Chapter 10

Media

In this chapter you will examine the historical evolution and present status of relations between the government and the news media.

THEME A ‑ The History and Structure of the American News Media

JOURNALISM IN AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY

Early partisan sponsorship of the press.Emergence of mass newspapersNational magazines of opinionElectronic journalism

The party pressThe party press

Parties created and subsidized Parties created and subsidized various newspapers various newspapers Circulation was small, Circulation was small, newspapers expensive, newspapers expensive, advertisers few advertisers few Newspapers circulated among Newspapers circulated among political and commercial elitespolitical and commercial elites

The popular pressThe popular press

Changes in society and technology made the press Changes in society and technology made the press self-supporting and able to reach mass readership. self-supporting and able to reach mass readership. – High-speed press High-speed press – Telegraph Telegraph – Associated Press, 1848; objective reporting Associated Press, 1848; objective reporting – Urbanization allowed large numbers to support paper Urbanization allowed large numbers to support paper – Government Printing Office; end of subsidies in 1860Government Printing Office; end of subsidies in 1860Influence of publishers, editors created partisan Influence of publishers, editors created partisan bias bias – "Yellow journalism" to attract readers "Yellow journalism" to attract readers – Hearst foments war against SpainHearst foments war against SpainEmergence of a common national cultureEmergence of a common national culture

Magazines of opinionMagazines of opinion– Middle class favors new, progressive Middle class favors new, progressive

periodicals periodicals – Nation, Atlantic, Harper's Nation, Atlantic, Harper's in 1850s and 1860s in 1850s and 1860s

on behalf of certain issueson behalf of certain issues– McClure's, Scribner's, Cosmopolitan McClure's, Scribner's, Cosmopolitan later onlater on– Individual writers gain national followings Individual writers gain national followings

through investigative reporting through investigative reporting – Number of competing newspapers declines, Number of competing newspapers declines,

as does sensationalism as does sensationalism – Today the number of national magazines Today the number of national magazines

focusing on politics accounts for a small and focusing on politics accounts for a small and declining fraction of magazinesdeclining fraction of magazines

Electronic journalism Electronic journalism

Radio arrives in the 1920s, Radio arrives in the 1920s, television in the 1940s television in the 1940s Politicians could address voters Politicians could address voters directly but people could easily directly but people could easily ignore them ignore them But fewer politicians could be But fewer politicians could be covered covered – President routinely covered President routinely covered – Others must use bold tacticsOthers must use bold tactics

Electronic journalism Electronic journalism

Recent rise in the talk show as a political forum Recent rise in the talk show as a political forum has increased politicians' access to electronic has increased politicians' access to electronic media media – Big Three networks have made it harder for candidates Big Three networks have made it harder for candidates

by shortening sound bites by shortening sound bites – But politicians have more sources: cable, early But politicians have more sources: cable, early

morning news, news magazine shows morning news, news magazine shows – These new sources feature lengthy interviewsThese new sources feature lengthy interviewsNo research on consequences of two changes: No research on consequences of two changes: – Recent access of politicians to electronic media Recent access of politicians to electronic media – "Narrowcasting," which targets segmented audiences"Narrowcasting," which targets segmented audiencesPoliticians continue to seek visuals even after Politicians continue to seek visuals even after they are electedthey are elected

The InternetThe Internet

Ultimate free market in Ultimate free market in political news political news Voters and political Voters and political activists talk to one activists talk to one anotheranother

1. Decline in the number of cities in which there are competing newspapers2. An Orientation to the local market3. The decentralization of the broadcasting industry4. Three national TV networks, over 700 TV Stations, 11,000 cable systems, 10,000 radio stations5. National media consisting of news magazines, TV networks, and newspapers such as the New York Times, the Washington Post, and the Wall Street Journal

Degree of competitionDegree of competition

Newspapers Newspapers – Number of daily newspapers has Number of daily newspapers has

declined significantly declined significantly – Number of cities with multiple papers Number of cities with multiple papers

has has declined declined 60 percent of cities had competing 60 percent of cities had competing newspapers in 1900 newspapers in 1900 Only 4 percent in 1972Only 4 percent in 1972

– Newspaper circulation has fallen since Newspaper circulation has fallen since 1967 1967

– Most people now get most of their news Most people now get most of their news from televisionfrom television

Degree of competitionDegree of competition

Radio and television Radio and television – Intensely competitive, becoming Intensely competitive, becoming

more so more so – Composed mostly of locally owned Composed mostly of locally owned

and managed enterprises, unlike and managed enterprises, unlike Europe Europe

– Orientation to local market Orientation to local market – Limitations by FCC; widespread Limitations by FCC; widespread

ownership createdownership created

The national mediaThe national media

Existence somewhat offsets Existence somewhat offsets local orientation local orientation Consists of Consists of – Wire services Wire services – National magazines National magazines – Television networks Television networks – Newspapers with national Newspapers with national

readershipsreaderships

Significance of National MediaSignificance of National Media

– Washington officials follow it closely Washington officials follow it closely – Reporters and editors different from Reporters and editors different from

the local press the local press Better paid Better paid From more prestigious From more prestigious universities universities More liberal outlook More liberal outlook Do investigative or interpretive Do investigative or interpretive storiesstories

THEME B ‑ Media Ownership and its Impact Upon the News

Ten business and financial corporations control the three major television and radio networks, 34 subsidiary television stations, 201 cable television systems, 62 radio stations, 20 record companies, 59 magazines including Time and Newsweek, 58 newspapers including the New York Times, the Washington Post, the Wall Street Journal, and the Los Angeles Times, 41 book publishers, and various motion picture companies like Columbia Pictures and Twentieth-Century Fox.

THEME B ‑ Media Ownership and its Impact Upon the News

Three-quarters of the major stockholders of ABC, CBS, and NBC are banks, such as Chase Manhattan, Morgan Guaranty Trust, Citibank and the Bank of America.

Ford Motor Co has directors on the corporate boards of the New York Times, the Washington Post and other newspapers.

THEME C ‑ Media Selection of and Bias in the News

Critical Thinking - How to Read A Newspaper

Are News Stories Slanted?

Don’t BelieveDon’t Believe

The Most Trusted Name in News

Fair and Balanced

Types of StoriesTypes of Stories– Routine stories: public events regularly covered Routine stories: public events regularly covered

Reported similarly by all media; opinions of Reported similarly by all media; opinions of journalists have least effect journalists have least effect Can be misreported: Tet offensiveCan be misreported: Tet offensive

– Selected stories: public but not routinely covered Selected stories: public but not routinely covered Selection involves perception of what is Selection involves perception of what is important important Liberal and conservative papers do different Liberal and conservative papers do different stories stories Increasing in number; reflect views of press Increasing in number; reflect views of press more than experts or publicmore than experts or public

– Insider stories: not usually made public; motive Insider stories: not usually made public; motive problemproblem

Are news stories slanted?Are news stories slanted?

Most people believe media, especially Most people believe media, especially television, from which they get most news television, from which they get most news – But the percentage that thinks the media is But the percentage that thinks the media is

biased is increasing biased is increasing – Press itself thinks it is unbiasedPress itself thinks it is unbiasedLiberal bias of national media elite Liberal bias of national media elite Various factors influence how stories are Various factors influence how stories are written written – Deadlines Deadlines – Audience attraction Audience attraction – Fairness, truth imposed by professional norms Fairness, truth imposed by professional norms – Reporters' and editors' beliefsReporters' and editors' beliefs

Why Do We Have So Many News Leaks?.

Journalist Opinion versus Public Opinion

The Political Attitudes of the Media Elite

Local versus national orientation of the media

Why do we have so many news Why do we have so many news leaks?leaks?

Constitution: separation of powers Constitution: separation of powers – Power is decentralized Power is decentralized – Branches of government compete Branches of government compete – Not illegal to print most secretsNot illegal to print most secretsAdversarial nature of the press since Adversarial nature of the press since Watergate Watergate – Press and politicians distrust each other Press and politicians distrust each other – Media are eager to embarrass officials Media are eager to embarrass officials – Competition for awards Competition for awards – Spurred by Irangate: arms for hostagesSpurred by Irangate: arms for hostages

Why do we have so many news Why do we have so many news leaks?leaks?

Cynicism created era of attack journalism Cynicism created era of attack journalism – Most people do not like this kind of news Most people do not like this kind of news – Cynicism of media mirrors public's increasing Cynicism of media mirrors public's increasing

cynicism of media cynicism of media – People believe media slant coverage People believe media slant coverage – Public support for idea of licensing journalists or Public support for idea of licensing journalists or

fines to discourage biased reportingfines to discourage biased reportingPublic confidence in big business down and Public confidence in big business down and now media are big business now media are big business Drive for market share forces media to use Drive for market share forces media to use theme of corruption theme of corruption

Sensationalism in the mediaSensationalism in the media

Prior to 1980, sexual Prior to 1980, sexual escapades of political figures escapades of political figures not reportednot reported

Since 1980, sex and politics Since 1980, sex and politics extensively covered extensively covered

Sensationalism in the mediaSensationalism in the media

Reasons for change Reasons for change – Sensationalism gets attention in a market of Sensationalism gets attention in a market of

intense competition. intense competition. – Sensational stories are often cheaper than Sensational stories are often cheaper than

expert analysis and/or investigation of stories expert analysis and/or investigation of stories about policy or substantive issues. about policy or substantive issues.

– Journalists have become distrusting adversaries Journalists have become distrusting adversaries of government. of government.

– Journalists are much more likely to rely on Journalists are much more likely to rely on unnamed sources today and, as a result, are unnamed sources today and, as a result, are more easily manipulated.more easily manipulated.

Roles of the Media

1. Gatekeeper2. Scorekeeper3. Watchdog

Gatekeeper: what is news, for how Gatekeeper: what is news, for how longlong

Auto safety Auto safety Water pollution Water pollution Prescription drugs Prescription drugs Crime ratesCrime rates

Scorekeeper: who is winning, Scorekeeper: who is winning, losinglosing

Attention to Iowa, Attention to Iowa, New Hampshire New Hampshire Gary Hart in 1984 Gary Hart in 1984 and John McCain in and John McCain in 20002000

Watchdog: investigate personalities Watchdog: investigate personalities and expose scandalsand expose scandals

Hart's name, birth Hart's name, birth date, in 1984; Donna date, in 1984; Donna Rice in 1987 Rice in 1987 Watergate (Woodward Watergate (Woodward and Bernstein)and Bernstein)

THEME D ‑ Government Influence on the Media

THE EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA ON POLITICS

GOVERNMENT AND THE NEWS

1. Prominence of the President2. Coverage of Congress

Prominence of the presidentProminence of the president

Theodore Roosevelt: systematic Theodore Roosevelt: systematic cultivation of the press cultivation of the press Franklin Roosevelt: press secretary a Franklin Roosevelt: press secretary a major instrument for cultivating major instrument for cultivating press press Press secretary today: large staff, Press secretary today: large staff, many functions many functions White House press corps is the focus White House press corps is the focus of press secretary of press secretary

Coverage of CongressCoverage of Congress

Never equal to that of president; members Never equal to that of president; members resentful resentful House quite restrictive House quite restrictive – No cameras on the floor until 1978 No cameras on the floor until 1978 – Sometimes refused to permit coverage of Sometimes refused to permit coverage of

committees committees – Gavel-to-gavel coverage of proceedings since Gavel-to-gavel coverage of proceedings since

19791979Senate more open Senate more open – Hearings since Kefauver; TV coverage of Hearings since Kefauver; TV coverage of

sessions in 1986 sessions in 1986 – Incubator for presidential contenders through Incubator for presidential contenders through

committee hearingscommittee hearings

RULES GOVERNING THE MEDIA

1. Libel ‑ untrue and intended2. Obscenity3. Incitement

Further Controls for Radio and Television

1. Licensing‑every five years2. The Fairness Doctrine - no longer in effect3. The equal‑time provision

Regulating broadcastingRegulating broadcasting

FCC licensing FCC licensing – Seven years for radio Seven years for radio – Five years for television Five years for television – Stations must serve "community needs" Stations must serve "community needs" – Public service, other aspects can be regulatedPublic service, other aspects can be regulatedRecent movement to deregulate Recent movement to deregulate – License renewal by postcard License renewal by postcard – No hearing unless opposed No hearing unless opposed – Relaxation of rule enforcementRelaxation of rule enforcement

Regulating broadcastingRegulating broadcasting

Radio broadcasting deregulated the most Radio broadcasting deregulated the most – Telecommunications Act of 1996 permits one Telecommunications Act of 1996 permits one

company to own as many as eight stations in large company to own as many as eight stations in large markets (five in smaller ones) markets (five in smaller ones)

– Results: Results: Few large companies now own most of the big-Few large companies now own most of the big-market radio stations market radio stations Greater variety of opinion on radioGreater variety of opinion on radio

Other radio and television regulations Other radio and television regulations – Equal time rule Equal time rule – Right-of-reply rule Right-of-reply rule – Political editorializing rulePolitical editorializing ruleFairness doctrine was abolished in 1987Fairness doctrine was abolished in 1987

CampaigningCampaigning

Equal time rule applies Equal time rule applies – Equal access for all candidates Equal access for all candidates – Rates no higher than least expensive commercial Rates no higher than least expensive commercial

rate rate – Debates formerly had to include all candidates Debates formerly had to include all candidates

Reagan-Carter debate sponsored by LWV as a Reagan-Carter debate sponsored by LWV as a "news event" "news event" Now stations and networks can sponsorNow stations and networks can sponsor

Efficiency in reaching voters Efficiency in reaching voters – Works well when market and district overlap Works well when market and district overlap – Fails when they are not aligned Fails when they are not aligned – More Senate than House candidates buy TV timeMore Senate than House candidates buy TV time

The effects of the media on politicsThe effects of the media on politics

– Studies on media influence on elections Studies on media influence on elections Generally inconclusive, because of citizens' Generally inconclusive, because of citizens'

– Selective attention Selective attention – Mental tune-outMental tune-out

Products can be sold more easily than candidates Products can be sold more easily than candidates Newspaper endorsements of candidates Newspaper endorsements of candidates

– Often of Republicans locally, whereas of Democrats Often of Republicans locally, whereas of Democrats nationally nationally

– But worth 5 percent of vote to endorsed DemocratsBut worth 5 percent of vote to endorsed Democrats

The effects of the media on politicsThe effects of the media on politics

– Major effect is on how politics is conducted, not how people Major effect is on how politics is conducted, not how people vote vote

Conventions scheduled to accommodate television coverage Conventions scheduled to accommodate television coverage Candidates win party nomination via media exposure, for Candidates win party nomination via media exposure, for example, Estes Kefauver example, Estes Kefauver Issues established by media attention Issues established by media attention

– Environment Environment – Consumer issuesConsumer issues

Issues that are important to citizens similar to those in media Issues that are important to citizens similar to those in media – TV influences political agenda TV influences political agenda – But people less likely to take media cues on matters that affect But people less likely to take media cues on matters that affect

them personallythem personallyNewspaper readers see bigger candidate differences than do Newspaper readers see bigger candidate differences than do TV viewers TV viewers TV news affects popularity of presidents; commentaries have TV news affects popularity of presidents; commentaries have short-term effectshort-term effect

Figure 10.1: Young People and Political NewsFigure 10.1: Young People and Political News

Source: Los Angeles Times, Times Mirror Center for the People and the Press (June 28, 1990).

Self-Test

For more information about this topic, link to the Metropolitan Community College Political Science Web Site

http://socsci.mccneb.edu/pos/polscmain.htm