for dogs or dogs looking for other looking for dogs or dogs looking for other animals)animals)

LanguageLanguage

Surface Structure and Deep StructureSurface Structure and Deep Structure

(Studied by Noam Chomsky)(Studied by Noam Chomsky)

Surface Structure:Surface Structure: The words actually spoken The words actually spoken

Deep Structure:Deep Structure: The underlying meaning of a The underlying meaning of a sentencesentence

LanguageLanguage

A sentence could have one surface structure but two deep structures.

LanguageLanguage

Two sentences can have different surface structures but similar deep structures. Example: “The dog bit the boy.” “The boy was bitten by the dog.”

LanguageLanguage

Understanding SpeechUnderstanding Speech Perception of speech involves both bottom-up Perception of speech involves both bottom-up

and top-down processing.and top-down processing. Perceiving Words and Sentences:Perceiving Words and Sentences: Due to top-down processing we perceive pauses Due to top-down processing we perceive pauses

between words even though they don’t occur. The between words even though they don’t occur. The pauses actually occur within the words pauses actually occur within the words themselves.themselves.

We also use our knowledge about grammatical We also use our knowledge about grammatical structure, the meaning of words, and the world structure, the meaning of words, and the world itself to help us process and understand languageitself to help us process and understand language

LanguageLanguage

Understanding SpeechUnderstanding Speech Using Context and Scripts:Using Context and Scripts:

We use the context in which words are We use the context in which words are written or spoken to interpret meaning.written or spoken to interpret meaning.

Example: Do you know what time it is?Example: Do you know what time it is?

The bandage was wound around the wound.

The farm was used to produce produce.

The dump was so full that I had to refuse more refuse.

We must polish the Polish furniture.

He could lead if he would get the lead out.

The soldier decided to desert his dessert in the desert.

How can I intimate this to my most intimate friend?

A bass was painted on the head of the bass drum.

When shot at, the dove dove into the bushes.

I did not object to the object.

LanguageLanguage

Understanding SpeechUnderstanding Speech Conventions and Nonverbal CuesConventions and Nonverbal Cues

Our social norms also govern Our social norms also govern conversations.conversations.

People also understand conversations People also understand conversations by considering nonverbal cues.by considering nonverbal cues.

LanguageLanguage

Learning to SpeakLearning to Speak Stages of Language DevelopmentStages of Language Development

Once we learn to speak we use the Once we learn to speak we use the rules of language naturally and rules of language naturally and automatically. automatically.

Most of us can not even identify the Most of us can not even identify the rules we are apply.rules we are apply.

LanguageLanguage Learning to SpeakLearning to Speak

Stages of Language DevelopmentStages of Language DevelopmentBabbling:Babbling:

Begins at 4 monthsBegins at 4 months Is a string of alternating consonants and vowelsIs a string of alternating consonants and vowels Are meaningless and NOT imitation of adult speechAre meaningless and NOT imitation of adult speech Up until 9 months babies babble in all languagesUp until 9 months babies babble in all languages At 9 months babbles begin to be meaningfulAt 9 months babbles begin to be meaningful At 10-12 months the baby’s receptive language is At 10-12 months the baby’s receptive language is

much better than their productive languagemuch better than their productive language Proper names and objects are the first things they Proper names and objects are the first things they

understandunderstand

LanguageLanguage

Stages of Language Development:Stages of Language Development: One-Word StageOne-Word Stage

This stage lasts about 6 months. It proceeds This stage lasts about 6 months. It proceeds very slowly as babies build their vocabulary 1 very slowly as babies build their vocabulary 1 word at a time. In fact, 3-4 months may pass word at a time. In fact, 3-4 months may pass before the “verbal” child develops a before the “verbal” child develops a productive vocabulary of 10 wordsproductive vocabulary of 10 words

LanguageLanguage

Stages of Language Development:Stages of Language Development: One-Word Stage:One-Word Stage:

Once the child reaches this 10-word Once the child reaches this 10-word milestone, they begin to add new words at milestone, they begin to add new words at a faster rate. By 20 months of age, many a faster rate. By 20 months of age, many children have working vocabularies of 50 children have working vocabularies of 50 words or more. By age 24 months they are words or more. By age 24 months they are producing an average of 186 words.producing an average of 186 words. Holophrastic Speech:Holophrastic Speech: a single word that a single word that

represents an entire sentence’s worth of represents an entire sentence’s worth of meaning.meaning.

LanguageLanguage

Stages of Language Development:Stages of Language Development: First Sentences: First Sentences: This usually occurs This usually occurs

around 2 years of age when children begin around 2 years of age when children begin combining two-word pairs to make their combining two-word pairs to make their first sentences.first sentences.Telegraphic Speech: The first sentences that Telegraphic Speech: The first sentences that

consist solely of content words and omit the consist solely of content words and omit the less meaningful parts of speech, such as less meaningful parts of speech, such as articles, prepositions, pronouns, and auxiliary articles, prepositions, pronouns, and auxiliary verbs.verbs.

LanguageLanguage Stages of Language Development:Stages of Language Development:

What do Children Talk About?What do Children Talk About?

Children talk about what interest them, Children talk about what interest them, and what interests them are objects that and what interests them are objects that move, make noise, or can be acted on.move, make noise, or can be acted on.

LanguageLanguage

Stages of Language Development:Stages of Language Development: Complex Sentences:Complex Sentences: By age three By age three

children are using more complex children are using more complex sentences. They are beginning to ask sentences. They are beginning to ask questions and talk about something in questions and talk about something in the past tense.the past tense.

LanguageLanguage

How is Language Acquired?How is Language Acquired? Conditioning, Imitation, and RulesConditioning, Imitation, and Rules

Operant Conditioning: Operant Conditioning: Children are Children are reinforced for using words so those reinforced for using words so those words are repeated. Children are words are repeated. Children are corrected for incorrect syntax so that corrected for incorrect syntax so that syntax is corrected. Operant syntax is corrected. Operant conditioning, however, does not explain conditioning, however, does not explain overgeneralization of rules. overgeneralization of rules.

LanguageLanguage How is Language Acquired?How is Language Acquired?

Biological Bases For Language AcquisitionBiological Bases For Language Acquisition Noam Chomsky: Noam Chomsky: Argues that children are prewired to Argues that children are prewired to

learn language. Believes that humans are born with a learn language. Believes that humans are born with a LAD (Language Acquisition Device). This allows children LAD (Language Acquisition Device). This allows children to internalize the rules of language without being aware of to internalize the rules of language without being aware of doing it.doing it.Evidence: Children make up words that follow Evidence: Children make up words that follow

language but are incorrect (i.e. goed).language but are incorrect (i.e. goed).

Deaf children make up a system of gestures Deaf children make up a system of gestures that have several of the same properties as the that have several of the same properties as the natural spoken languagenatural spoken language

LanguageLanguage

How is Language Acquired?How is Language Acquired? Elizabeth Bates: suggests that the Elizabeth Bates: suggests that the

development of language is a reflection of development of language is a reflection of children’s development of other cognitive children’s development of other cognitive skills.skills. Evidence: Children learn short words before long Evidence: Children learn short words before long

words because limitations in short-term memory words because limitations in short-term memory and other cognitive abilities lead them to learn and other cognitive abilities lead them to learn easy tasks before harder one.easy tasks before harder one.

LanguageLanguage

How is Language Acquired? How is Language Acquired? Critical Period:Critical Period: There seems to be a There seems to be a

critical period for language (a time period critical period for language (a time period when language can be learned the easiest)when language can be learned the easiest)

(The critical period seems to be before (The critical period seems to be before puberty)puberty)

LanguageLanguage

Bilingualism:Bilingualism: Recent research has Recent research has shown that being a balanced bilingual shown that being a balanced bilingual (having roughly equal mastery of two (having roughly equal mastery of two languages) is actually beneficial for languages) is actually beneficial for children’s overall language developmentchildren’s overall language development

LanguageLanguage

Knowledge, Language, and CultureKnowledge, Language, and Culture Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis:

Theory that language determines how we Theory that language determines how we thinkthink

The Inuits have many words for snow (estimates range from 23- >100) therefore snow is important to them

Chapter 10 Thinking and Language. Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology The study of mental...

Documents

Transcript of Chapter 10 Thinking and Language. Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology The study of mental...