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AUSTRALIAN ENERGY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
261
Chapter 10Solar Energy
10.1.1 World solar energy resources and market • Theworld’soverallsolarenergyresourcepotential
isaround5.6gigajoules(GJ)(1.6megawatt-hours(MWh))persquaremetreperyear.ThehighestsolarresourcepotentialisintheRedSeaarea,includingEgyptandSaudiArabia.
• Solarenergyaccountedfor0.1percentofworldtotalprimaryenergyconsumptionin2007,althoughitsusehasincreasedsignificantlyinrecentyears.
• Governmentpoliciesandfallinginvestment costsandrisksareprojectedtobethemainfactorsunderpinningfuturegrowthinworld solar energy use.
• TheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)initsreferencecaseprojectstheshareofsolarenergyintotalelectricitygenerationwillincreaseto1.2percentin2030–1.7percentinOECDcountriesand0.9percentinnon-OECDcountries.
10.1.2Australia’ssolarenergyresources• TheannualsolarradiationfallingonAustralia
isapproximately58millionpetajoules(PJ),approximately10000timesAustralia’sannualenergyconsumption.
• SolarenergyresourcesaregreaterinthenorthwestandcentreofAustralia,inareasthatdonothaveaccesstothenationalelectricitygrid.Accessingsolarenergyresourcesintheseareas
islikelytorequireinvestmentintransmissioninfrastructure(figure10.1).
• Therearealsosignificantsolarenergyresourcesinareaswithaccesstotheelectricitygrid.Thesolarenergyresource(annualsolarradiation)inareasofflattopographywithin25kmofexistingtransmissionlines(excludingNationalParks),isnearly500timesgreaterthantheannualenergyconsumptionofAustralia.
10.1.3KeyfactorsinutilisingAustralia’s solar resources• Solarradiationisintermittentbecauseofdaily
andseasonalvariations.However,thecorrelationbetweensolarradiationanddaytimepeakelectricitydemandmeansthatsolarenergyhasthepotentialtoprovideelectricityduringpeakdemandtimes.
• Solarthermaltechnologiescanalsooperateinhybridsystemswithfossilfuelpowerplants,and,withappropriatestorage,havethepotentialtoprovidebaseloadelectricitygeneration.Solarthermaltechnologiescanalsopotentiallyprovideelectricitytoremotetownshipsandminingcentreswherethecostofalternativeelectricitysourcesishigh.
• Photovoltaicsystemsarewellsuitedtooff-gridelectricitygenerationapplications,andwherecostsofelectricitygenerationfromothersourcesarehigh(suchasinremotecommunities).
10.1Summary
K E y m E S S a g E S
• Solarenergyisavastandlargelyuntappedresource.Australiahasthehighestaveragesolarradiationpersquaremetreofanycontinentintheworld.
• Solarenergyisusedmainlyinsmalldirect-useapplicationssuchaswaterheating.Itaccountsforonly0.1percentoftotalprimaryenergyconsumption,inAustraliaaswellasglobally.
• SolarenergyuseinAustraliaisprojectedtoincreaseby5.9percentperyearto24PJin 2029–30.
• Theoutlookforelectricitygenerationfromsolarenergydependscriticallyonthecommercialisationoflarge-scalesolarenergytechnologiesthatwillreduceinvestmentcostsandrisks.
• Governmentpolicysettingswillcontinuetobeanimportantfactorinthesolarenergymarketoutlook.Research,developmentanddemonstrationbyboththepublicandprivatesectorswillbecrucialinacceleratingthedevelopmentandcommercialisationofsolarenergyinAustralia,especiallylarge-scalesolarpowerstations.
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andconcentratingsolarthermaltechnologies.
• InABARE’slatestlong-termenergyprojections,
whichincludetheRenewableEnergyTarget,a5
percentemissionsreductiontarget,andother
governmentpolicies,solarenergyuseinAustralia
isprojectedtoincreasefrom7PJin2007–08
to24PJin2029–30(figure10.2).Electricity
generationfromsolarenergyisprojectedto
increasefrom0.1TWhin2007–08to4TWhin
2029–30(figure10.3).
10.2Backgroundinformationandworldmarket
10.2.1DefinitionsSolarpowerisgeneratedwhenenergyfromthesun
(sunlight)isconvertedintoelectricityorusedtoheatair,
water,orotherfluids.Asillustratedinfigure10.4,there
aretwomaintypesofsolarenergytechnologies:
• Relativelyhighcapitalcostsandrisksremaintheprimarylimitationtomorewidespreaduseofsolarenergy.Governmentclimatechangepolicies,andresearch,developmentanddemonstration(RD&D)byboththepublicandprivatesectorswillbecriticalinthefuturecommercialisationoflargescalesolarenergysystemsforelectricitygeneration.
• TheAustralianGovernmenthasestablishedaSolarFlagshipsProgramatacostof$1.5billionaspartofitsCleanEnergyInitiativetosupporttheconstructionanddemonstrationoflargescale(upto1000MW)solarpowerstationsinAustralia.
10.1.4Australia’ssolarenergymarket• In2007–08,Australia’ssolarenergyuse
represented0.1percentofAustralia’stotalprimaryenergyconsumption.Solarthermalwaterheatinghasbeenthepredominantformofsolarenergyusetodate,butelectricitygenerationis increasingthroughthedeploymentofphotovoltaic
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Figure 10.1 Annualaveragesolarradiation(inMJ/m2)andcurrentlyinstalledsolarpowerstationswithacapacity ofmorethan10kW
Source: BureauofMeteorology2009;GeoscienceAustralia
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0
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Figure 10.2 ProjectedprimaryconsumptionofsolarenergyinAustralia
Source: ABARE2009a,2010
Figure 10.3 ProjectedelectricitygenerationfromsolarenergyinAustralia
Source: ABARE2009a,2010
Electricity
AERA 10.4
Solar cells, photovoltaic arraysPhotovoltaics (PV)
Parabolic trough, power tower,parabolic dish, fresnel reflector
Concentrating Solar Thermal
Heat exchangeSolar Thermal
Space heating, food processingand cooking, distillation,desalination, industrial
hot water
Process Heat
Solar Radiation
Solar Hot Water
Figure 10.4 SolarenergyflowsSource: ABAREandGeoscienceAustralia
• Solar thermalistheconversionofsolarradiationintothermalenergy(heat).Thermalenergycarriedbyair,water,orotherfluidiscommonlyuseddirectly,forspaceheating,ortogenerateelectricityusingsteamandturbines.Solarthermaliscommonlyusedforhotwatersystems.Solarthermalelectricity,alsoknownasconcentratingsolarpower,istypicallydesignedforlargescalepowergeneration.
• Solar photovoltaic (PV)convertssunlight directlyintoelectricityusingphotovoltaiccells.PVsystemscanbeinstalledonrooftops,integratedintobuildingdesigns andvehicles,orscaleduptomegawatt scalepowerplants.PVsystemscanalsobeusedinconjunctionwithconcentratingmirrorsorlensesforlargescalecentralisedpower.
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ThehighestsolarresourcepotentialperunitlandareaisintheRedSeaarea.Australiaalsohashigherincidentsolarenergyperunitlandareathananyothercontinentintheworld.However,thedistributionofsolarenergyuseamongstcountriesreflectsgovernmentpolicysettingsthatencourageitsuse,ratherthanresourceavailability.
World solar resourcesTheamountofsolarenergyincidentontheworld’slandareafarexceedstotalworldenergydemand.Solarenergythushasthepotentialtomakeamajorcontributiontotheworld’senergyneeds.However,largescalesolarenergyproductioniscurrentlylimitedbyitshighcapitalcost.
Theannualsolarresourcevariesconsiderably aroundtheworld.Thesevariationsdependon severalfactors,includingproximitytotheequator,cloudcover,andotheratmosphericeffects. Figure10.6illustratesthevariationsinsolar energyavailability.
TheEarth’ssurface,onaverage,hasthepotentialtocapturearound5.4GJ(1.5MWh)ofsolarenergypersquaremetreayear(WEC2007).ThehighestresourcepotentialisintheRedSeaarea,includingEgyptandSaudiArabia(figure10.6).AustraliaandtheUnitedStatesalsohaveagreatersolarresourcepotentialthantheworldaverage.Muchofthispotentialcanbeexplainedbyproximitytotheequatorandaverageannualweatherpatterns.
SolarthermalandPVtechnologycanalsobecombinedintoasinglesystemthatgeneratesbothheatandelectricity.FurtherinformationonsolarthermalandPVtechnologiesisprovidedinboxes10.2and10.3insection10.4.
10.2.2SolarenergysupplychainArepresentationoftheAustraliansolarindustryisgiveninfigure10.5.Thepotentialforusingsolarenergyatagivenlocationdependslargelyonthesolarradiation,theproximitytoelectricityloadcentres,andtheavailabilityofsuitablesites.Largescalesolarpowerplantsrequireapproximately2hectaresoflandperMWofpower.Smallscaletechnologies(solarwaterheaters,PVmodulesandsmall-scalesolarconcentrators)canbeinstalledonexistingstructures,suchasrooftops.Onceasolarprojectisdeveloped,theenergyiscapturedbyheatingafluidorgasorbyusingphotovoltaiccells.Thisenergycanbeuseddirectlyashotwatersupply,convertedtoelectricity,usedasprocessheat,orstoredbyvariousmeans,suchasthermalstorage,batteries,pumpedhydroorsynthesisedfuels.
10.2.3WorldsolarenergymarketTheworldhaslargesolarenergyresourceswhichhavenotbeengreatlyutilisedtodate.Solarenergycurrentlyaccountsforaverysmallshareofworldprimaryenergyconsumption,butitsuseisprojectedtoincreasestronglyovertheoutlookperiodto2030.
End Use MarketProcessing, Transport,
StorageDevelopment and
Production
Industry
Commercial
Residential
AERA 10.5
Electricity
Power plants
Solar collection
Electricity
Thermalstorage
Solar photovoltaic
Resource potentialSolar thermal
Resource Exploration
Water heating
Batterystorage
Developmentdecision
Figure 10.5 Australia’ssolarenergysupplychainSource: ABAREandGeoscienceAustralia
CHAPTER 10: SOLAR ENERGY
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increasingatanaveragerateof10percentperyearfrom2000to2007(table10.1).Increasedconcernwithenvironmentalissuessurroundingfossilfuels,coupledwithgovernmentpoliciesthatencouragesolarenergyuse,havedrivenincreaseduptakeofsolartechnologies,especiallyPV.
From1985to1989,worldsolarenergyconsumptionincreasedatanaveragerateof19percentperyear(figure10.7).From1990to1998,therateofgrowthinsolarenergyconsumptiondecreasedto5percentperyear,beforeincreasingstronglyagainfrom1999to2007(figure10.7).
Primary energy consumptionSincesolarenergycannotcurrentlybestoredformorethanseveralhours,nortradedinitsprimaryform,solarenergyconsumptionisequaltosolarenergyproduction.Longtermstorageofsolarenergyiscurrentlyundergoingresearchanddevelopment,buthasnotyetreachedcommercialstatus.
SolarenergycontributesonlyasmallproportiontoAustralia’sprimaryenergyneeds,althoughitsshareiscomparabletotheworldaverage.Whilesolar energyaccountsforonlyaround0.1percentofworldprimaryenergyconsumption,itsusehasbeen
AERA 10.6
0 5000 km
Nil
1.0 - 1.9
2.0 - 2.9
3.0 - 3.9
4.0 - 4.9
5.0 - 5.9
6.0 - 6.9
120°E60°E0°60°W120°W
60°N
30°N
0°
30°S
Hours ofsunlightper day
Figure 10.6 Hoursofsunlightperday,duringtheworstmonthoftheyearonanoptimallytiltedsurfaceSource: SunwizeTechnologies2008
Table 10.1 Keystatisticsforthesolarenergymarket
unit australia 2007–08
OECD 2008
World 2007
Primary energy consumptiona PJ 6.9 189.4 401.8
Shareoftotal % 0.12 0.09 0.08
Averageannualgrowth,from2000 % 7.2 4.3 9.6
Electricity generation
Electricityoutput TWh 0.1 8.2 4.8
Shareoftotal % 0.04 0.08 0.02
Averageannualgrowth,from2000 % 26.1 36.3 30.8
Electricitycapacity GW 0.1 8.3 14.7
a Energyproductionandprimaryenergyconsumptionareidentical Source:IEA2009b;ABARE2009a;Watt2009;EPIA2009
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theremainderisusedforspaceheatingeitherresidentiallyorcommercially,andforheatingswimmingpools.Alloftheenergyusedfor thesepurposesiscollectedusingsolarthermaltechnology.
Themajorityofsolarenergyisproducedusing solarthermaltechnology;solarthermalcomprised 96percentoftotalsolarenergyproductionin 2007(figure10.7).Aroundhalfisusedforwaterheatingintheresidentialsector.Mostof
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150
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PJ
50
1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006
Year
Solar thermal
PJ
AERA 10.7
450
Figure 10.7 Worldprimarysolarenergyconsumption, bytechnology
Source: IEA2009b
Australia
Japan
Brazil
Israel
China
Turkey
Germany
Greece
India
China
Israel
Japan
Turkey
Germany
Greece
Australia
India
Brazil
0
PJ50 100 150 200
%0
AERA 10.8
1 2 3 4
United States
United States
a) Solar thermal use
b) Share in primary energy consumption
Figure 10.8 Directuseofsolarthermalenergy, bycountry,2007
Source: IEA2009b
1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006
YearAERA 10.9
0
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2.0
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5.0
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PV
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0%
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AERA 10.10
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United States
Spain
China
Italy
Netherlands
Switzerland
Canada
Portugal
Australia
Germany
United States
Spain
China
Italy
Netherlands
Canada
Switzerland
Portugal
Australia
a) Solar electricity generation
b) Share in total electricity generation
Republic ofKorea
Republic ofKorea
Figure 10.9 Worldelectricitygenerationfromsolarenergy,bytechnology
Source: IEA2009b
Figure 10.10 Electricitygenerationfromsolarenergy,majorcountries,2007
Source: IEA2009b
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3percentofsolarthermalenergyisconvertedtoelectricity.Until2003,moresolarthermalenergywasusedtogenerateelectricitythansolarphotovoltaicenergy(figure10.9).
Thelargestproducersofelectricityfromsolar energyin2007wereGermany(3.1TWh),theUnitedStates(0.7TWh)andSpain(0.5TWh),withallothercountrieseachproducing0.1TWhorless(figure10.10).Germanyhadthelargestshareofsolarenergyinelectricitygeneration,at0.5percent.Itisimportanttonotethattheseelectricitygenerationdatadonotincludeoff-gridPVinstallations,whichrepresentalargepartofPVuseinsomecountries.
Solar thermal energy consumptionThelargestusersofsolarthermalenergyin2007wereChina(180PJ),theUnitedStates(62PJ),Israel(31PJ)andJapan(23PJ).However,Israelhasasignificantlylargershareofsolarthermalinitstotalprimaryenergyconsumptionthananyothercountry(figure10.8).Growthinsolarthermalenergyuseinthesecountrieshasbeenlargelydrivenbygovernmentpolicies.
Electricity generationElectricitygenerationaccountsforaround5percentofprimaryconsumptionofsolarenergy.Allsolarphotovoltaicenergyiselectricity,whilearound
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01992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year
AERA 10.11
Other
Spain Japan
GermanyUnited States
Australia’s share ofsolar PV market (%)
Figure 10.11 WorldPVCapacity,1992–2007,includingoff-gridinstallationsSource: IEA-PVPS2008
Table 10.2 IEAreferencecaseprojectionsforworldsolarelectricitygeneration
unit 2007 2030
OECD TWh 4.60 220
Shareoftotal % 0.05 1.66
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030 % - 18
Non-OECD TWh 0.18 182
Shareoftotal % 0.00 0.86
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030 % - 35
World TWh 4.79 402
Shareoftotal % 0.02 1.17
Averageannualgrowth,2007–2030 % - 21
Source: IEA2009a
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Figure 10.12 AnnualaveragesolarradiationSource: BureauofMeteorology2009
Installed PV generation capacityTheIEA’sestimatesoftotalPVelectricitygenerationcapacity(includingoff-gridgeneration)showthatJapan(1.9GW)andtheUnitedStates(0.8GW)hadthesecondandthirdlargestPVcapacityin2007,followingGermanywith3.9GW(figure10.11).Over90percentofthiscapacitywasconnectedtogrids(WEC2009).
World market outlookGovernmentincentives,fallingproductioncostsandrisingelectricitygenerationpricesareprojectedtoresultinincreasesinsolarelectricitygeneration.Electricitygenerationfromsolarenergyisprojected toincreaseto402TWhby2030,growingatanaveragerateof21percentperyeartoaccountfor1.2percentoftotalgeneration(table10.2).Solarelectricityisprojectedtoincreasemoresignificantlyinnon-OECDcountriesthaninOECDcountries,albeitfromamuchsmallerbase.
PVsystemsinstalledinbuildingsareprojectedtobethemainsourceofgrowthinsolarelectricitygenerationto2030.PVelectricityisprojectedto
increasetoalmost280TWhin2030,while electricitygeneratedfromconcentratingsolar powersystemsisprojectedtoincreasetoalmost124TWhby2030(IEA2009a).
10.3Australia’ssolarenergyresources and market
10.3.1SolarresourcesAsalreadynoted,theAustraliancontinenthasthehighestsolarradiationpersquaremetreofanycontinent(IEA2003);however,theregionswiththehighestradiationaredesertsinthenorthwestandcentreofthecontinent(figure10.12).
Australiareceivesanaverageof58millionPJofsolarradiationperyear(BoM2009),approximately10000timeslargerthanitstotalenergyconsumptionof5772PJin2007–08(ABARE2009a).Theoretically,then,ifonly0.1percentoftheincomingradiationcouldbeconvertedintousableenergyatanefficiencyof10percent,allofAustralia’senergyneedscouldbesuppliedbysolarenergy.Similarly,theenergyfallingonasolar
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Concentrating solar powerFigure10.12showstheradiationfallingonaflatplane.ThisistheappropriatemeasureofradiationforflatplatePVandsolarthermalheatingsystems,butnotforconcentratingsystems.Forconcentratingsolarpower,includingbothsolarthermalpowerandconcentratingPV,theDirectNormalIrradiance(DNI)isamorerelevantmeasureofthesolarresource.Thisisbecauseconcentratingsolartechnologiescanonlyfocussunlightcomingfromonedirection,andusetrackingmechanismstoaligntheircollectorswiththedirectionofthesun.TheonlydatasetcurrentlyavailableforDNIthatcoversallofAustraliaisfromtheSurfaceMeteorologyandSolarEnergydatasetfromtheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA).ThisdatasetprovidesDNIatacoarseresolutionof1degree,equatingtoagridlengthofapproximately100km.TheannualaverageDNIfromthisdatasetisshowninfigure10.13.
Sincethegridcellsizeisaround10000km2,thisdatasetprovidesonlyafirstorderindicationoftheDNIacrossbroadregionsofAustralia.However,itisadequatetodemonstratethatthespatialdistribution
farmcovering50kmby50kmwouldbesufficienttomeetallofAustralia’selectricityneeds(Stein2009a).Giventhisvastandlargelyuntappedresource,thechallengeistofindeffectiveandacceptablewaysofexploitingit.
WhiletheareasofhighestsolarradiationinAustraliaaretypicallylocatedinland,therearesomegrid-connectedareasthathaverelativelyhighsolarradiation.WyldGroupandMMA(2008)identifiedanumberoflocationsthataresuitableforsolarthermalpowerplants,basedonhighsolarradiationlevels,proximitytolocalloads,andhighelectricitycostsfromalternativesources.WithintheNationalElectricityMarket(NEM)gridcatchmentarea,theyidentifiedthePortAugustaregioninSouthAustralia,north-westVictoria,andcentralandnorth-westNewSouthWalesasregionsofhighpotentialforsolarthermalpower.TheyalsonominatedKalbarri,nearGeraldton,WesternAustralia,ontheSouth-WestInterconnectedSystem,theDarwin-KatherineInterconnectedSystem,andAliceSprings-TennantCreekaslocationsofhighpotentialforsolar thermalpower.
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Figure 10.13 DirectNormalSolarIrradianceSource: NASA2009
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powertowers,dishesandPVsystemsarenotrestrictedtoflatland,whichrenderseventhisfigureaconservativeestimate.
Seasonal variations in resource availabilityTherearealsosignificantseasonalvariationsintheamountofsolarradiationreachingAustralia.WhilesummerradiationlevelsaregenerallyveryhighacrossallofinlandAustralia,winterradiationhasamuchstrongerdependenceonlatitude.Figures10.15and10.16showacomparisonoftheDecemberandJuneaveragedailysolarradiation.Thesamecolourschemehasbeenusedthroughoutfigures10.12to10.16toallowvisualcomparisonoftheamountofradiationineachfigure.
Insomestates,suchasVictoria,SouthAustralia andQueensland,theseasonalvariationinsolarradiationcorrelateswithaseasonalvariationinelectricitydemand.Thesesummerpeakdemandperiods–causedbyair-conditioningloads–coincidewiththehoursthatthesolarresourceisatitsmostabundant.However,thetotaldemandacrosstheNationalElectricityMarket(comprisingallofthe
ofDNIdiffersfromthatofthetotalradiationshowninfigure10.12.Inparticular,thereareareasofhighDNIincentralNewSouthWalesandcoastalregionsofWesternAustraliathatarelessevidentinthetotalradiation.MoredetailedmappingofDNIacrossAustraliaisneededtoassessthepotential forconcentratingsolarpoweratalocalscale.
Sometypesofsolarthermalpowerplants,includingparabolictroughsandFresnelreflectors,needto beconstructedonflatland.Itisestimatedthat about2hectaresoflandarerequiredperMWofpowerproduced(Stein2009a).Figure10.14showssolarradiation,wherelandwithaslopeofgreaterthan1percent,andlandfurtherthan25kmfromexistingtransmissionlineshasbeenexcluded. LandwithinNationalParkshasalsobeenexcluded.Theseexclusionthresholdsofslopeanddistancetogridarenotpreciselimitsbutintendedtobeindicativeonly.Evenwiththeselimits,theannualradiationfallingonthecolouredareasinfigure10.14is2.7millionPJ,whichamountstonearly500timestheannualenergydemandofAustralia.Moreover,
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Figure 10.14 Annualsolarradiation,excludinglandwithaslopeofgreaterthan1percentandareasfurther than25kmfromexistingtransmissionlines
Source: BureauofMeteorology2009;GeoscienceAustralia
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infigure10.17,thegrowthratewasnotconstant;therewasconsiderablevariationfromyeartoyear.Thebulkofgrowthoverthisperiodwasintheformofsolarthermalsystemsusedfordomesticwaterheating.PVisalsousedtoproduceasmallamountofelectricity.Intotal,Australia’ssolarenergyconsumptionin2007–08was6.9PJ(1.9TWh),ofwhich6.5PJ(1.8TWh)wereusedforwaterheating(ABARE2009a).
Consumption of solar thermal energy, by stateStatisticsonPVenergyconsumptionbystatearenotavailable.However,PVrepresentsonly5.8percentoftotalsolarenergyconsumption;onthatbasis,statisticsonsolarthermalconsumptionbystateprovideareasonableapproximationofthedistributionoftotalsolarenergyconsumption.
WesternAustraliahasthehighestsolarenergyconsumptioninAustralia,contributing40percentofAustralia’stotalsolarthermalusein2007–08(figure10.18).NewSouthWalesandQueenslandcontributedanother26percentand15percentrespectively.Therateofgrowthofsolarenergyuse
easternstates,SouthAustraliaandTasmania)isrelativelyconstantthroughouttheyear,andoccasionallypeaksinwinterduetoheatingloads(AER2009).
10.3.2SolarenergymarketAustralia’smodestproductionanduseofsolarenergyisfocussedonoff-gridandresidentialinstallations.Whilesolarthermalwaterheatinghasbeenthepredominantformofsolarenergyusetodate,productionofelectricityfromPVandconcentrating
solarthermaltechnologiesisincreasing.
Primary energy consumptionAustralia’sprimaryenergyconsumptionofsolarenergyaccountedfor2.4percentofallrenewableenergyuseandaround0.1percentofprimaryenergyconsumptionin2007–08(ABARE2009a).Productionandconsumptionofsolarenergyarethesame,becausesolarenergycanonlybestoredforseveralhoursatpresent.
Overtheperiodfrom1999–2000to2007–08,Australia’ssolarenergyuseincreasedatanaveragerateof7.2percentperyear.However,asillustrated
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Figure 10.15 DecemberaveragesolarradiationSource: BureauofMeteorology2009
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Figure 10.16 JuneaveragesolarradiationSource: BureauofMeteorology2009
0
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1974-75 1977-78 1980-81 1983-84 1986-87 1989-90 1992-93 1995-96 1998-99 2001-02 2004-05 2007-08
Figure 10.17 Australia’sprimaryconsumptionofsolarenergy,bytechnologySource: IEA2009b;ABARE2009a
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ofboththeirthermalfuelinput,andtheirelectricaloutput.Theresultofthisdifferencebetweenfuelinputsandenergyoutputforfossilfuelsisthatsolarrepresentsalargershareofelectricitygenerationoutputthanoffuelinputstoelectricitygeneration.
In2007–08,0.11TWh(0.4PJ)ofelectricityweregeneratedfromsolarenergy,representing0.04percentofAustralianelectricitygeneration(figure10.19).Despiteitssmallshare,solarelectricitygenerationhasincreasedrapidlyinrecentyears.
Installed electricity generation capacityAustralia’stotalPVcapacityhasincreasedsignificantlyoverthelastdecade(figure10.20),andinparticularoverthelasttwoyears.ThishasbeendrivenprimarilybytheSolarHomesandCommunitiesPlanforon-gridapplicationsandtheRemoteRenewablePowerGenerationProgramforoff-gridapplications.Overthelasttwoyears,therehasbeenadramaticincreaseinthetake-upofsmallscalePV,withmorethan40MWinstalledin2009(figures10.20,10.23).Thisisduetoacombinationoffactors:supportprovidedthroughtheSolarHomesandCommunitiesprogram,greaterpublicawarenessofsolarPV,adropinthepriceofPVsystems,attributablebothtogreaterinternationalcompetitionamonganincreasednumberofsuppliersandadecreaseinworldwidedemandasaresultoftheglobalfinancialcrisis,astrongAustraliandollar,andhighlyeffectivemarketingbyPVretailers.
MostAustralianstatesandterritorieshaveinplace,orareplanningtoimplement,feed-intariffs.Whilethereissomecorrelationoftheirintroductionwithincreasedconsumeruptake,itistooearlytosuggestthatthesetariffshavebeensignificantcontributorstoit.Thecombinationofgovernmentpolicies,associatedpublicandprivateinvestmentinRD&Dmeasuresandbroadermarketconditionsarelikelytobethemaininfluences.
overthepastdecadehasbeensimilarinallstatesandterritories,rangingfromanaverageannualgrowthof7percentintheNorthernTerritoryandVictoria,toanaverageannualgrowthof11percentinNewSouthWales.
ArangeofgovernmentpolicysettingsfrombothAustralianandStategovernmentshaveresultedinasignificantincreaseintheuptakeofsmall-scalesolarhotwatersystemsinAustralia.Thecombinationofdrivers,includingthesolarhotwaterrebate,statebuildingcodes,theinclusionofsolarhotwaterundertheRenewableEnergyTargetandthemandatedphase-outofelectrichotwaterby2012,haveallcontributedtotheincreaseduptakeofsolarhotwatersystemsfrom7percentoftotalhotwatersysteminstallationsin2007to13percentin2008(BISShrapnel2008;ABARE2009a).
Electricity generationElectricitygenerationfromsolarenergyinAustraliaiscurrentlyalmostentirelysourcedfromPVinstallations,primarilyfromsmalloff-gridsystems.Electricitygenerationfromsolarthermalsystemsiscurrentlylimitedtosmallpilotprojects,althoughinterestinsolarthermalsystemsforlargescaleelectricitygenerationisincreasing.
Somecareinanalysisofgenerationdatainenergystatisticsiswarranted.Forenergyaccountingpurposes,thefuelinputstoasolarenergysystemareassumedtoequaltheenergygeneratedbythesolarsystem.Thus,thesolarelectricityfuelinputs inenergystatisticsrepresentthesolarenergycapturedbysolarenergysystems,ratherthanthesignificantlylargermeasureoftotalsolarradiationfallingonsolarenergysystems;howeverthisradiationisnotmeasuredinenergystatistics.Fossilfuelssuchasgasandcoalaremeasuredinterms
WesternAustralia
40%
Queensland15%
Victoria6%
Tasmania2%
NorthernTerritory
3%South
Australia8%
New SouthWales26%
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Figure 10.18 Solarthermalenergyconsumption, bystate,2007–08
Source: ABARE2009a
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Figure 10.19 Australianelectricitygenerationfrom solar energy
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Thelargestcomponentofinstalledsolarelectricitycapacityisusedforoff-gridindustrialandagriculturalpurposes(41MW),withsignificantcontributionscomingfromoff-gridresidentialsystems(31MW),andgridconnecteddistributedsystems(30MW).Thislargeoff-gridusagereflectsthecapacityofPVsystemstobeusedasstand-alonegeneratingsystems,particularlyforsmallscaleapplications.Therehavealsobeenseveralcommercialsolarprojectsthatprovideelectricitytothegrid.
Recently completed solar projectsFivecommercial-scalesolarprojectswithacombinedcapacityofaround5MWhavebeencommissionedinAustraliasince1998(table10.3).AlloftheseprojectsarelocatedinNewSouthWales.Commissionedsolarprojectstodatehavehadsmallcapacitieswithfourofthefiveprojectscommissionedhavingacapacityoflessthanorequalto1MW.Theonlyprojecttohaveacapacityofmorethan1MW
Figure 10.20 PVinstalledcapacityfrom1992–2008Note: TheseestimatesrepresentthepeakpoweroutputofPVsystems.Theydonotrepresenttheaveragepoweroutputoverayear,assolarradiationvariesaccordingtofactorssuchasthetimeofday,thenumberofdaylighthours,theangleofthesunandthecloudcover.ThesecapacityestimatesareconsistentwiththePVproductiondatapresentedinthisreport
Source: Watt2009
Table 10.3 Recentlycompletedsolarprojects
Project Company State Start up Capacity
Singleton EnergyAustralia
NSW 1998 0.4MW
Newington Private NSW 2000 0.7MW
BrokenHill AustralianInlandEnergy
NSW 2000 1MW
Newcastle CSIRO NSW 2005 0.6MW
Liddell Ausra NSW Late2008
2MW
Source: GeoscienceAustralia2009
isAusra’s2008solarthermalattachmenttoLiddellpowerplant,whichhasapeakelectricpowercapacityof2MW(Ausra2009).Whilesomewhatlargerthanthemorecommondomesticorcommercialinstallations,thesearemodestly-sizedplants.However,thereareplansforconstructionofseverallargescalesolarpowerplantsundertheAustralianGovernment’sSolarFlagshipsProgram,whichwill usebothsolarthermalandPVtechnologies.
10.4Outlookto2030forAustralia’sresourcesandmarketSolarenergyisarenewableresource:increaseduseoftheresourcedoesnotaffectresourceavailability.However,thequantityoftheresourcethatcanbeeconomicallycapturedchangesovertimethroughtechnologicaldevelopments.
TheoutlookfortheAustraliansolarmarket dependsonthecostofsolarenergyrelativetootherenergyresources.Atpresent,solarenergyismoreexpensiveforelectricitygenerationthanothercurrentlyusedrenewableenergysources,suchashydro,wind,biomassandbiogas.Therefore,theoutlookforincreasedsolarenergyuptakedependsonfactorsthatwillreduceitscostsrelativetootherrenewablefuels.Thecompetitivenessofsolarenergyandrenewableenergysourcesgenerallywillalsodependongovernmentpoliciesaimedatreducinggreenhousegasemissions.
Solarenergyislikelytobeaneconomicallyattractiveoptionforremoteoff-gridelectricitygeneration.Thelong-termcompetitivenessofsolarenergyinlarge-
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Solarwaterheatersarecontinuingtobedevelopedfurther,andcanalsobeintegrated withPVarrays.Otherdirectusesincludepassivesolarheating,andsolarairconditioning.Informationonsolarenergytechnologiesfordirect-useapplicationsispresentedinbox10.2.
WithbothsolarPVandsolarthermalgeneration,themajorityofcostsareborneinthecapitalinstallationphase,irrespectiveofthescaleorsizeoftheproject(figure10.21).ThelargestcostcomponentsofPVinstallationsarethecellsorpanelsandtheassociatedcomponentsrequiredtoinstallandconnectthepanelsasapowersource.Inaddition,theinverterthatconvertsthedirectcurrenttoalternatingcurrentneedstobereplacedatleastonceevery10years(Borenstein2008).However,therearenofuelcosts–oncethesystemisinstalled,apartfromreplacingtheinverter,thereshouldbenocostsassociatedwithrunningthesystemuntiltheendofitsusefullife(20to25years).Themajorchallenge,therefore,isinitialoutlay,withsomewhatmoremodestperiodiccomponentreplacement, andpaybackperiodfortheinvestment.
Currently,thecostofsolarenergyishigherthan othertechnologiesinmostcountries.TheminimumcostforsolarPVinareaswithhighsolarradiation isaroundUS23centsperkWh(EIA2009).
SolarthermalsystemshaveasimilarprofiletoPV,dependingonthescaleandtypeofinstallation.Thecostofelectricityproductionfromsolarenergyisexpectedtodeclineasnewtechnologiesaredevelopedandeconomiesofscaleimproveintheproductionprocesses.
Thecostofinstallingsolarcapacityhasgenerallybeendecreasing.BothPVandsolarthermaltechnologiescurrentlyhavesubstantialresearch anddevelopmentfundsdirectedtowardthem,andnewproductionprocessesareexpectedtoresultinacontinuationofthistrend(figure10.22).IntheUnited
scalegrid-connectedapplicationsdependsinlargemeasureontechnologicaldevelopmentsthatenhancetheefficiencyofenergyconversionandreducethecapitalandoperatingcostofsolarenergysystems andcomponentry.TheAustralianGovernment’s$1.5billionSolarFlagshipsprogram,announcedaspartoftheCleanEnergyInitiative,willsupporttheconstructionanddemonstrationoflargescale (upto1000MW)solarpowerstationsinAustralia. Itwillacceleratedevelopmentsolartechnologyand helppositionAustraliaasaworldleaderinthatfield.
10.4.1KeyfactorsinfluencingthefuturedevelopmentofAustralia’ssolarenergyresourcesAustraliaisaworldleaderindevelopingsolartechnologies(LovegroveandDennis2006),butuptakeofthesetechnologieswithinAustraliahasbeenrelativelylow,principallybecauseoftheir highcost.Anumberoffactorsaffecttheeconomicviabilityofsolarinstallations.
Solar energy technologies and costsResearchintobothsolarPVandsolarthermaltechnologiesislargelyfocussedonreducingcostsandincreasingtheefficiencyofthesystems.
• Electricity generation–commercial-scalegenerationprojectshavebeendemonstratedtobepossiblebutthecostofthetechnologyisstillrelativelyhigh,makingsolarlessattractiveandhigherriskforinvestors.Small-scalesolarPVarraysarecurrentlybestsuitedtoremoteandoff-gridapplications,withotherapplicationslargelydependentonresearchorgovernmentfundingtomakethemviable.Informationonsolarenergytechnologiesforelectricitygenerationispresentedinbox10.1.
• Direct-use applications–solarthermalhotwatersystemsfordomesticuserepresentthemostwidelycommercialisedsolarenergytechnology.
Cos
ts
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Figure 10.21 IndicativesolarPVproductionprofile and costs
Source: ABARE
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Figure 10.22 Projectedaveragecapitalcostsfor newelectricitygenerationplantsusingsolarenergy, 2011to2030
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Stand-alonePVsystemscanbelocatedclosetocustomers(forexampleonroofareasofresidentialbuildings),whichreducesthecostsofelectricitytransmissionanddistribution.However,concentratingsolarthermaltechnologiesrequiremorespecificconditionsandlargeareasofland(Lorenz,PinnerandSeitz2008)whichareoftenonlyavailablelongdistancesfromthecustomersneedingtheenergy. InAustralia,installingsmall-scaleresidentialormediumscalecommercialsystems(bothPVandthermal)canbehighlyattractiveoptionsforremoteareaswhereelectricityinfrastructureisdifficultorcostlytoaccess,andalternativelocalsourcesofelectricityareexpensive.
government policiesGovernmentpolicieshavebeenimplementedatseveralstagesofthesolarenergyproductionchaininAustralia.RebatesprovidedforsolarwaterheatingsystemsandresidentialPVinstallationsreducethecostofthesetechnologiesforconsumersandencouragetheiruptake.
TheSolarHomesandCommunitiesPlan(2000toJune2009)providedrebatesfortheinstallationofsolarPVsystems.ThecapacityofPVsystemsinstalledbyAustralianhouseholdsincreasedsignificantlyunderthisprogram(figure10.23). TheexpandedRETschemeincludestheSolar Creditsinitiative,whichprovidesamultipliedcreditforelectricitygeneratedbysmallsolarPVsystems. Solar Creditsprovidesanup-frontcapitalsubsidytowardstheinstallationofsmallsolarPVsystems.
TheAustralianGovernmenthasalsoannounced $1.5billionofnewfundingforitsSolarFlagshipsprogram.Thisprogramaimstoinstalluptofournewsolarpowerplants,withacombinedpoweroutputofupto1000MW,madeupofbothPVandsolarthermalpowerplants,withthelocationsandtechnologiestobedeterminedbyacompetitivetenderprocess.Theprogramaimstodemonstratenewsolartechnologiesatacommercialscale,therebyacceleratinguptakeofsolarenergyingeneralandprovidingtheopportunityforAustraliatodevelopleadershipinsolarenergytechnology(RET2009b).
TheAustralianGovernmenthasalsoallocatedfundingtoestablishtheAustralianSolarInstitute(ASI),whichwillbebasedinNewcastle.ItwillhavestrongcollaborativelinkswithCSIROandUniversitiesundertakingR&Dinsolartechnologies.TheinstitutewillaimtodrivedevelopmentofsolarthermalandPVtechnologiesinAustralia,includingtheareasofefficiencyandcosteffectiveness(RET2009a).
Othergovernmentpolicies,includingfeed-intariffs,whichareproposedoralreadyinplaceinmostAustralianstatesandterritories,mayalsoencouragetheuptakeofsolarenergy.
States,thecapitalcostofnewPVplantsisprojectedtofallby37percent(inrealterms)from2009to2030(EIA2009).
TheElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)hasdevelopedestimatesofthelevelisedcostoftechnologya,includingarangeofsolartechnologies,toenablethecomparisonoftechnologiesatdifferentlevelsofmaturity(Chapter2,figures2.18,2.19).Thesolartechnologiesconsideredareparabolictroughs,centralreceiversystems,fixedPVsystemsandtrackingPVsystems.Centralreceiversolarsystemswithstorageareforecasttohavethelowestcostsoftechnologyin2015.AddingstoragetothecentralreceiversystemsortoparabolictroughsisestimatedtodecreasethecostperKWhproduced,asitallowsthesystemtoproduceahigherelectricityoutput.TrackingPVsystemsareforecasttohavethelowestcostoftheoptionsthatdonotincorporatestorage.TheEPRItechnologystatusdatainfigures2.18and2.19showthat,althoughsolartechnologiesremainrelativelyhighcostoptionsthroughouttheoutlookperiod,significantreductionsincostareanticipatedby2030.ThesubstantialglobalRD&D(bygovernmentsandtheprivatesector)intosolartechnologies,includingtheAustralianGovernment’s$1.5billionSolarFlagshipsProgramtosupporttheconstructionanddemonstrationoflargescalesolarpowerstationsinAustralia,isexpectedtoplayakeyroleinacceleratingthedevelopmentanddeploymentofsolarenergy.
Thetimetakentoinstallordevelopasolarsystem ishighlydependentonthesizeandscaleoftheproject.Solarhotwatersystemscanbeinstalledinaroundfourhours.Small-scalePVsystemscansimilarlybeinstalledquiterapidly.However,commercialscaledevelopmentstakeconsiderablylonger,dependingonthetypeofinstallationandotherfactors,includingbroaderlocationorenvironmentalconsiderations.
Location of the resourceInAustralia,thebestsolarresourcesarecommonlydistantfromthenationalelectricitymarket(NEM),especiallythemajorurbancentresontheeasternseaboard.Thisposesachallengefordevelopingnewsolarpowerplants,asthereneedstobeabalancebetweenmaximisingthesolarradiationandminimisingthecostsofconnectivitytotheelectricitygrid.However,thereispotentialforsolarthermalenergyapplicationtoprovidebaseandintermediateloadelectricitywithfossil-fuelplants(suchasgasturbinepowerstations)inareaswithisolatedgridsystemsandgoodinsolationresources.ThereportbytheWyldGroupandMMA(2008)identifiedMountIsa,AliceSprings,TennantCreekandthePilbararegionasareaswiththesecharacteristics.AccesstoAustralia’smajorsolarenergyresources–aswithotherremoterenewableenergysources–islikelytorequireinvestmenttoextendtheelectricitygrid.
a ThisEPRItechnologystatusdataenablesthecomparisonoftechnologiesatdifferentlevelsofmaturity. Itshouldnotbeusedtoforecastmarketandinvestmentoutcomes.
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theenergyrequiredtoproduceitovera20yearsystemlifespan(MacKay2009).Inareaswithlesssolarradiation,suchasCentral-NorthernEurope,theenergyyieldratioisestimatedtobearoundfour.Thispositiveenergyyieldratioalsomeansthatgreenhousegasemissionsgeneratedfromtheproductionofsolarenergysystemsaremorethanoffsetoverthesystems’lifecycle,astherearenogreenhousegasemissionsgeneratedfromtheiroperation.
Mostsolarthermalelectricitygenerationsystemsrequirewaterforsteamproductionandthiswateruseaffectstheefficiencyofthesystem.Themajorityofthiswaterisconsumedin‘wetcooling’towers,whichuseevaporativecoolingtocondensethesteamafterithaspassedthroughtheturbine.Inaddition,solarthermalsystemsrequirewatertowashthemirrors,tomaintaintheirreflectivity(Jones2008).Itispossibletouse‘drycooling’towers,whicheliminatemostofthewaterconsumption,butthisreducestheefficiencyofthesteamcyclebyapproximately10percent(Stein2009b).
AfurtheroptionunderdevelopmentistheuseofhightemperatureBraytoncycles,whichdonotusesteamturbinesandthusdonotconsumewater.BraytoncyclesaremoreefficientthanconventionalRankine(steam)cycles,buttheycanonlybeachievedbypoint-focussingsolarthermaltechnologies(powertowersanddishes).
10.4.2OutlookforsolarenergymarketAlthoughsolarenergyismoreabundantinAustraliathanotherrenewableenergysources,plansforexpandingsolarenergyinAustraliagenerallyrelyonsubsidiestobeeconomicallyviable.Therearecurrentlyonlyasmallnumberofproposedcommercialsolarenergyprojects,mostlyofsmallscale.Solarenergyiscurrentlymoreexpensivetoproducethanotherformsofrenewableenergy,suchashydro,windandbiomass(WyldGroupandMMA2008).Intheshortterm,therefore,solarenergywillfinditdifficulttocompetecommerciallywithotherformsofcleanenergyforelectricitygenerationintheNEM.However,asglobaldeploymentofsolarenergytechnologiesincreases,thecostofthetechnologiesislikelytodecrease.Moreover,technologicaldevelopmentsandgreenhousegasemissionreductionpoliciesareexpectedtodriveincreaseduseofsolarenergyinthemediumandlongterm.
Key projections to 2029–30ABARE’slatest(2010)AustralianenergyprojectionsincludetheRET,a5percentemissionsreductiontarget,andothergovernmentpolicies.SolarenergyuseinAustraliaisprojectedtomorethantriple,from7PJin2007–08to24PJin2029–30,growingatanaveragerateof5.9percentayear(figure10.27,table10.4).Whilesolarwaterheatingisprojectedtoremainthepredominantuseforsolarenergy,theshareofPVintotalsolarenergyuseisprojectedtoincrease.
Infrastructure issuesThelocationoflargescalesolarpowerplants inAustraliawillbeinfluencedbythecostofconnectiontotheelectricitygrid.Intheshortterm,developmentsarelikelytofocusonisolatedgridsystemsornodestotheexistingelectricitygrid, sincethisminimisesinfrastructurecosts.
Inthelongerterm,theextensionofthegridtoaccessremotesolarenergyresourcesindesertregionsmayrequirebuildinglongdistancetransmissionlines.Thetechnologyneededtoachievethisexists:highvoltagedirectcurrent(HVDC)transmissionlinesareabletotransferelectricityoverthousandsofkilometres,withminimallosses.SomeHVDClinesarealreadyinuseinAustralia,andarebeingusedtoforminterstategridconnections;thelongestexamplebeingtheHVDClinkbetweenTasmaniaandVictoria.However,buildingaHVDClinktoasolarpowerstationindesertareaswouldrequirealargeup-frontinvestment.
Theideaofgeneratinglargescalesolarenergyinremotedesertregionshasbeenproposedonamuchlargerscaleinternationally.InJune2009theDESERTECFoundationoutlinedaproposaltobuildlargescalesolarfarmsinthesun-richregionsoftheMiddleEastandNorthernAfrica,andexporttheirpowertoEuropeusinglongdistanceHVDClines. Morerecently,anAsiaPacificSunbeltDevelopmentProjecthasbeenestablishedwiththeaimofmovingsolarenergybywayoffuelratherthanelectricityfromregionssuchasAustraliatothoseAsiancountrieswhoimportenergy,suchasJapanandKorea.Theseprojectsillustratethegrowinginternationalinterestinutilisinglargescalesolarpowerfromremoteandinhospitableareas,despitetheinfrastructurechallengesintransmittingortransportingenergyoverlongdistances.
Environmental issuesAroof-mounted,grid-connectedsolarsysteminAustraliaisestimatedtoyieldmorethanseventimes
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Figure 10.23 ResidentialPVcapacityinstalledundertheSolarHomesandCommunitiesPlan(asofOctober2009)
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BOx 10.1SOLARENERGyTECHNOLOGIESFORELECTRICITyGENERATION
Sunlighthasbeenusedforheatingbygeneratingfireforhundredsofyears,butcommercialtechnologiesspecificallytousesolarenergytodirectlyheatwaterorgeneratepowerwerenotdevelopeduntilthe1800s.Solarwaterheatersdevelopedandinstalledbetween1910and1920werethefirstcommercialapplicationofsolarenergy.ThefirstPVcellscapableofconvertingenoughenergyintopowertorunelectricalequipmentwerenotdevelopeduntilthe1950sandthefirstsolarpowerstations(thermalandPV)withcapacityofatleast1megawattstartedoperatinginthe1980s.
Solar thermal electricitySolarthermalelectricityisproducedbyconvertingsunlightintoheat,andthenusingtheheattodrive agenerator.Thesunlightisconcentratedusingmirrors,andfocussedontoasolarreceiver.Thisreceivercontainsaworkingfluidthatabsorbstheconcentratedsunlight,andcanbeheateduptoveryhightemperatures.Heatistransferredfromtheworkingfluidtoasteamturbine,similartothoseusedinfossilfuelandnuclearpowerstations.Alternatively,theheatcanbestoredforlateruse(seebelow).
Therearefourmaintypesofconcentratingsolarreceivers,showninfigure10.24.Twoofthesetypesareline-focussing(parabolictroughandLinearFresnelreflector);theothertwoarepoint-focussing(paraboloidaldishandpowertower).Eachofthesetypesisdesignedtoconcentratealargeareaofsunlightontoasmallreceiver,whichenablesfluid tobeheatedtohightemperatures.Therearetrade-offsbetweenefficiency,landcoverage,andcosts ofeachtype.
Themostwidelyusedsolarconcentratoristheparabolictrough.Parabolictroughsfocuslightinoneaxisonly,whichmeansthattheyneedonlyasingleaxistrackingmechanismtofollowthedirectionofthesun.ThelinearFresnelreflectorachievesasimilarline-focus,butinsteadusesanarrayofalmostflatmirrors.LinearFresnelreflectorsachieveaweakerfocus(thereforelowertemperaturesandefficiencies)thanparabolictroughs.However,linearFresnelreflectorshavecost-savingfeaturesthatcompensateforlowerenergyefficiencies,includingagreateryieldperunitland,andsimplerconstructionrequirements.
Theparaboloidaldishisanalternatedesignwhichfocusessunlightontoasinglepoint.Thisdesignisabletoproduceamuchhighertemperatureatthe
Figure 10.24 Thefourtypesofsolarthermalconcentrators: (a)parabolictrough,(b)compactlinearFresnelreflector,(c)paraboloidaldish,and(d)powertower
Source: WikimediaCommons,photographbykjkolb;WikimediaCommons,originaluploaderwasLkruijswaten.wikipedia; AustralianNationalUniversity2009a;CSIRO
a
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receiver,whichincreasestheefficiencyofenergyconversion.Theparaboloidaldishhasthegreatestpotentialtobeusedinmodularform,whichmaygivethisdesignanadvantageinoff-gridandremoteapplications.However,tofocusthesunlightontoasinglepoint,paraboloidaldishesneedtotrackthedirectionofsunlightontwoaxes.Thisrequiresamorecomplextrackingmechanism,andismoreexpensivetobuild.Theotherpointfocusingdesignisthe‘powertower’,whichusesaseriesofground-basedmirrorstofocusontoanelevatedcentralreceiver.Powertowermirrorsalsorequiretwo-axistrackingmechanisms;howevertheuseofsmaller,flatmirrorscanreducecosts.
Theparabolictroughhasthemostwidespreadcommercialuse.Anarrayofnineparabolictroughplantsproducingacombined354MWhaveoperatedinCaliforniasincethe1980s.SeveralnewoneshavebeenbuiltinSpainandNevadainthelastfewyearsatarounda50–60MWscale,andtherearemanyparabolictroughplantseitherintheconstructionorplanningphase.Whileparabolictroughshavethemajorityofthecurrentmarketshare,allfourdesignsaregainingrenewedcommercialinterest.Thereisan11MWsolarpowertowerplantoperatinginSpain, andasimilar20MWplanthasrecentlybegunoperatingatthesamelocation.ThelinearFresnelreflectorhasbeendemonstratedonasmallscale(5MW),anda177MWplantisplannedforconstructioninCalifornia.Theparaboloidaldishhasalsobeendemonstratedonasmallscale,andthereareplansforlargescaledishplants.
Methodsofpowerconversionandthermalstoragevaryfromtypetotype.Whilesolarthermalplantsaregenerallysuitedtolargescaleplants(greaterthan 50MW),theparaboloidaldishhasthepotentialto beusedinmodularform.Thismaygivedishsystemsanadvantageinremoteandoff-gridapplications.
Efficiency of solar thermalTheconversionefficiencyofsolarthermalpowerplantsdependsonthetypeofconcentratorused, andtheamountofsunlight.Ingeneral,thepoint-focusingconcentrators(paraboloidaldishandpowertower)canachievehigherefficienciesthanlinefocussingtechnologies(parabolictroughandFresnelreflector).Thisispossiblebecausethepoint-focussingtechnologiesachievehighertemperaturesforhigherthermodynamiclimits.
Thehighestvalueofsolar-to-electricefficiencyeverrecordedforasolarthermalsystemwas31.25percent,usingasolardishinpeaksunlightconditions(Sandia2009).Parabolictroughscanachieveapeaksolar-to-electricefficiencyofover20percent(SEGS2009).However,theconversionefficiencydropssignificantlywhentheradiationdropsinintensity,
sotheannualaverageefficienciesaresignificantlylower.AccordingtoBegay-Campbell(2008),theannualsolar-to-electricefficiencyisapproximately12–14percentforparabolictroughs,12percentforpowertowers(althoughemergingtechnologiescanachieve18–20percent),and22–25percentforparaboloidaldishes.LinearFresnelreflectorsachieveasimilarefficiencytoparabolictroughs,withanannualsolar-to-electricefficiencyofapproximately 12percent(Millsetal.2002).
Energy storageSolarthermalelectricitysystemshavethepotentialtostoreenergyoverseveralhours.Theworkingfluidusedinthesystemcanbeusedtotemporarilystoreheat,andcanbeconvertedintoelectricityafterthesunhasstoppedshining.Thismeansthatsolarthermalplantshavethepotentialtodispatchpoweratpeakdemandtimes.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatperiodsofsustainedcloudyweathercuttheproductivecapacityofsolarthermalpower. Theseasonalityofsunshinealsoreducespoweroutputinwinter.
Thermalstorageisoneofthekeyadvantagesofsolarthermalpower,andcreatesthepotentialforintermediateorbase-loadpowergeneration.Althoughthermalstoragetechnologyisrelativelynew,severalrecentlyconstructedsolarthermalpowerplantshaveincludedthermalstorageofapproximately7hours’powergeneration.Inaddition,therearenewpowertowerdesignsthatincorporateupto16hoursofthermalstorage,allowing24hourpowergenerationinappropriateconditions.Thedevelopmentofcosteffectivestoragetechnologiesmayenableamuchhigheruptakeofsolarthermalpowerinthefuture(WyldGroupandMMA2008).
Currentresearchisdevelopingalternativeenergystoragemethods,includingchemicalstorage,andphase-changematerials.Chemicalstorageoptionsincludedissociatedammoniaandsolar-enhancednaturalgas.Thesenewstoragemethodshavethepotentialtoprovideseasonalstorageofsolarenergy,ortoconvertsolarenergyintoportablefuels.Infuture,itmaybepossibleforsolarfuelstobeusedinthetransportsector,orevenforexportingsolarenergy.
Hybrid operation with fossil fuel plantsSolarthermalpowerplantscanmakeuseof existingturbinetechnologiesthathavebeendevelopedandrefinedovermanydecadesinfossilfueltechnologies.Usingthismaturetechnologycanreducemanufacturingcostsandincreasetheefficiencyofpowergeneration.Inaddition,solarthermalheatcollectorscanbeusedinhybridoperationwithfossilfuelburners.Anumberofexistingsolarthermalpowerplantsusegasburnerstoboostpowersupplyduringlowlevelsofsunlight.
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Combiningsolarthermalpowerwithgascanprovideahedgeagainsttheintermittencyofsunlight.
Solarthermalheatcollectorscanbeattachedtoexistingcoalorgaspowerstationstopre-heatthewaterusedintheseplants.Thisispossiblesincesolarthermalheatcollectorsperformaverysimilarfunctiontofossilfuelburners.Inthisway,solarthermalpowercanmakeuseofexistinginfrastructure.Thisoptionisnotaffectedbyintermittencyofsunlight,sincethefossilfuelburnersprovidefirmcapacityofproduction.Internationally,thereareseveralnewintegratedsolarcombinedcycle(ISCC)plantsplannedforconstruction.ISCCplantsaresimilartocombinedcyclegasplants(usingbothagasturbine,andasteamturbine),butusesolarthermalheatcollectorstoboostthesteamturbineproduction.
Solar updraft towersAnalternativesolarthermalpowertechnologyisthesolarupdrafttower,alsoknownasasolarchimney.Theupdrafttowercapturessolarenergyusingalargegreenhouse,whichheatsairbeneathatransparentroof.Averytallchimneyisplacedatthecentreofthegreenhouse,andtheheatedaircreatespressuredifferencesthatdriveairflowupthechimney.Electricityisgeneratedfromtheairflowusingwindturbinesatthebaseofthechimney.
Solarupdrafttowershavebeentestedatarelativelysmallscale,witha50kWplantinSpainbeingtheonlyworkingprototypeatpresent.Thereareplanstoupscalethistechnology,includingaproposed200MWplantinBuronga,NSW.ThemaindisadvantageofsolarupdrafttowersisthattheydeliversignificantlylesspowerperunitareathanconcentratingsolarthermalandPVsystems(Enviromission2009).
Photovoltaic systemsThecostsofproducingPVcellshasdeclinedrapidlyinrecentyearsasuptakehasincreased(Fthenakis
etal.2009)andanumberofPVtechnologieshave
beendeveloped.Thecostofmodulescanbereduced
infourmainways:
• makingthinnerlayers–reducingmaterialand
processingcosts;
• integratingPVpanelswithbuildingelementssuch
asglassandroofs–reducingoverallsystem
costs;
• makingadhesiveonsite–reducingmaterials
costs;and
• improvingdecisionsaboutmakingorbuying
inputs,increasingeconomiesofscale,and
improvingthedesignofPVmodules.
TherearethreemaintypesofPVtechnology:
crystallinesilicon,thin-filmandconcentratingPV.
Crystallinesiliconistheoldestandmostwidespread
technology.Thesecellsarebecomingmoreefficient
overtime,andcostshavefallensteadily.
Thin-filmPVisanemerginggroupoftechnologies,
targetedatreducingcostsofPVcells.Thin-filmPV
isatanearlierstageofdevelopment,andcurrently
deliversalowerefficiencythancrystallinesilicon,
estimatedataround10percent,althoughmany
ofthenewervarietiesstilldeliverefficienciesof
lessthanthis(Prowse2009).However,thisis
compensatedbylowercosts,andtherearestrong
prospectsforefficiencyimprovementsinthefuture.
Thin-filmPVcanbeinstalledonmanydifferent
substrates,givingitgreatflexibilityinitsapplications.
ConcentratingPVsystemsuseeithermirrorsor
lensestofocusalargeareaofsunlightontoacentral
receiver(figure10.25).Thisincreasestheintensity
ofthelight,andallowsagreaterpercentageofits
energytobeconvertedintoelectricity.Thesesystems
aredesignedprimarilyforlargescalecentralised
Figure 10.25 (a)ExampleofarooftopPVsystem. (b)AschematicconcentratingPVsystem,wherealargenumberofmirrorsfocussunlightontocentralPVreceivers
Source: CERP,WikimediaCommons;EnergyInnovationsInc.underWikipedialicencecc-by-sa-2.5
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power,duetothecomplexitiesofthereceivers.ConcentratingPVisthemostefficientformofPV,deliveringatypicalsystemefficiencyofaround 20percent,andhasachievedefficienciesofjustover40percentinideallaboratoryconditions(NREL2008).
AnadvantageofusingconcentratingPVisthatitreducestheareaofsolarcellsneededtocapture thesunlight.PVcellsareoftenexpensivetoproduce,andthemirrorsorlensesusedtoconcentratethelightaregenerallycheaperthanthecells.However,theuseofsolarconcentratorsgenerallyrequiresalargersystemthatcannotbescaleddownaseasilyasflat-platePVcells.
ArelativelyrecentareaofgrowthforPVapplicationsisinBuilding-integratedPV(BIPV)systems.BIPVsystemsincorporatePVtechnologyintomanydifferentcomponentsofanewbuilding.Thesecomponentsincluderooftops,wallsandwindows,
Solar thermal heatingSolarthermalheatingusesdirectheatfromsunlight,withouttheneedtoconverttheenergyintoelectricity.Thesimplestformofsolarthermalheatingisachievedsimplybypumpingwaterthroughasystemoflight-absorbingtubes,usuallymountedonarooftop.Thetubesabsorbsunlight,andheatthewaterflowingwithinthem.Themostcommonuseforsolarthermalheatingishotwatersystems,buttheyarealsousedforswimmingpoolheatingorspaceheating.
Therearetwomaintypesofsolarwaterheaters:flat-plateandevacuatedtubesystems(figure10.26).Flat-platesystemsarethemostwidespreadandmaturetechnology.Theyuseanarrayofverysmalltubes,coveredbyatransparentglazingforinsulation.Evacuatedtubesconsistofasunlightabsorbingmetaltube,insidetwoconcentrictransparentglasstubes.Thespacebetweenthetwoglasstubesis
BOx 10.2SOLARENERGyTECHNOLOGIESFORDIRECT-USEAPPLICATIONS
evacuatedtopreventlossesduetoconvection.Evacuatedtubeshavelowerheatlossesthanflatplatecollectors,givingthemanadvantageinwinterconditions.However,flat-platesystemsaregenerallycheaper,duetotheirrelativecommercialmaturity.
Solarthermalheatingisamaturetechnologyandrelativelyinexpensivecomparedtoothersolartechnologies.Thiscostadvantagehasmeantthatsolarthermalheatinghasthelargestenergyproductionofanysolartechnology.Insomecountrieswithfavourablesunlightconditions,solarwaterheatershavegainedasubstantialmarketshareofwaterheaters.Forexample,theproportionofhouseholdswithsolarwaterheatersintheNorthernTerritorywas54percentin2008(CEC2009)whereasinIsraelthisproportionisapproximately 90percent(CSIRO2010).
wherePVcellscaneitherreplace,orbeintegratedwithexistingmaterials.BIPVhasthepotentialtoreducecostsofPVsystems,andtoincreasethesurfaceareaavailableforcapturingsolarenergywithinabuilding(NREL2009b).
Efficiency of photovoltaic systemsCurrently,themaximumefficiencyofcommerciallyavailablePVmodulesisaround20to25percent,withefficienciesofaround40percentachievedinlaboratories.MostcommerciallyavailablePVsystemshaveanaverageconversionefficiencyofaround10percent.Newdevelopments(suchasmulti-junctiontandemcells)suggestsolarcellswithconversionefficienciesofgreaterthan40percentcouldbecomecommerciallyavailableinthefuture.Fthenakisetal.(2009)positthatincreasesinefficiencyofPVmoduleswillcomefromfurthertechnologyimprovements.
Figure 10.26 (a)Flat-platesolarwaterheater. (b)EvacuatedtubesolarwaterheaterSource: WesternAustralianSustainableEnergyDevelopmentOffice2009;HillsSolar(SolarSolutionsforLife)2009
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Solar air conditioningSolarthermalenergycanalsobeusedtodriveair-conditioningsystems.Sorptioncoolingusesaheatsourcetodrivearefrigerationcycle,andcanbeintegratedwithsolarthermalheatcollectorstoprovidesolarair-conditioning.Sincesunlightisgenerallystrongwhenair-conditioningismostneeded,solarair-conditioningcanbeusedtobalancepeaksummerelectricityloads.However,anumberofdevelopmentsarerequiredbeforesolarair-conditioningbecomescostcompetitiveinAustralia(CSIRO2010).
Passive solar heatingSolarenergycanalsobeusedtoheatbuildingsdirectly,throughdesigningbuildingsthatcapturesunlightandstoreheatthatcanbeusedatnight.Thisprocessiscalledpassivesolarheating,andcansaveenergy(electricityandgas)thatwouldotherwisebeneededtoheatbuildingsduringcoldweather.Newbuildingscanbeconstructedwithpassivesolarheatingfeaturesatminimalextracost,providingareliablesourceofheatingthatcangreatlyreduceenergydemandsinwinter(AZSC2009).
Passivesolarheatingusuallyrequirestwo
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
PJ
0
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
%
Share of total (%)
Solar energy consumption (PJ)
1999-00
2000-01
2001-02
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2029-30
AERA 10.2Year
%
AERA 10.3
0
4.0
3.5
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2.5
2.0
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1.1
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01999-
002000-
012001-
022002-
032003-
042004-
052005-
062006-
072007-
082029-
30
TWh
Share of total (%)
Solar electricity generation (TWh)
Year
Figure 10.27 Projectedprimaryenergyconsumption ofsolarenergy
Source: ABARE2009a,2010
Figure 10.28 Projectedelectricitygenerationfrom solar energy
Source: ABARE2009a,2010
basicelements:anorth-facing(intheSouthernHemisphere)windowoftransparentmaterialthatallowssunlighttoenterthebuilding;andathermalstoragematerialthatabsorbsandstoresheat.Passivesolarheatingmustalsobeintegratedwithinsulationtoprovideefficientstorageofheat,androofdesignsthatcanmaximiseexposureinwinter,andminimiseexposureinsummer.Althoughsomeofthesefeaturescanberetrofittedtoexistingbuildings,thebestprospectsforpassivesolarheatingareinthedesignofnewbuildings.
Combined heat and power systemsAtechnologyunderdevelopmentinAustraliaandoverseasisthecombinedheatandpowersystem,combiningsolarthermalheatingwithPVtechnology(ANU2009).Typicallythisconsistsofasmall-scaleconcentratingparabolictroughsystemwithacentralPVreceiver,wherethereceiveriscoupledtoacoolingfluid.WhilethePVproduceselectricity,heatisextractedfromthecoolingfluidandcanbeusedinthesamewayasaconventionalsolarthermalheater.Thesesystemscanachieveagreaterefficiencyofenergyconversion,byusingthesamesunlightfortwopurposes.Thesesystemsarebeingtargetedforsmall-scalerooftopapplications.
programsandtheproposedemissionsreductiontargetareallexpectedtounderpinthegrowthofsolarenergyovertheoutlookperiod.
Proposed development projectsAsatOctober2009,therewerenosolarprojectsnearingcompletioninAustralia(table10.5).Therearecurrentlyfiveproposedsolarprojects,withacombinedcapacityof116MW.ThelargestoftheseprojectsisWizardPower’s$355millionWhyallaSolarOasis,whichwillbelocatedinSouthAustralia.Theprojectisexpectedtohaveacapacityof80MWandisscheduledtobecompletedby2012.
Electricitygenerationfromsolarenergyisprojectedtoincreasestrongly,fromonly0.1TWhin2007–08to4TWhin2029–30,representinganaverageannualgrowthrateof17.4percent(figure10.28).Theshareofsolarenergyinelectricitygenerationisalsoprojectedtoincrease,from0.04percentin2007–08to1percentin2029–30.
Whilehighinvestmentcostscurrentlyrepresentabarriertomorewidespreaduseofsolarenergy,thereisconsiderablescopeforthecostofsolartechnologiestodeclinesignificantlyovertime.Thecompetitivenessofsolarenergywillalsodependongovernmentpolicies.TheRET,theresultsofRD&D
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Table 10.5 Proposedsolarenergyprojects
Project Company Location Status Start up Capacity Capital expenditure
SolarGasOne CSIROandQldGovernment
Qld Governmentgrantreceived
2012 1MW na
LakeCargelligosolarthermalproject
LloydEnergySystems
LakeCargelligo,NSW
Governmentgrantreceived
na 3MW na
Cloncurrysolarthermalpowerstation
LloydEnergySystems
Cloncurry,Qld Governmentgrantreceived
2010 10MW $31m
ACTsolarpowerplant
ACTGovernment Tobedetermined,ACT
Pre-feasibilitystudycompleted
2012 22MW $141m
WhyallaSolarOasis
WizardPower Whyalla,SA Feasibilitystudyunderway
2012 80MW $355m
Source: ABARE2009c;LloydEnergySystems2007
Table 10.4 OutlookforAustralia’ssolarmarketto2029–30
unit 2007–08 2029–30
Primary energy consumption PJ 7 24
Shareoftotal % 0.1 0.3
Averageannualgrowth,2007–08to20029–30 % 5.9
Electricity generation
Electricityoutput TWh 0.1 4
Shareoftotal % 0.04 1.0
Averageannualgrowth,2007–08to2029–30 % 17.4
a Energyproductionandprimaryenergyconsumptionareidentical Source: ABARE2009a,2010
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