CHAPTER 1

The Science of Psychology

Learning Objectives- After completing this chapter you should be able to:

1. provide a definition of psychology. 2. discriminate from among the different subfields of

psychology and provide some examples. 3. provide examples of the relevant enduring issues in the field. 4. match the historical figures in the field with their theories. 5. identify the three main stages in the historical development

of psychology. 6. describe the major paradigms (theories) in the field. 7. differentiate between the terms "race" and "ethnicity." 8. describe and provide examples for the various research

methods. 9. explain the strengths and weaknesses for the various

research methods. 10.compare and contrast the educational backgrounds from

among the various clinicians.

What is Psychology?

Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes

Psychology includes the study of humans and animals

Random fact: There are currently 54 divisions of psychology recognized by the APA

What is Developmental Psychology?

It’s the study of physical and mental growth from birth to old age

Other areas under Developmental Child psychology Adolescent psychology Life-span psychology

What is Physiological Psychology?

Looks at the biology of human behavior, thoughts, and emotions: Neurotransmitters Effects drugs and hormones have on the nervous

system Development of the nervous system Impact of heredity on behavior Gender differences in brain structure and function

What is Experimental Psychology?

Conduct research through experiments on psychological processes like: Learning Memory Sensation and perception Cognition Motivation Emotion

What is Personality Psychology?

Study of how people are different from one another on traits such as: Anxiety Sociability Self-esteem Need for achievement Aggressiveness

Also study what causes this differences

What is Clinical and Counseling Psychology?

Clinical psychologists diagnose and treat psychological disorders e.g. Schizophrenia or dissociative identity disorder

Counseling psychologists deal with “normal” problems e.g. stress caused by career moves or marital

problems

What is Social Psychology?

Study how people influence one anotherLooks at things like:

First impressions Interpersonal attraction Attitudes Prejudices Behavior in a group

Can be researchers but also practitioners e.g. Group therapy or sensitivity training etc.

What is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?

Look at how psychology principles work in industry and business

Examples: Selecting and training personnel Productivity improvement Working conditions Impact of automation (machines) on workers

Other fields in Industrial and Organizational (I/O) Psychology

Sports psychologyForensic psychologyEnvironmental psychologyCommunity psychology

Issues in Psychology

1. Person vs. Situation- Is behavior caused by factors inside the person or outside the person?

2. Nature vs. Nurture- Is a person the product of genetics (nature) or simply the sum of their experiences (nurture)?

3. Stability vs. Change - Are behavior patterns learned in childhood permanent or do people change over time?

More Issues in Psychology

4. Diversity vs. Universality - How are people similar to others and how are they unique?

5. Mind vs. Body - What is the relationship between the mind and the body?

Is Psychology A Science?

Psychologists use the scientific method and observation

The scientific method: Collect data Generate a theory to explain the data Produce a testable hypothesis Systematically test the hypothesis

You will make your own experiment and use the scientific method to prove or disprove your theory!!

Exit Quiz

1. If you choose to become a developmental psychologist, your studies will focus on:

a. Behavioral disordersb. People’s lifespans, from prenatal to old agec. The biological basis of behaviord. An individual’s personality traits

2. You want to test whether the members of Alcoholics Anonymous who volunteer to become sponsors remain sober longer than those who aren’t sponsors. You are most likely a:

a. Social psychologistb. Neuroscientistc. Personality psychologistd. Sports psychologist

3. When a psychologist uses the scientific method, she or hea. Collects data through careful observationb. Makes and tests predictionsc. Expla9ins observations by developing theoriesd. All of the above

The Growth of Psychology

Before psychology was philosophy People like Plato and Aristotle looked into

they ways people think

Three Historical Stages1. Science of mind emerges2. Behaviorism becomes popular3. “cognitive revolution

Scientific Revolution Enlightenment Scientific method now applied to not only

science but social sciences like economics and philosophy

René Descartes

(1596-1650)

Early HISTORY OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGYStarted in 1600’s & 1700’s

Philosophers during this time were mostly concerned with what qualified has human nature

Descartes (1596-1650) ~ believed that universe was a giant machine

(like a clock) ~ believed that certain knowledge was innate

(you were born with it)

Locke (1632-1704) ~ believed that you gained knowledge through

your senses ~ you learn from your experiences ~ Your mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa)

Early Attempts to Understand the Brain

Muller (1801-1858)- relationship between nerves and energy, 5 sensesHelmholtz (1821-1894)- measured speed of nerve impulses, tri-chromatic visionCharles Darwin (1809-1882)

Inspired scientists to study animals to understand human

Natural selection Theory not only explains animal structures but also animal behaviors

Psychology is Born

1879 Wilhelm Wundt founds first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany

By mid-1890s his classes became popular

His students start labs all over US in early 1900s

Wilhelm Wundt(1832-1920)

Wilhelm Wundt1832-1920

• used introspection-looked at inner self (own emotional & mental processes)

Soul is irrelevant, humans can only be understood in terms of physical observations

Voluntarism: the power of the will to organize the mind’s content into higher-level thought processes.

Edward B. Titchener1867-1927

Student of WundtStructuralism- complex experiences should be

understood by simplest parts. Analyze consciousness into basic elements and study how they are related

3 parts of consciousness“The Banana Example”

3 parts of Consciousness: Ex. Banana

1. Sensation (element of perception

What do you see?

2. Feelings (element of emotion)

Do you like or dislike it?

3. Images (element of ideas) Memories of other bananas

William James (1842-1910)

Argued against structuralismFunctionalism- understanding

behavior based on how we use our mind/thoughts/behavior to function in the world

Heavily influenced by DarwinUsed animals in research

Sigmund Freud1856-1939

Felt many disorders were psychological not physiological

Humans not so rationalMotivated by unconscious

instincts and urgesUnconscious manifested in

dreams, mannerisms, slips of the tongue, mental illness, and even in one’s art & writing

Freud

Psychoanalysis- patient lies on couch and retraces dreams or says whatever comes to mind Analysis of this allows psychologist to

understand patients hidden desires etc.

Psychodynamic theory- behavior results from psychological forces that interact within a person, often outside conscious awareness

Oedipus Complex (thinks that boys & girls are attracted to their opposite gender parent)

Centered around sexual aggressive impulses hidden in unconscious

Most suffered from hysteria Known for the id, ego, & superego

Freud never totally accepted

John B. Watson1878-1958

Behaviorism- psychology can only study observable and measurable behavior not mental processes

Conditioning- we learn certain behaviors through multiple experiences that condition us to act that way

Ex. Pavlov’s Dogs -->Classical Conditioning

Mind =Tabula Rasa

Little Albert Experiment

B.F. Skinner1904-1950

Operant conditioning : form of learning where an individual’s behavior is modified by its consequences Pigeon and Rat Experiments

Expanded behaviorism Dominant school of thought in mid-

1900sFailed to recognize heredity,

genetics

Operant Conditioning

Big Bang Theory and Operant Condition

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology: school of psych that studies how people perceive and experience objects as whole patterns

When we perceive things we tend to see patterns and use cues to understand them Example: Movies and Christmas lights!

Max Wertheimer(1880-1943)

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology- school of psychology that emphasizes human potential and importance of love, belonging, self-esteem, self expression, and self-actualization

Helped understand motivation and emotion

Some see it as non-scientific because it focuses on meaning, values, and ethics

Dog RedChairHoop

Cognitive Revolution

Shift from limiting study on behavior towards a broad interest in mental processes

Cognitive psychology- study of mental processes (e.g. thinking, feeling, learning, judgment)

Heh?

New Ways of Thinking

Evolutionary psychology Studies the adaptive value of behaviors and mental

processes

Positive psychology Study of the subjective feelings of happiness and

well-being Focus is on positive attitude

You Decide

There is no single right theory

Several perspectives can provide insight into behavior

Were There Women?

Women have made important contributions despite discrimination

Christine Ladd-Franklin Completed requirements for Ph.D. in

1880s Became a leading theorist in color

vision

Women of Psychology

•Mary Calkins (1863-1930) - student of William James at Harvard but was not awarded a Ph.D. Founded psych lab at Wellesley College (1891) and studied verbal learning•Margaret Washburn(1871-1939)- first woman to receive Ph.D. in Psychology. Wrote about imagery directing thought•Leta Hollingworth(1886-1939)- Debunked popular theories that suggested women were inferior to men. Did pioneering work on adolescent development, mental retardation & “gifted” children.

Quiz #2

1. Psychology began in 1879 at the University of Leipzig. Who started it and used the term “voluntarism” to describe it?

a) Mary Whiton Calkinsb) John B. Watsonc) Wilhelm Wundtd) Sigmund Freud

2. Gestalt psychology studies…a) Observable and measurable behaviorb) Self-improvement and self-understandingc) Perception of objects as whole patternsd) Gender stereotypes

3. Which one of these best sums up the beginnings of cognitive psychology?

a) A shift away from behavior to mental processesb) A shift toward sexuality and away from free willc) A shift toward greater use of laboratory experimentsd) A shift toward conditioning in both humans and animals

Human Diversity

Diversity not recognized historically Most psychologists were white

males Most experiments were done on

white males Not conscious or deliberate just a

fact of life during the time Who does this leave out?

Understanding cultural, racial, and ethnic differences in thinking and behavior is important Why do you think this is important

in this day and age, not only to psychologist but to all of us?

Human Diversity

Psychologist have begun to question assumptions based on gender, race, and cultural differences.

Activity #1

Gender Issues

Gender vs. Sex "Gender" refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors,

activities, and attributes that society considers appropriate for men and women

"Sex" refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women.

Masculine and feminine have distinct psychological and social meanings. Based on cultural notions about the sexes rather than

biological fact Continuum

Gender roles- behaviors that we expect each gender to engage in

Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes Limited view of people based on gender For example, “Only men can be police officers” or

“only women should stay home and take care of kids”

Are gender stereotypes healthy for our society?

“Stereotypes are rarely benign.” (p. 26)

Gender Issues

Feminist theory- offers a wide variety of views on social roles of women and men, the problems and rewards of those roles, and ideas for changing them

Feminist psychology Argues that

Much research is based on all-male samples Reports of gender differences focus too much on extremes

and ignore similarities Psychologists only study what they consider to be important

and since traditionally most psychologist were men, many focused on what was important to them not society as a whole

Gender Issues

Sexual orientation- gender to which one is sexually attracted

Study topics like: Origin of sexual orientation Brain differences between those with different

orientations Impact of allowing non-heterosexuals in the military

Behavior is Shaped by Culture

Personal SpacePersonal Space

Value ofValue ofEducationEducation

PunctualityPunctuality

Social NormsSocial Norms

Culture Issues

Culture -Tangible goods and values, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs that are passed on from generation to generation (sometimes means “study of ethnic minorities)

Psychology must take cultural differences into account, e.g., the difference between individualistic and collectivist societies

Race and Ethnicity Issues

Race- defined by identifiable characteristic, e.g., skin color, geographic location, or facial features Is race a valid idea? Today’s culture allows for travel, migration, and

“mixing” To some extent all humans are “racial hybrids”

Hutu and Tutsi example “African” example

Ethnicity- is a common cultural heritage, e.g. religion, language, or ancestry, that is shared by a group of people

Race and Ethnicity Issues

Summary: Theoretically…1. Ethnicity is about the learned cultural behaviors

celebrated throughout regions around the world.2. Race is an indication of the heritage with which

you were born, regardless of location or learned behavior.

3. Ethnicity can be altered or mimicked through choice and beliefs.

4. Race cannot be altered.

Important issues

Do different races, ethnicities, cultures think and behave the same?

If there are differences, where do those behaviors originate (nature/nurture)?

Is the use of race valid in understanding human behavior?

Minority representation in psychology as a profession

How does technology influence culture?

Influence of Heredity & Environment

Nature versus NurtureNature versus Nurture

Quiz #3

1. If race is a biological term, ethnicity is a _____term.a) Sexualb) Arbitraryc) Feministd) Cultural

2. The terms “masculine” and “feminine” are a) Cultural notionsb) Biological termsc) Feminist termsd) Ethnic notions

3. When psychologists use the term “culture,” they usually mean the study of

a) The good lifeb) Ethnic minoritiesc) Designs for livingd) Aggressive behavior

Research Methods in Psychology (#8/9)

What are we looking for?

Empirical evidence- information derived from systematic, objective observation.

Avoid bias Use scientific method

Research Methods in Psychology

1. Naturalistic Observation2. Case Studies3. Surveys4. Correlational Research5. Experimental Research

-Or-

Multi-method Research

First basic informationThen pros and cons of each method

Research Methods in Psychology

1. Naturalistic Observation- research method involving the systematic study of animal or human behavior in natural settings rather than in a laboratory

Research Methods in Psychology

2. Case Study- detailed description and analysis of a single individual(or a few) in hopes of discovering an idea that applies to everyone

Can include observation, interviews, psychological tests etc.

Prominent in psychology

Research Methods in Psychology

#3 Survey research- research technique in which questionnaires or interviews are administered to a selected group of people

Example: such as polls prior to an election Last week’s homework- example

Education Article by Gallup

Research Methods in Psychology

#4 Correlational Research- research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables

Often used to make predictions, such as the relation between SAT scores and school success Generally, high SAT/ACT scores= high GPA

But…other variables can cause problems Toilet correlation….

Research Methods in Psychology

#5. Experimental Research- research technique in which an investigator deliberately manipulates selected factors(independent variables) and then measures the effects of those manipulations on a subsequent behavior or mental process

By random assignment of participants the experimenter aims to control other variables.

Research Methods in Psychology

Multi-Method Research- Use of any combination of the following

1. Naturalistic Observation2. Case Studies3. Surveys4. Correlational Research5. Experimental Research

Key Research Terms

Observer bias- expectations or biases of the observer that might distort or influence his or her interpretation of what was actually observed

Experimenter bias- expectations by the experimenter that might influence the results of an experiment or its interpretation.

Components of an Experiment

Participants or subjects- individuals whose reactions or responses are observed in an experiment

Independent variable (IV) Cause (what you are studying) This is the variable that is manipulated by the

experimenterDependent variable (DV)

Effect (result of experiment) Outcome: This is the variable that is measured by

the experimenter

Components of an Experiment

Experimental group- in a controlled experiment, the group subjected to a change in the independent variable.

Control group- in a controlled experiment, this group is not subjected to a change in the independent variable; used for comparison with experimental group.

The Importance of Sampling in Research

Sample- Small representative subset of a larger population Random sample- Every subject had equal chance of

being selected Representative sample- Characteristics of participants

correspond to larger population

Ethics in Research on Humans

Read p. 37-38 about Stanley Milgram’s experiment

Now:

Ethics in Research on Humans

Participants must be informed of nature of researchInformed consent should be documentedRisks and limits on confidentiality must be explainedIf participation is a course requirement in an

academic setting, alternative activities must be offered

Deception cannot be used about aspects of research that would affect participant's willingness to participate

Deception about the goals of research used only when absolutely necessary

Ethics in Research on Animals

Psychologists using animals must ensure “appropriate consideration of the animal’s comfort, health, and human treatment”

Animals must not be exposed to pain, stress, or privation when alternative procedures are available

Complete Chart Activity

Quiz #4

1. Observer bias is the main drawback in which kind of researcha) Surveysb) Naturalistic observationc) Correlational researchd) Experimental research

2. Of the many kinds of research in the field of psychology, correlational research:a) Explains cause and effectb) Enables predictions to be made about two or more variablesc) Gives a detailed description of one individuald) Sets up an experiment with independent and dependent variables

3. Researchers try to head off sampling error by which method?a) Random and representative samplingb) Repeating the survey every two years for ten yearsc) Wording the survey questions just rightd) Getting a good night’s sleep

4. Animal-rights advocates believe that research on animals is ethical under which of these conditions?a) APA-sanctioned experimentsb) NIH-approved experimentsc) Naturalistic observationd) No conditions

Careers in Psychology

Academic and Applied Psychology Faculty positions Research facilities

Clinical Settings Licensed social workers Counseling psychologists Clinical psychologists Psychiatrists Psychoanalysts

Work In Psychology (?)

Universities &Colleges

27.2%

Elementary/Secondary

Schools4.2%

Hospitals,Counseling,Clinics, etc.

22.3%

Business,Government or

Consulting12.1%

IndependentPractice33.1%

Specialties In Psychology

Clinical,Community

& Counseling51.1%

General/Quantitative3.6%

Cognitive/Physio5.2%

I/O5.7%

Social/Developmental

6.4%Other8.6%Ed & School

19.4%

Different Fields in Psychology

Developmental PsychologyPhysiological PsychologyExperimental PsychologyPersonality PsychologyClinical and Counseling PsychologySocial PsychologyIndustrial and Organizational Psychology

Licenses in Psychology

Psychologists - Ph.D., Psy.D.Psychiatrists - M.D.Psychoanalysts - M.D. or Ph.D.Social Workers (M.S.W.) - LSWMarriage Family Therapists - M.A.

Resources

www.prenhall.com/morris PowerPoint Chapter 1 & 2