THE LANGUAGE OF COMPOSITION

Chapter 1 terms for notecards

RHETORICpg. 1

the art of persuasion. It has to do with the presentation of ideas in clear, persuasive language. Rhetoric as a discipline began in the 5th Century B.C. in Greece. The fundamental principles of public argument were, at that time, laid down by Corax of Syracuse.

Classical Argument, as we know it, was codified by Aristotle in 320 B.C. in his Rhetoric. According to Aristotle, Rhetoric is a manner of effectively organizing material for the presentation of truth for an appeal to the intellect; and it is distinct from poetry, a manner of composition presenting ideas emotionally and imaginatively.

THE FIVE CANONS OF RHETORIC

The basic outline of classical rhetoric is composed of five categories, or “canons.”

1. invention2. arrangement3. style4. memory5. delivery Memory and delivery are concerned primarily

with oral or spoken rhetoric and will not be included in this course of study. Invention, arrangement and style will each be treated separately.

Invention

Invention is the process of coming up with ideas for speaking and writing. According to Aristotle, Invention includes three “proofs” or appeals: Ethos Logos Pathos

Aristotle calls these proofs “artistic” because they are under the control of the speaker or writer, who creates them in the minds of the audience. Further they must work together in balance for the speaker or writer to achieve maximum persuasive effect. Because listeners and readers will use both their hearts and minds in making decisions, these three tools are for both analyzing and creating effective arguments.

Ethos

Ethos is an appeal based on the character or credibility of the speaker/writer. The ethos of a composition may be considered the image of its maker that it projects. That image, to be effective, should be of a person of intelligence, rectitude, and good will.

Ways to appeal to ethos include: Shared Value – Speaker establishes commonality with

audience Reputation – Speaker’s credibility precedes them Discourse – Speaker’s credibility is established by things said Credentials – Speaker’s credibility is established by

Educational Degrees, Career Positions, etc.

Logos

In Greek, “logos” means “word.” In rhetoric, it is the content of the argument. This content must be arranged in a logical, reasonable order. It must appeal to the intellect of the audience.

Ways to appeal to logos include:1. Details – Speaker must provide more than vague

generalities.2. Examples – Speaker must use a variety of

anecdotes3. Facts – Speaker must be honest and factual4. Statistical Data – numbers, charts, research, etc.5. Expert Testimony – Quotes

Pathos

Pathos is the appeal to emotions of the audience. Pathos is the quality in art and literature that stimulates pity, tenderness, or sorrow. Most people tend to follow their hearts more than their minds. When using pathos in an argument, the speaker attempts to pull at the hearts of the audience.

Ways to appeal to Pathos include:1. Figurative Language – metaphors, imagery,

symbolism, etc2. Visual Elements – Pictures, Political cartoons,

etc.

Rhetorical Triangle

The Rhetorical Triangle demonstrates the relationship among Speaker, Subject, Audience, Context, Ethos, Logos, and Pathos

VISUAL RHETORIC

--Argument and ideas which are presented in a form which has few or no words. Visual rhetoric includes political or editorial cartoons, charts, graphs, photographs, statues, paintings, advertisements.

Arrangement

Once The decisions on what to say are made, the speaker must decide the order in which to present the ideas. There are three models for the arrangement of an argument.

The Classical Model The Rogerian Approach Informal Logic: The Toulmin Scheme Each of these will be discussed

individually.

The Classical Model

Classical rhetoricians outlined a Seven-Part structure for argument. The form is most commonly associated with the Roman Orator and legal advocate, Marcus Tullius Cicero who lived in the 1st Century B.C. The parts are as follows:

EXORDIUM -- Introduction. The writer gains the audience’s attention.

Exordium in Latin means “beginning a web.” This may be one paragraph or several. This is where the writer establishes ethos, sets the tone, draws the audience into the argument, and hopefully establishes good will. The idea is to get their attention, pique their interest, or challenge them. The exordium should also contain the thesis of the piece. In short the three main jobs of the exordium are to: 1) capture the interest of the audience; 2) establish the audience’s perception of the writer; and 3) set out the point of view of the audience.

Audience interest may be captured with anecdotes, quotations, statistics, or by restating the problem in a controversial way.

NARRATIO – Background information. The writer gives facts

of case.

Narratio is Latin for “narration.” In this section, the writer summarizes the background material, provides information the audience needs to know about the environment and circumstances that produced the argument, and set up the risks. The writer must give information that establishes why the subject is a problem that needs to be addressed. (logos) The writer also attempts to evoke an emotional response about the importance of the issue being discussed. (pathos)

PROPOSITIO – The proposition. Writer presents his/her thesis.

Sometimes in a Classical Argument, the writer may reserve the thesis until after the narration. This is often done for emphasis.

CONFIRMATIO – Arguments supporting proposition. Evidence to reinforce the thesis.

The confirmation is the major part of the text. It contains the proof needed to make the writer’s case. In this section the writer lays out the claims that support the thesis, providing evidence for each of the claims. This must be laid out in a logical order and contain the most concrete and detailed information in the text. It should include facts, examples, testimonies, definitions, etc.

This section allows the writer to explain why he/she believes in the thesis. It takes up each of the supporting claims individually, so that each one can be examined. This is done in an order which builds in intensity. This is called the chain of reasoning.

REFUTATIO – Counter Argument. The writer anticipates and answers in

advance the objections that opponents may raise.

In this section the writer addresses the opposing argument. This is done by discussing each of the points that the opposition might use in his/her side of the argument, and then reinforcing why each of these arguments may be invalid or why the writer’s argument may be from a stronger position. By doing this, the opposition is disarmed before being allowed to present a case. When the audience is shown that the writer has anticipated potential opposition and objections, and has an answer for them, the audience’s ability to oppose the views is weakened.

PERORATIO – Conclusion. The writer summarizes the chief arguments, calls for a

specific response, and makes a final emotional appeal.

This section provides a strong conclusion, amplifies the force of the argument, and shows the readers that this solution is the best at meeting the circumstances. A good conclusion does more than merely repeat the thesis and argument that has gone before. It brings all the ideas together and answers the question, “So, what?” It gives the impression of the rightness and importance of the argument. It suggests the larger significance and long-range impact. It gives the readers a psychological sense of closure even as the argument winds up instead of breaking off. It should carry a strong appeal to pathos.

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

Narration Description Process Analysis Exemplification Comparison and Contrast Classification and Division Definition Cause and Effect

NARRATION

Narration refers to telling a story or recounting a series of events. Chronology governs narration, which includes concrete detail, a point of view, and sometimes such elements of dialogue. Narration is often used by writers as a way to enter into their topics. It is a way to draw readers in because everyone loves a good story.

Description

Description emphasizes the senses of painting a picture of how something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels. Description is often used to establish a mood or atmosphere. Clear and vivid description can make writing more persuasive. By asking your readers to see what you see and feel what you feel, you make it easy for them to empathize with you, your subject, or your argument.

Narration and Description often work hand in hand.

Process Analysis

Process Analysis explains how something works, how to do something or how something was done. The key to successful process analysis is clarity: it’s important to explain a subject clearly and logically, with transitions that mark the sequence of the major steps, stages, or phases of the process. Examples of process essay include self-help books, recipes, and instructions. Process analysis depends heavily on verbs.

Exemplification

Exemplification is simply the offering of examples. Providing a series of examples—facts, specific cases, or instances—turns a general idea into a concrete one. It illustrates the point.

Aristotle taught that examples are a type of logical proof called induction. That is, a series of specific examples leads to a general conclusion.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

Comparison and Contrast is juxtaposing two things to highlight their similarities and differences. Writers use comparison and contrast to analyze information carefully, which reveals insights into the nature of the information being analyzed. C and C is often used on examination questions where one is required to discuss the subtle differences or similarities in the method, style or purpose of two texts.

CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION

It is important for readers as well as writers to be able to sort material or ideas into major categories. Writers and readers need to make connections between things that otherwise might seem unrelated. Classification and division also provide a way to break down larger ideas into more manageable concepts.

CAUSE AND EFFECT

A cause and effect essay may operate in two directions. One cause may lead to a variety of effects or many causes may lead to one effect. This type of essay will explain this process. Analyzing the causes that lead to a certain effect or the effects that result from a cause is a powerful foundation for an argument. Since causal analysis depends upon crystal clear logic, it is important to carefully trace a chain of cause and effect and to recognize possible contributing causes. Don’t jump to the conclusion that there is only one possible contributing cause.

DEFINITION

To insure that the writers and their audiences are speaking the same language, definition may lay the foundation to establish common ground or identify areas of conflict. Defining a term is often the first step in a debate or disagreement. In some cases, definition is only a paragraph or two that clarify terms, but, in other cases, the purpose of the entire essay is to establish a definition.

PROPAGANDA

--a negative term for writing designed to sway opinion rather than present information. With propaganda a writer may try to systematically spread a set of values, opinions, or beliefs. Propaganda presents a one-sided point of view which is frequently based in opinion rather than facts. It can usually be recognized by the heavy use of rhetorical fallacies and pseudo-scientific information.

POLEMIC

--an argument against an idea, usually regarding philosophy, politics, or religion. A polemic is often a diatribe given in a belligerent manner.

ASSUMPTION

-the underlying belief that links seemingly contrasting ideas

DENOTATION/CONOTATION

Denotation is the literal or dictionary meaning of a word Conntation is the emotional implications and associations words

may carry as distinguished from their denotative meaning. Basically, connotation is using a word as a symbol. Connotation works on three distinct levels: as follows:

1. private and personal – cannot be communicated to another e.g. a word that reminds one of a lost love

2. group(national, racial, linguistic) must be shared within group e.g. “red, white, blue;” inside joke-word that causes laughter;

3. general or universal, held by most people – metaphors are made possible by these connotations, especially when two terms have overlapping connotations

e.g. “Worm” denotes a small slender invertebrate. Its connotation of slow burrowing activity also allows an ingratiating person to be described metaphorically as worming his way into another favors, while other connotations may be based on emotional response such as sliminess and insignificance and permit a person to be described as “a worm.” Wormtongue in “Lord of the Rings” works on these levels of Connotation

THESIS/CLAIM/ASSERTION

A clear and focused statement that presents the subject and purpose of the argument

SYNTHESIS

The bringing together of contrasting texts into a coherent essay

ANALYSIS

Explaining the syntax and figurative language used in an essay, poem or fictional work.

STYLE

-the distinctive quality of speech or writing created by the selection and arrangement of words and figures of speech.