CHAPTER 1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND...
Transcript of CHAPTER 1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND...
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CHAPTER 1
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN
Ideas rule the world. They are stronger than all armies in the
barracks as well as they are the harbingers of all fortunes. An idea not
coupled with action is smaller than the brain cell it occupied. But a true
entrepreneur has the courage to take a calculated risk to pursue and practice
an idea. She will bite a little more than what she can chew, hoping that she
will quickly learn how to chew. Daring and innovative entrepreneurs were
always common people with uncommon way of doing the same thing what
others were doing in common. She can not be predicted because she
creates future. Entrepreneurship is thus, neither a science nor an art but
sheer practice – an idea of a man with ability to walk from problems to
problems with no loss of enthusiasm.
Entrepreneur is a rare breed. Economic empires were built and
bequeathed by them. Women were, however, found sparsely in these
realms, being restricted and restrained by multiple barriers. Gender
equality and empowerment of women is the third among the Millennium
Development Goals declared by Millennium Summit on 8th
September
2000 by UNO. Draft on agreed conclusions of 56th
Session of Commission
on Status of Women to be held on 27th
February to 9th
March 2012 at UN
Head Quarters in New York pointed out the urgency of elimination of all
forms of discriminations against women and provisions of legal framework
for gender equality as decision makers, producers, workers, entrepreneurs
and service providers.
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But in women equality and empowerment what is to be achieved is
far more than what is already accomplished. World Development Report
2012 is on Gender Equality and Development and observed that the pace of
change in gender equality is limited.
Women entrepreneurs of small scale manufacturing industries were
thus, taken for the present study in these contexts of inbuilt gender bias in
the society, innovativeness of entrepreneurship and rapidly changing world
of ideas. The methodology and design pursued in the study is the content of
the present chapter which is organized in eight subtitles viz., (a) genesis of
the problem, (b) statement of the problem, (c) objectives of the study, (d)
research design and hypotheses, (e) method of data collection and analysis
(f) review of literature, (g) scope/limitations and (h) organisation of the
report.
1.1 GENESIS OF THE PROBLEM
The beginning of 21st Century has come with greater turbulations
and lesser stability in every sphere of social life in all countries of the
world bringing changes in social, economic and political environments
rapidly. With the introduction of the liberalization, a new economic
environment has been created where only self-reliant and self-regulated
economic enterprises, including women enterprises, will survive.
Women’s role is very often considered as an important indicator of
the development of any society. In India, women are taking active roles in
all spheres of society at present including economic field. Though their
participation in the informal sector has been increased significantly, the
pace of development depends very much on their presence in education,
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enterprise and institutions, focusing on both individuals and groups.
Women have a tendency to keep away from high-flying economic
activities, which are supposedly regarded as the preserve of men.
Therefore, all efforts of women entrepreneurs need to be lauded for their
increased utilization of modern technology, higher investments, finding a
niche in the export market and creating sizeable employment for others in
the midst of all social taboos and gender discriminations.
Entrepreneurs are considered to be the most important economic
agents for the economic augmentation and growth. They act as the owners,
producers, coordinators, market makers, decision-makers, risk takers and
innovators. They provide improved allocation of resources for innovators
as well as for the best interest of their enterprises and the country. They
are considered as the economic pioneers initiating changes in the economy
to increase productivity and the quality of output through the application of
more efficient production technique, better plant lay-out and effective
marketing policies at the lowest cost. More employment opportunities are
generated and better standard of living is ensured. It is also believed that
without entrepreneurial activities, the process of industrialization is not
possible. Thus they are the dynamic persons for innovation and pace-
setters for economic development.
A successful entrepreneur is a splendid blend of various skills and
attitudes viz., perseverance, hard working, risk-taking ability, high
aspiration, willingness to learn, dynamic and creative nature, adaptability,
innovativeness, good salesmanship, ability to win friends and overcome
crisis, initiative, self-confidence, determination to succeed, pleasing
personality and tactfulness, high integrity, responsibility, excellence in
work and perception to time. In a gender biased society, whether these
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components of capacity and character can be used by women may seem to
be dubious. But society is nowadays realizing that women are equally
capable and have to be promoted for a better future by opening ways for
new women entrepreneurs.
Women in business are growing force in the economy, especially in
the transition environment. Their contribution extends from the economic
intervention to the wider process of social transformation. However, some
countries have deprived women of the paid jobs and social security,
thereby forcing them to find alternative ways of generating income. In this
context, starting a business is one of the options opened to women with
entrepreneurial acumen, shaped by a combination of push and pull factors.
The entrepreneurial functions would help in defining the important
traits of business which in turn could either be improved upon or be
transmitted through teaching and training inputs, provided all other
supports are prevailing adequately. The better understanding of this
complex system in relation to various supporting agencies and institutions
would definitely help improving the interactional part of different
components. The evaluation of different resources and support system
variables would also ease the policy makers and heads of these institutions
to work efficiently in providing latest technical know-how and equipments.
Additionally, it will help the agencies and institutions to mend their
communication as well as working approaches for efficiently delivering the
goods to the clients.
Most of the women entrepreneurs are supposed to take up business
enterprises to tide over financial difficulties. But they are subordinated by
over burden of family work, lack of education and training facilities,
absence of political will, lesser economic options, glaring disparities in
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gender stratification in rural and urban areas, religious and social mores
and taboos, limited access to facilities like credit, market, etc. One
important method to cope up with these challenges is to develop a battery
of competent entrepreneurs. They may help potential entrepreneurs in the
selection of the business according to their competency level, carrying out
the activities within their capabilities and providing all support in getting
required assistance or to overcome the built-in hurdles. In order to harness
their potential, it is necessary to formulate policies and programmes
sustaining their efforts in this direction.
Moreover, there is a growing recognition that the women have
unique talents, that could be harnessed for development and creating
employment opportunities for others. Even though women have to play an
increasingly prominent role in the economic activities in many countries,
they are confronted with increasing pressure from orthodox values and
nonsupportive institutions. In order to utilize the potential and to keep their
growth, it is necessary to formulate strategies suitable for stimulating,
supporting and sustaining the development of women entrepreneurship by
exploring and examining the present state of women entrepreneurs in detail
by serious studies and researches, relevant to various sectors and regions.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Entrepreneurs will not emerge automatically to develop the society
though there may be born entrepreneurs. In majority of the cases,
entrepreneurs are the outcome of the socioeconomic and political
conditions prevailing in the society. Organizations are fostering the needs
of the society and at times social necessity is the mother of entrepreneurs.
Anyhow the difference in degree of development of any region or country
is apparently exhibited in the availability of entrepreneurs. Resources and
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technology are used by successful entrepreneurs for development. By the
dawn of daring entrepreneurs, all clouds of constraints vanish immediately.
Women entrepreneurs are not a rare breed of human excellence.
But their rarity hails from the rare opportunity they get to excel and
establish by overcoming social inhibitions and corresponding ramifications
in all spectrum of polity. Support of the society, institution and
government a male entrepreneur naturally banks upon may not be opened
to a female entrepreneur. March of the humanity from one millennium to
the next opens up new windows of freedom and opportunities to hitherto
underprivileged people and places. Of course women as a deprived group
are also accumulating more and more strength in every age and emergence
of women entrepreneurs herald a new age of women empowerment. The
journey they traversed, hurdles faced and bouquet and brickbats they
received need rapt attention to pilot the path of new generation who
venture into this realm. Origin of women entrepreneurs in various sectors
of the economy is a welcome change which need recognition including
serious studies to enable others to pursue their path and society to offer
necessary support. As such the key issues emerged from the problem of
women entrepreneurs in manufacturing sector were the following.
(a) Whether women entrepreneurs are subject of a study because they are
scarce inputs like male entrepreneurs or not.
(b) Women in general in all societies are subject to neglect and as such
women entrepreneurs also have to face certain gender discriminations
in manufacturing sector also. But apart from scarcity argument and
gender bias inbuilt in all societies, whether the problem posed any
other pertinent issues.
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(c) Selection of manufacturing sector for study was also a deviation from
traditional women enterprises and as such whether their realm was
only papad or garment making or they had stamped their presence in
the state of the art techno-savvy industries/services also had to be
identified.
(d) Neglect of women entrepreneurs and women enterprises were
evidenced by their low representation. It demanded a closer
examination of possible reasons and corrective measures so that
women could contribute directly to the economic betterment of
society. How far studies on women entrepreneurs, especially region
wise and sector wise, can highlight gender bias as a relevant issue to
be explored.
(e) The present state of women entrepreneurs and the process they had
undergone to progress demand prompt perusal to identify the
promoting and preventing factors. How far the existing institutional
and support systems at different levels of society like individual,
family, institutions, governments etc. were women oriented?
(f) Study had to highlight whether women were only camouflage to
cover male heads as real owners or genuinely daring innovators.
Women’s entrepreneurship in manufacturing sector needed to be
studied separately for two basic reasons. The first reason was that women
entrepreneurship had been recognized by the last decade as an untapped
source of economic growth. While women entrepreneurs created new jobs
for themselves and others, they also provided society with different
solutions to management, organization and business problems as well as to
the exploitation of new entrepreneurial opportunities. However, they still
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represented a minority of all entrepreneurs. Thus there existed a policy
failure discriminating against women’s possibility to become successful
entrepreneurs. This failure needed to be addressed by policy makers, so
that the economic potential of this group could be fully utilized.
The second reason was that the topic of women entrepreneurship
had been largely neglected both in society in general and in the sciences.
Not only that women had lower participation rate in entrepreneurship than
men but they also generally chose to start and manage firms in industries
different than men like retail business, garment making, food processing,
education, etc. Women entrepreneurial ventures were subjected to lesser
recognition and examination by assuming them as a subsidiary income
source to family or social prejudice that such firms require lesser skill and
resources. A study of women entrepreneurs could bridge the knowledge
gap regarding the performance of entrepreneurial function by women in the
small scale sector of the region who exercised their skill, values and means
for their enterprises.
As such the problem of the study can be viewed as the present state
of women entrepreneurs in managing their manufacturing units and
adequacy of support they received at different levels of society so as to
know their degree of performance and pinching problems.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Major objectives of the study were the following:
1) To examine the fundamental functions of women entrepreneurs in
organizing and conducting their business enterprises in the
manufacturing sector of Thrissur district in Kerala.
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2) To identify the internal and external factors determining women
entrepreneurship in the selected region.
3) To highlight the institutional and organizational support systems
prevailing to protect and promote women entrepreneurs.
1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND HYPOTHESES
Design of the study was basically descriptive in nature. The very
objective of research was to examine how women entrepreneurs made
meaning of the changes they experienced as a result of starting their own
business by collecting data by open-ended interviews as the primary
source. The framework of the study was designed to study the
characteristics of entrepreneurs, features of their enterprises, level of
performance of entrepreneurial function, internal and external determinants
of entrepreneurship and the network of support systems with their various
inputs for assistance. Demographic variables and family details such as
residency, age of the entrepreneur at the time of start up, marital status,
work experience, family background, economic status, etc. were inquired
with a view to understand the basic characteristics of the respondents.
Research was also designed to examine the determinants of selected
women entrepreneurs in detail such as pull/push factors, facilitators,
motivators, crucial factors, etc. Necessary details on all variables were
collected through the exhaustive interview schedule. All the key variables
like entrepreneurial functions, determinants of entrepreneurship, etc. were
translated into objective parameters to quantify the performance and degree
of influence.
Entrepreneurship is unique and women are ignored but modernity
has showered ample opportunities cutting across all barriers. Therefore it
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was hypothesised that in a fully literate society like Kerala women were
getting equal opportunities and support as their counterparts in initiating
enterprises from government and other institutions. The meagre size of
women entrepreneurs in business might be the reflection of socio-
economic characteristics that affected the willingness and ability of women
entrepreneurs. But it was hypothesized that selected women entrepreneurs
were discharging their functions effectively. The entrepreneurs already
ventured might have definitely perceived their role as an entrepreneur
positively and had satisfaction in the new role with strong internal and
external motivational factors especially from family to start and sustain the
business. Women entrepreneurs of small scale sector might have limited
resources and ambitions but as business people it was presumed that they
might be bold and confident with strong opinion about enterprise
management. It was also assumed that being women, the selected
entrepreneurs had to bring a balance of business and family and as such
might have a perception of their role as entrepreneurs as subordinate to
their role at family.
1.5 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Method of data collection and analysis followed in the report are
explained here under various subtitles as (a) sampling methods/selection of
sample units, (b) area of study (c) period of study, (d) sampling method, (e)
key variables and (f) analytical tools.
1.5.1 Sampling Method, Sample Size and Selection of Sample Units
Women units registered with District Industries Centre (DIC) during
1991-92 to 2008 constituted the sampling frame. Addresses of women
industrial units in manufacturing sector were collected from the register of
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DIC. As the government offers a few concessions and subsidies to women
entrepreneurs they had registered themselves with the DIC to avail the
benefits. Hence the database maintained by DIC had been taken as the
source for preparing the population frame of women entrepreneurs in the
district.
Women entrepreneurs which registered under SSI/WIP units and
working in manufacturing sector alone were selected. Multistage Random
Sampling Technique was used for the selection of the sample unit. From
the list of entrepreneurs of five Taluks (Chavakkad, Trichur,
Mukundapuram, Thalapilly and Kodungaloor) of Thrissur District, 40
entrepreneurs each were randomly selected from each taluk. Thus the total
sample size was consisted of 200 respondents. Only those women
entrepreneurs were selected who had been in the business for at least three
years of functioning of the units and satisfied following conditions.
1) all women who were employing their units with one or more than
one employees were considered as women entrepreneurs
2) manage the units independently
3) the units should be at least three year old and registered.
4) excluded self employed single individual units
1.5.2 Area of the Study
As regards the geographical area, the study was conducted among
women enterprises of manufacturing sector in the Thrissur District of
Kerala, South India. Information was collected from 200 manufacturing
enterprises, from a total of 1604 registered women enterprises during 1991
to 2008 with the District Industries Centre (DIC) Thrissur. There are 92
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gram panchayats, six municipalities, five Taluks, and One Municipal
Corporation in the district. The five Taluks are Chavakkad,
Mukundapuram, Kodungaloor, Thalappilly and Thrissur. The important
factor which influenced the selection of Thrissur District was the
familiarity with the study area of the researcher to the women
entrepreneurs and familiarity with the people. These factors made rapport
building and data collection reliable and easy.
1.5.3 Period of study
The primary data were collected from WIP units and SSI registered
units under DIC Thrissur for the period between 1991-92 and 2007-08
based on their performance up to 31st March 2008. Collection of data was
done during the period September 2007 to May 2008.
1.5.4 Sampling Procedure
Data were collected through personal visits to the home and
enterprises of the selected women entrepreneurs, with prior appointments
for their conveniences. In many cases, the prior appointments were fixed
over telephone. Most of them wanted an assurance that the details collected
would not be revealed on to government departments. It was found on field
visit that half of the selected units were non-existent and many of those
which existed, refused to co-operate with the inquiry. Few were found to
be entrepreneurs for the name sake and were not actively involved in
managing the units. Therefore it was necessary to prepare a fresh list of
sample size.
Fresh units of less than three year of functioning were excluded.
Care was also taken to exclude self-employed women who did not generate
employment to others as the present study conceptualized entrepreneurs
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different from a self employed person. Many of the entrepreneurs studied
were found to have diversified other lines of business but most of them did
not have separate building or other infrastructure.
The study was mainly based on primary data. Primary data were
collected for the purpose of analyzing the objectives like factors which
helped to start the enterprises, functions of the enterprise, and the support
systems for women entrepreneurs. These data were collected from women
entrepreneurs spread over five Taluks in Thrissur District.
For the collection of primary data an interview schedule was used.
The interview schedule was prepared keeping in view of objectives of the
study. Besides the interview schedule, personal observations were also
recorded. In addition to this some key persons working in District
Industries Centre were also interviewed for further information. Pretested
structured interview schedule was used to collect primary data.
Secondary data from journals, reports, books, and other published
materials and reports of District Industries Office, Thrissur were also made
available and used. Relevant secondary information and literature had also
been downloaded from appropriate websites in the internet.
1.5.5 Key Variables Selected for the Study
Following are the important variables selected for the study
a) Form of Organization
b) Size of organization
c) Location of the Units
d) Initial Investment and Total investment
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e) Nature of Employees of the Unit
f) Market Strategy
g) Nature of production
h) Critical entrepreneurial Functions
i) Method of Production
j) Degree of involvement in business
k) Type of capital
l) Financial viability
m) Product wise classification
n) Sales turnover
o) Internal and external factors of entrepreneurship
p) Facilitating factors
q) Motivating factors
r) Financial factors
s) Localization factors
t) Crucial factors
u) Institutional support
v) Financial support
w) Family support
x) Loan repayment
y) Decision making and
z) Institutional network
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1.5.6 Analytical Method and Tools
Interview schedule prepared for data collection had four sections.
First section was for collecting the general particulars of women
entrepreneurs like age, religion, marital status, annual family income,
educational status, family structure, information regarding special training
in EDP/MDP undergone and years of experience etc.
Second section was about the enterprise and its functions in
organizing and conducting the business. This measured the performance of
the enterprises. Functions of the women entrepreneurs were classified into
sub sections like, organizing, operational, investment, production,
marketing and financial functions. Organizing functions of the enterprises
studied were analyzed in three major sections. In the first part share of the
entrepreneurs involved in different stages of the development of the
enterprise was calculated. In the second part, entrepreneurs undertaking
different functions like planning, decision-making, risk bearing,
organization and innovation were found. In the last part, average rank for
each functional area, according to their degree of involvement was
computed.
At the end of each functions, questions regarding functional
proficiency were asked to construct functional desirability indices.
Functional proficiency in all six functions were identified by asking yes or
no responses to relevant parameters and functional desirability index was
estimated as percentage share of actual number of positive answers to
maximum potential number of answers. It is equally a sum of actual
positive answers in each parameter obtained as numerator to denominator
as number of statements multiplied by 200 for simple functional index.
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Functional Desirability Index =
x 100 where x is the parameter or
statement, AX is the sum of actual positive score to each parameter Ax1,
Ax2, upto X number of parameters taken and Mx is the maximum potential
score for each statement multiplied by number of respondents (200).
Functional desirability index was classified into five categories based on
percentage of index like (a) excellent (above 90%), (b) very good (70%-
90%), (c) good (50%-70%), (d) satisfactory (40%-50) and (e) poor (below
40%).
Profile of enterprise included year of establishment, product wise
distribution of the enterprise, type of building, type of organization,
schemes under which the unit was established, size of organization and
location of the units. Investment details included initial investment, capital
loan and total capital invested. Production function included sales turn
over, business condition of the unit, method of production, nature of
production and length of time devoted to enterprises. Marketing function
included marketing strategy involved, channels of distribution, degree of
involvement in marketing/sales and promotional method of sales followed.
Entrepreneur’s perception towards their enterprises were also evaluated in
terms of ability to manage the unit, security by becoming an entrepreneur,
change in social status, satisfaction in the present engagement and
preferences in the business than a permanent job. Issues and constraints
related to business of women entrepreneurship were also collected in the
second section.
Major problems faced by the enterprises were identified by
computing average rank for each problem related to marketing, availability
of raw materials, financial problem, power problem, labour problem,
infrastructure problem and problems related to government policies.
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In the third part of the schedule, factors determining entrepreneurial
activity were identified. Factors were classified into pull factors and push
factors, compelling factors, facilitating factors and motivational factors.
Financial factors, non-institutional support factors, factors affecting
localizations and crucial factors for success of the enterprises were also
collected. Data for Entrepreneurial Quotient were collected by asking yes
or no responses to 14 statements regarding character, value and habit.
Competency part of EQ was taken from functional desirability indices.
Fourth part of the schedule was meant for information regarding
support systems of the entrepreneurs. Support information included,
institutional support, family support, social support, etc.
Percentage analysis for each Taluk was done separately which
enabled to identify variations between Taluk and thereby to analyze the
regional situation of women entrepreneur. The factor which has highest
rank is taken as the most influencing factor. Descriptive statistics like
mean, standard deviation and range was worked out for each Taluk for the
variables like investment, loan taken, sales turn over and profit of the unit
in each Taluk. Bar diagrams were also used subsequent to tables at certain
occasions to enable a visual comparison.
Performances of the enterprises were measured in terms of business
conditions of the unit and sales turnover. These two variables were taken as
dependent variable. Major independent variables considered for
performance of the unit were size of the unit and type of the unit. For
comparison of sales turnover with different types of unit, t-test was used.
Association of business condition of the unit with the independent
variables like size and form of business organisation was tested by using
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Chi-square test. Association of institutional support with business
condition of the unit was also measured by using chi-square test.
Major analyses were done with respect to the following areas and
issues.
(i) Changing status of women and women entrepreneurs in India,
Kerala and abroad.
(ii) Present state of small scale industries (MSME) and manufacturing
sector, especially at the state and district levels.
(iii) Socioeconomic characteristics of selected women entrepreneurs in
terms of age, religion, marital status, family income, education,
type of family, etc.
(iv) Basic features of selected enterprises like forms of business
organisation, size of operation, nature of employment and scheme
of assistance.
(v) Functional proficiency of six entrepreneurial functions viz.,
organisational, operational, investment, production, finance and
marketing with more than 15 related issues and 45 objective
parameters. Entrepreneurial type was determined by a combination
of competency, character, value and habit of selected entrepreneur
as daring, innovative, docile, etc. with Entrepreneurial Quotient.
(vi) Opinion about enterprise management and perception regarding
entrepreneurial issues with 20 objective parameters.
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(vii) Internal (push and pull factors) and external (facilitations,
motivation, financial, spatial, societal and crucial factors)
determinants of entrepreneurship.
(viii) Present state of institutional and organisational support systems at
national, state and district levels in the forms of assistance,
awareness, training, etc., to women entrepreneurs, participation of
respondents and their related issues.
(ix) Inter institutional and organisational linkages of agencies working
for women entrepreneurs.
Major tools applied for analyses can be summarised as following.
(i) For the presentation of data, two way tables were mainly used to
explain the status and conditions at present of various variables by
more than 70 tables. Charts and bar diagrams were also used at
times. Percentages, means and rankings gave a relative position of
relevant variables.
(ii) Functional Desirability Indices, Composite Entrepreneurial FDI,
Entrepreneurial Quotient, Opinion Index and Perception Index
were constructed on the basis of assigning score values to objective
parameters to quantify and measure functional proficiencies,
opinion and perception of respondents.
(iii) Chi-square and T-tests were used to find out the degree of
relationship of business conditions and forms of business
organisation with sales and scale of operations.
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1.6 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Women are exercising their entrepreneurial abilities with more
experience and education to face the challenges worldwide. In the light of
such development of women despite numerous constraints, women owned
businesses are becoming increasingly popular and important in the
economies of all countries. The present study is carried out in the area of
women entrepreneurs engaged in manufacturing sector. A review is made
on some of the important works and are divided as (a) factors determining
women entrepreneurs, (b) functions of women entrepreneurs and (c)
support agencies.
1.6.1 Factors Determining Entrepreneurial Activities
Gaikward and Tripathy (1970) in their book, observed that socio-
psychological factors were influencing industrial entrepreneurship in rural
areas. Study was made in the Thanku region of West Godavary District in
Andhra Pradesh. The study evaluated in depth the sociological and
economic factors, which helped this particular area to develop at a faster
rate than the surrounding areas. The study gave valuable insights to the
officials and non-officials working for industrial development and enabled
them to identify the strong points, for such development in particular areas.
Sextan and Kent (1981) reported the results of a study comparing
the characteristics of women entrepreneurs and executives. The study was
conducted on 45 women executives and 48 women entrepreneurs. The
results showed that women entrepreneurs were better educated; they tended
to place a slightly higher emphasis on their job than on their family. The
executives viewed their ability to work with people as the greatest factor in
success, while the entrepreneurs tended to view hard work and persistence
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as more important. Entrepreneurs tended to follow their fathers who were
engaged in business, although they did not acknowledge their fathers as
role models as female executives did not follow their father’s footsteps.
Lalitha Devi in her study (1982) had tried to show that employment
per se as against age, education, family type, place of residence, played a
crucial role in raising the status of women. She had done the analysis of
the status of women within the family, in the office and the wider society.
Employed women had more power and influences in the family and
outside than unemployed women. She had done the analysis of the status
of women within the family, in office and in the wider society. Potential
capacity of women could express itself better when it was used as in
employment which contributed towards making their status high in the
society.
Mohiuddin (1983) made an attempt to study the entrepreneurship
development among women. He found that women became entrepreneurs
due to reasons such as economic needs, challenge to satisfy some of their
personality needs , utilizing the knowledge gained, continuing family
occupation, etc.
Surti and Sarupriya (1983) in their study investigated the
psychological factors affecting women entrepreneurs. They examined the
role of stress, the effect of demographic variables such as marital status and
type of family on stress, and how women entrepreneurs cope with stress.
Results indicated that unmarried women experienced less stress and less
self role than married women. External locus of control was related to
result related to role inadequacy dimensions of stress. While many
respondents used intra-persistent coping styles, i.e., taking action to solve
problems, some resorted avoidance oriented styles of coping.
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Singh and Sengupta (1985) conducted a study on 45 women who
were attending the entrepreneurial development programme held at Delhi
in November–December (1983) organized by NIESBUD, FICCI, and a few
other agencies. The objectives of the study were to determine the
characteristics of women who were on the threshold of starting their
business, to highlight the factors that promoted women to start their own
business and to identify the motivational factors and underlying
psychological forces that led women to become entrepreneurs. The authors
concluded that the profile of women entrepreneurs was not dominated by
either education or lack of it or any other characteristics.
Shah (1987) analyzed the application forms of 300 women who
undertook an entrepreneurship development Programme (EDP) organized
by NISBUD at Delhi, with the purpose of drawing a demographic profile
of different target groups of women entrepreneurs, to find out their
motivations and their behavioral patterns. The conclusions drawn were that
the distinctive features of women entrepreneurs were need for
achievement, self sufficiency in terms of internal and external resource
awareness, initiative taking, problem solving and risk taking. Among the
motives to become an entrepreneur were economic needs, utilization of
own experience ,education, husband’s family’s support and interest,
availability of free time and finance, desire to be independent, and personal
ego and satisfaction of doing something on ones own .
Vinze (1987) in a study of 50 women entrepreneurs of Delhi,
presented an empirical and first hand report about their perception of the
prospects and future of their enterprise, problems faced, their involvement
in the enterprise, and its effects on family life. Data were obtained by
administering detailed structured and guided questionnaire. The analysis
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revealed that all the 50 women entrepreneurs felt that the future prospects
of their enterprises were quite bright. To the query as to which trade or
enterprise had a bright future, all mentioned only those enterprises in which
they were engaged. Only 10 per cent were aware of government
organizations involved in promoting and providing support to
entrepreneurs. Further 40 to 50 per cent of women entrepreneurs did not
know of any institution in Delhi providing entrepreneurial training and
those who knew about such institutions felt that they were very expensive
for new entrepreneurs.
Savitha Sigal and Kamala Srinivasan (1989) made an exploratory
study of the constraints, felt needs and preferences of rural women in
economic development. The study was conducted in a village of Hisar
district in Haryana, and multi-stage random sampling design was used for
the selection of the respondents, treating selection of block as first stage.
Accordingly, a sample of 78 respondents from nuclear families was
selected. The overall picture that emerged was that women lack most of the
essential resources in the form of human as well as material to take up
income generating activity independently.
Anna (1990) in her study proposed to identify the trends of women
entrepreneurship in Kerala in terms of community, occupation, education
and economic status. The intention was to probe into the genesis of
women entrepreneurship and discover the inter-relationship between socio-
economic structures and entrepreneurship. The study was based on primary
data collected from 102 entrepreneurs selected on a random basis,
representing all the 14 districts of the State. A pre-tested interview
schedule was administered to collect the primary data. The study revealed
24
that industrial entrepreneurship among the women of Kerala had emerged
from varied socio-economic, educational and cultural background.
Pillai and Anna (1990), in their study examined the compelling
reasons and stimulating factors which led women to industry. Some of the
conclusions were (a) independent economic status as the foremost ambition
led women to industry. (b) desire to earn money and to engage one fully as
decisive factors, (c) unemployment as the compelling factor that had driven
most of the entrepreneurs to industrial ventures, and(c) encouragement of
the family as the most important factor facilitating entrepreneurship.
Harinarayana Rao (1991) conducted a study with the objective to
assess the factors that impeded and slowed down the process of
entrepreneurial development among women in the backward areas of
Anantapur district of Andhra Predesh. The study was confined to the
campaigns conducted by the District Industries Centre, Ananpur during
1988-98. A brief analysis of the problems impeding the promotion of
grass-root level entrepreneurship among women revealed that more than
any other problem, poor financial status was very critical in the promotion
of entrepreneurship amongst women. Lack of co-operation from the family
and society kept them away from the mainstream of entrepreneurship.
Because of widespread illiteracy and ignorance, the rural women were not
aware of the programmes such a DWACRA, IRDP, TRYSEM, etc. The
study concluded with a few suggestions for the speedy promotion and
development of grass-root entrepreneurship among rural women. Various
skill-oriented programmes such as silk reeling and twisting, book binding,
handicrafts, agarbathi manufacturing, clay moulded articles, beady rolling,
fashion garments etc. were to be organized for women at various manual
headquarters.
25
Lalitha Iyer (1991) made a study of the struggles of women
entrepreneurs and their survival strategies taking the Association of
Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka as an illustrative case. The author
discussed perceptions of society, particularly of men, towards women as
entrepreneurs, perception of women entrepreneurs themselves, and
perceptions of the support system. The author also discussed the conflict
between domestic and entrepreneurial roles, conditioning by social
customs and psychological dependency syndrome, and woman’s attitude
towards money matters. Various other related factors that affected
woman’s existence in business were also discussed, based on the
experiences largely of the office-bearers of AWAKE. The problem of
collateral guarantee, attitudes of financial institutions, working capital
issues and operational procedures were discussed in detail.
Nelson (1991) in his study on small business opportunities for
women in Jamaica, observed that women were in business which required
least capital outlay or which were an extension of household activity like
haircare, dressmaking etc. Most of the women were subject to a perception
of sex-bias and believed that they would be socially ostracized if they were
more assertive as the male entrepreneurs.
Ajit Kanitkar and Nalinee Contractor (1992) highlighted women’s
entrepreneurial ventures in India. Spanning wide canvas across different
economic sectors, regions, income groups, family and educational back
grounds, the book illustrated the riches of women success experience in
good measure. The study involved a qualitative analysis of the case data
and briefly analysed the women’s responses to the problems such as
locating the business, managing employees and other aspects of operations
and expanding the boundary relations.
26
Jothi and Prasad (1993) attempted to derive an accurate profile of
entrepreneurial base among the women of rural India. The findings of the
study revealed a striking difference in the educational background of
women entrepreneurs in general and other women belonging to rural India.
The respondents of this study who hailed from rural areas were found to
have limited education as most of them had only pre-university education.
Social factors like caste, community, and religion were found to strongly
influence the growth of entrepreneurship. Most of the respondents were
from nuclear families. The results revealed no significant relation between
occupational background and entrepreneurial character of the respondents.
Moreover pursuing own interest and earning money emerged as significant
motivating factors. The main reasons which forced them to take up
business activities were growing unemployment and their own inadequate
educational qualifications.
Nazma Ara Hussain (1994) revealed the constraints faced by women
entrepreneurs in relation to their characteristics and the model for success
in entrepreneurship. To make the climate and style of functioning of all
support systems congenial for women entrepreneurship, she suggested that
support agencies should be staffed with female workers. This would help
to improve women entrepreneurs’ success by the support system and
resource system, directly and indirectly.
Srivastava (1994) conducted a study in dyes variety of non-
traditional business activities, and found that women entrepreneurs were
well equipped with education and experience and were highly motivated to
do their business independently and were prepared to face any challenge.
They were fully involved in the business so as to gain and enhance
economic and social status. This was indicative of healthy foundation of
27
small business enterprises with high growth prospects. Given the suitable
and timely infrastructural support by the Government and its various
agencies, small women entrepreneurs could contribute significantly to the
improvement of India’s economy.
Centre for Urban Policy Research Paper (1995) analyzed various
strategies to help the city’s population of poor, female-headed households
.At that time, 54% of all households in the city were headed by women,
and 36% of them lived below the poverty line. Mayor Kurt Schmoke
appointed Awida Marquez to chair this commission. The commission
reached the conclusion that the city’s poor women lacked a range of
resources, including skills, contacts, capital, and support to improve their
economic standing. Women Entrepreneurs in Baltimore was one of the
majorities of U.S. micro enterprise programmers that currently target
women. It was the only micro enterprise programmed operating in the city
of Baltimore at the present time.
Jayasree Amma (1995) examined how far the women entrepreneurs
helped to accelerate total development of Kerala. Women who made one
third of the labor force were vital and productive workers in India's
national economy. It was found that women were both recipients and
contributors to development efforts, due to the engagement of women
entrepreneur in industrial activities and the magnitude of the problems of
discrimination against women was reduced to the minimum. The study
helped to reach the conclusion that the position of women in the Indian
society would have an important impact on future social development.
Majority of the entrepreneurs selected trading type of enterprise and they
had an increasing inclination towards manufacturing and servicing. Their
growth had been quite encouraging now-a-days.
28
Mallika Das (1999) profiled women entrepreneurs who own and
manage small and medium size enterprises in two southern Indian states
via, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The women were classified into three
categories based on their reasons for starting business such as chance,
forced and created or pulled entrepreneurs. The study indicated that there
might be both similarities and differences between the experiences of
women from the developing and developed worlds. Specifically, this study
underscored the difficulties faced by women in getting funds for setting up
business and meeting the working capital requirements. The study also
suggested that there was a rationale for focusing on created or pulled
entrepreneurs, as they seemed to perform better as resulting from the
business skills they possess. Women who were forced into
entrepreneurship also did better than chance entrepreneurs. Hence, it might
be inferred that financial motivations could lead to success in
entrepreneurial activities.
Rajinder Kaur and Shally Bawa (1999) took up an investigation into
entrepreneurship among women by emphasizing the psychological
correlates, especially values and locus of control. The study had been
conducted among a random sample of 100 middle class women
entrepreneurs from Jalandhar, Ludhiana and Kapurthala cities in the State
of Punjab. Only those women who had over three years experience in
business were included in the sample. They were involved in
manufacturing, trading and service enterprises. The study identified the
motivational factors of women entrepreneurship. The findings of the study
were that the more successful among the respondents were found to score
high on ability, utilization, advancement, economic rewards, personal
development and prestige. However, no significant differences in locus of
control were observed among women with varying degrees of success.
29
Priscilla Pue Ho Chu (1999) provided a detailed account of Chinese
industrial Entrepreneurs and described the phenomena of women
entrepreneurship in Hong Kong. It addressed two main issues, viz., (a) the
characteristics of Chinese entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship and (b) the
factors that constituted the making of Chinese women entrepreneurs in
Hongkong. From in-depth personal interviews, Priscilla Chu examined the
characteristic features of Chinese entrepreneurship in general, and female
entrepreneurship in particular, and made a model to summarize the making
of female entrepreneurs in Hong Hong, a model which is significantly
different from that of male and Western counterparts. .
Soundara Pandian (1999) concentrated specifically on the
development of women entrepreneur, the need for women
entrepreneurship, problems faced by them, the existing programmes that
helped women entrepreneurship, the institutions that rented financial
support to women entrepreneurs and suggested and identified areas that
could be established for women entrepreneurs.
Hameja, Bhatia and Saini, (2000) in their study about business
opportunities and attitudes towards support agencies, stated most of the
women entrepreneurs lacked occupational mobility, from one business line
to another. Also, found that there was a lack of information and knowledge
regarding various schemes of assistance launched by the government of
India through various support agencies including those exclusively for
women entrepreneurs.
The study of the Danish Agency for Trade and Industry (2000)
study on the circumstances of women entrepreneurs revealed that the
women’s conception of their motives for starting an enterprises were
different from those of men. Women printed out that their motive was
30
linked to their family, job, and career and did not identify themselves with
the concept of entrepreneur, because in their opinion, entrepreneur was by
definition a man, and this did not fit into the picture they had of
themselves, as women.
Sasikumar (2000) described social factors, credit facilities, gender
empowerment, time management, and institutional support etc, related to
women entrepreneurship in Kerala. The study argued entrepreneurship,
especially in the small sector, involved a lot of personnel and personal
management, in the process of getting things done through other people at
various levels within and outside the unit. The people with whom the
entrepreneur had to constantly interact in the courses of business could be
grouped into three categories, such as (a) the entrepreneur had to motivate,
instruct and lead the employees-right from the manager\supervisor to the
skilled and unskilled worker, (b) to conduct business and to earn profit, the
entrepreneur had to interact with a range of people like customers, partners,
financiers, suppliers, etc and (c) the entrepreneur came across the various
offices and institutions which meant an interface with bureaucrats/officials
at various levels.
Aravinda and Renuka (2001) conducted a study endeavored to
examine the profile of women entrepreneurs, motivational and facilitating
factors, and work home role conflicts faced by women entrepreneurs. The
important factors which motivated the women towards entrepreneurship
were self-interest in that particular area of enterprise and inspiration from
other’s success. The facilitating factors that had an impact in maintaining
the enterprises successfully were self-experience, interest, family’s help
and support. The responses obtained in this study suggested that there was
an absolute need for more entrepreneurship development programmers and
31
support for women. Women entrepreneurs in general faced conflicts in
work and home roles. The main conflicts in work role pertained to
inability to expand the enterprise and optimum utilization of available
skills. Non-availability of time to spend with family and being a good
spouse were the conflict areas faced in the performance of home role. It
might be concluded that women entrepreneurship required a congenial
entrepreneurial climate which motivates and facilitates women to take up
entrepreneurial career.
Brysg and Menzies (2001) examined some derogatory myths about
women entrepreneurs and found most were unsubstantiated. This study
examined the same derogatory myths in relation to a sample of 101 female
and 302 male visible-minority entrepreneurs from three cities in Canada.
Findings showed that “successful” female and male lead entrepreneurs
were quite similar in terms of personal and business characteristics.
Sebastian Titus (2002) indicated that SHGs had helped micro
enterprises by women individually and as groups. The respondents were
raising vegetables in the land commonly owned, ready-made garment
making, developing model farms etc. Even though there were many
hurdles involved in the process of promoting micro enterprises through
SHGs, the attempt was worth while and the sustained efforts by the
government, NGOs and SHGs in the long run could generate a huge
employment opportunities among the rural women and thus could eradicate
poverty among the rural masses.
Zewde and Associates (2002) conducted a study of Women,
Enterprise Development in Ethiopia in two phases. The first phase was a
desk research based study of secondary information covering a wide range
of existing literature of MSE sector in general in Ethiopia and on Women
32
entrepreneurs specially. The desk research set out to review the
importance of the sector, the factors that influenced the growth and
development of MSE, issues for women starting and expanding their
enterprises, as well as identifying certain other issues which might require
further research. The second phase was field-based research conducted in
six regional urban towns of Ethiopia to investigate critical issues raised by
the desk research. The study identified the characteristics, features,
aspirations, motivations, needs and wants of women entrepreneurs in
Ethiopia, with the intention of formulating strategic support interventions
to improve advocacy and their access to services.
Beena and Sushama (2003) revealed some facts about women
entrepreneurs that, the financial return was a very strong motive not only to
start but also to carry on with this enterprise over a period of five years.
These entrepreneurs assured reasonably fair quality in terms of freshness of
vegetables, leafy vegetables and flowers etc, and the price of their products
were low compared to shops and supermarkets. Their enterprises were
customer friendly. They made all efforts possible in taking the product
very close to customers. These entrepreneurs made customers to buy from
their comfort Zone when buying through internet and being at home
instead of going to super market is on an increase.
Pameela Anna (2003) was in the forefront of electromechanical
component manufacturers at the national level and considered there were
no special problems for women in business. “If one tries to gather
comprehensive knowledge of one’s field, difficulties can be avoided,” she
said. Later she joined the company in 1973, and took up the role of leading
the company by appropriate moves in tune with changing market. It was
her leadership that created’ OEN as a model among Entrepreneurs and
33
gave the company the Best Practice Organization citation. However, her
achievements were not limited to the company she headed but the
Chairperson of Kerala State chapter of Federation of Indian Industry,
President of Cochin Chamber of Commerce, member of the governing
body of Kerala State Productivity Council and President of Kerala
Management Association, and also traveled to many foreign countries of
tomorrow’s business.
Supriya and Srinath (2003) in their study explained the factors that
contributed to the failure of small business. The objectives of the study
were to examine the socio-economic background of small-scale
entrepreneurs in selected towns in Tamil Nadu and to investigate the
factors that led to influence entrepreneurship. The findings of the study
were that many of the respondents were tired of their struggle and while
they had got into business with a tremendous sense of self-worth, over the
years there had been erosion. The felt need was to restore the sense of self-
worth.
Bannur (2006) made a case study with the objectives of identifying
factors responsible for the growth of women entrepreneurs in Hubli-
Dharawad industrial area. The results of the study were that woman
entrepreneurs contributed to the industrial development, not only by the
establishment of new enterprises but also by sustenance and expansion of
new as well as existing industrial unit’s sales turnover.
Chitra (2006) explained factors that promoted the women
entrepreneurs in general and particularly in personal care industry. The
study assumed descriptive and exploratory research. Primary data were
collected from thirty five women entrepreneurs on the basis of
convenience. The scope of the study was confined to beauty parlors
34
operated in Coimbatore City. The study brought to light the profile of
women entrepreneurs, profile of the unit, factors influencing
entrepreneurship, critical success factors and the problems of women
entrepreneurs.
Menzies, Gabrielle and Louis Jacques (2006) observed that
derogatory myths about women entrepreneurs could act as a detriment to
women achieving successful business outcomes as male entrepreneurs.
Terri Lituchy, Martha A. Reavt Elena Lvina, Ronald J. Abraira
(2006) presented case studies on women aborigine entrepreneurs in UN
Quebec, Canada. For aboriginal peoples, small business and
entrepreneurship were intimately linked to community and cultural
survival. Within these communities they assumed major roles and were
active participants and leaders in politics and business. The paper
concluded with some suggestions on policy directions to encourage
entrepreneurship in countries that were at different stages of transformation
from aboriginal entrepreneurship as a means of economic development to
self determination and community sustainability.
1.6.2 Functions of Women Entrepreneurs
Sharma (1975) in his study had tried to explore the emerging
patterns of growth of entrepreneurs, their performance and problems. The
study had been conducted to tackle some theoretical and methodological
issues concerned with the analysis of entrepreneurial role of conformity
and to throw light on some applied aspects of entrepreneurial growth in the
State of Uttar Pradesh. The study had shown lack of response of
entrepreneurs to the facilities made available by the government.
35
Usha Rao (1983) in her study had tried to take stock of the existing
positions of women in different regions. Some of the important questions
raised by her were (a) where do our women stand in the great task of
national development, (b) what was the status of the Indian women in the
social, economic, legal, educational, morale and political shapers, (c) how
far our women had progressed in their quest towards equal status and equal
opportunities? Rao had particular interest in women belonging to the
weaker sections.
Seth (1988) conducted an empirical study to explore some
psychological characteristics of Indian women entrepreneurs vis a vis their
non-entrepreneur peers in terms of personality , self concepts, and sex role
orientation .An inverse significant relationship was observed among
women entrepreneurs between sex-role orientation and personality
characteristics such as imagination, cheerfulness, self-assertion, ambition ,
maturity, and integration which implied that women entrepreneurs had
internalized the so-called masculine ideology of imagination, self-assertion,
decisiveness, ambition, maturity and integration. The conclusion drawn
from the findings of the study were that women entrepreneurs differ
significantly from their non-entrepreneurial peers in personality.
Christudas (1992) attempted to analyze whether women could fill
the gap in the short supply of entrepreneurship for the industrial
development of Kerala. The descriptive analysis showed the types of
enterprises best suited for the industrially backward Kerala, particularly for
the Trivandurm district. From the empirical study of the industrial
enterprises owned and operated by women in the Trivandrum District we
came to know that women were interested not in the expansion of market
for the existing products. Their capacity to undertake minimal risk
36
permitted them neither large scale business nor medium scale. Usually
their role as entrepreneurs was tied up with small-scale manufacturing
activity. The study revealed the fact that they were keen to get quick
profits and were unwilling to undertake projects having long gestation
periods.
Anju Deepak (1993) said that empirical studies on entrepreneurship
had focused on the emergence of male entrepreneur but not much work had
been done on subjects with special reference to women entrepreneurs. This
might be attributed to the fact that as far as entrepreneurship was concerned
there was no specific difference between men and women entrepreneurs.
The study found that women entrepreneurs held high expectancies for
values like utilization, achievement, personal growth and creativity. Since
these were intrinsic in nature, women entrepreneurs saw their business as a
central integrating force where the job content became a source of
enrichment, creative effort and self actualization. Women must be taking
up entrepreneurship as a career to attain a sense of self-fulfillment.
Sudha 1996) studied women entrepreneurs in small scale industries
in Kollam District to analyze the origin and growth in a historical
perspective. The study tried to provide a better understanding of the
socioeconomic background of women entrepreneurs. A concrete analysis
of the different factors motivating them to start industries had also been
undertaken on the basis of empirical data. Some specific indices of
economic viability of the units had been worked out and certain problems
facing women as entrepreneur were studied. This was an exploratory study
based on sample survey. Since secondary source of information was
insufficient to explain the different aspects to women entrepreneurs,
relevant primary data had been collected from 15 selected women
37
entrepreneurs and 15 men entrepreneurs for a comparative analysis. The
conclusion of the study was that both owned and borrowed capital were
higher in the units of men entrepreneurs than women.
Gregory Ericksen (1999) concentrated on 12 women entrepreneurs
who told the stories of their success. This book reflected the variety
and range of women with a business of their own. They demonstrated that
the world of business was, by no means a man’s world, but a world in
which customers rule and products and services reign over the fortunes of
companies. The entrepreneurs represented in this cross section had not
only succeeded in areas traditionally considered as a woman’s domain, but
also in areas traditionally considered as male territory. The women profiled
in this book epitomized the top 10 characteristics of successful
entrepreneurs.
Manimala (1999) suggested that policies and strategies were
important variables in determining entrepreneurial performance. The
success was a matter of chance and one needs some luck. This was true,
but it was also possible to shape luck by building networks, by exercising
parsimony of investment, by seeking competitively insulated riches by
moving incrementally and by continually monitoring performance.
Jean Lee Sinew Kim Coho Sow Ling (2001) in an article
emphasized women’s basic role as that of mothering, and found working
women faced role struggle .As married working woman, many women
entrepreneurs had to assume multiple roles in the family in addition to
their careers .They must bear major responsibility for household chores
and childcare. These responsibilities gave rise to work – family conflict,
which became an obstacle in managing their business. This research
studied the work- family conflict among married Singapore women
38
entrepreneurs. The work- family conflict was divided in to three parts job-
spouse conflict, job-parent conflict and job home maker conflict. The data
for this study came from 102 married Singapore women entrepreneurs.
There was a need for greater spouse support, flexible work schedule, and
full-day school in order to alleviate work family conflict. Good marital
relation was important in reducing spouse conflict and increasing
wellbeing in women entrepreneurs.
Susan (2001) made a study on women entrepreneurs in Ernakulum
District, to examine the socio-economic background of women
entrepreneurs in the rural and urban areas of the particular area. And also
analyzed the factors motivated the women entrepreneurs to start new
ventures, functions and the constraints faced by women entrepreneurs in
the selected area.
Ganesan (2003) conducted a study on Status of women
entrepreneurs in India and suggested remedial measures that would
contribute to greater success rate among women entrepreneurs. The data
were collected from women entrepreneurs spread over 10 districts of
Thailand. The findings revealed that the entrepreneurs who survived for
more than five years, retained their turnover position, on the face of the
market oriented problem introduced by economic liberalization which was
ongoing during the survey period. Mover over the major reason
contributing to the failure or stagnation of majority of women
entrepreneurs was the difficulty they face as women.
Istanbul (2004) studied women’s entrepreneurship in the economy
from an Austrian economic perspective and analyzed the characteristics of
women’s entrepreneurship and offered a set of policy recommendations. .
As low rates of women’s entrepreneurship were both related to the status of
39
women and the status of entrepreneurship, they had suggested that
increasing the abilities of women to participate in the labor force and
generally to improve the position of women in society would increase the
possibility to engage in entrepreneurship in central. However, more
targeted initiatives were also needed to support women entrepreneurs and
would be entrepreneurs.
Maria Beaver (2004) revealed an interesting fact about Bulgarian
Women Entrepreneurs who were citing the limited interior market and to
succeed they had to look for other opportunities to sell their production. In
addition, foreign market created condition for establishing new links and
joint ventures with companies from the developed countries as well as for
fund raising to enlarge their activities and to introduce new technologies.
Social attitudes towards entrepreneurship were a part of the business
environment and important to women entrepreneurs.
Bhatia (2005) suggested that any understanding of Indian women,
their identity, their role taking and breaking new paths, would be
incomplete without a walk down the corridors of Indian history where
women had paused, lived and internalized various role models. Some had
taken entrepreneurship roles where some had opted for employment, some
in entertainment field and some for leadership roles while millions of
others had taken the role of ideal stereotyped social roles. The paper slided
from the era of fifties to the 21 st century and how transformation had
occurred in the women roles. Also the paper talked about the status of
women entrepreneurs, and the problems faced by them when they ventured
out to carve their own niche in the competitive world of business
environment.
40
Browse (2005) explained women entrepreneurship had a
tremendous potential in empowering women and transforming society. Yet
this potential remained largely untapped in South Asia, with less than 10 %
of the entrepreneurs being women. This paper reviewed some of the issues
concerning women entrepreneurship in South Asia, considered good
practices for developing women entrepreneurs and provided an overview of
some of the initiatives in South Asia to promote Women Entrepreneurs.
Nirmala (2005) addressed the issue of the role IT could assume in
the enlistment of the socio-economic status of women and empowering
women entrepreneurs in the rural areas of Pondicherry, based on data
collected from a random sample of 200 women entrepreneurs during 2002.
It also surveyed the problems encountered and suggestions made by the
sample respondents to improve their business performance. It was
concluded that above all reaping the benefits of IT called for familial and
governments support, accompanied by political will and commitment, it
was needed to ensure higher literacy level to overcome the communication
barriers.
Friederike Welter, David, Small Bone and Nina B. Isakova (2006)
examined changing role of females in centrally planned into market
economies. It presented recent research findings on women doing business
in different transition environments. It included examples from countries
that were different in historical background, the pace of market reforms
and cultural distinctiveness, performed in more progressive countries, in
terms of market reforms, (Slovenia and Lithuavia), less fortunate States
(Ukraine & Moldova), two Central Asian Countries, and the specific case
of East Germany.
41
According to Hisham Tashkendi (2007) by the Two Holy Mosques
King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz, since its foundation in 2005, had funded
hundreds of young Saudi entrepreneurs to start their own businesses. The
total number of men initiating projects stood at 426, and the rest of the 104
were women. Financial aid was provided to applicants based on merit. The
study estimated the total number of workers in the kingdom at 8,024,885
including 6,780,550 men.
Mehdi Hassan (2007) said an export house was be established in
Pakistan to help small and medium entrepreneurs, particularly women for
appropriate marketing of their goods all over the world and to end the role
of middleman. The export house would be a private limited company but
funded by government and run on no-profit and no-loss basis under TADP.
Santha (2007) observed that most of the women entrepreneurs in
Kerala and Tamil Nadu were enjoying a very high social and economic
status after becoming entrepreneurs. Both states were about to achieve a
growth of 100 percent and more in the total assets, annual income and
annual savings, etc. But significant differences were found in their annual
sales, income, expenditure and annual savings. The major service utilized
from the government agencies by the women entrepreneurs in both the
States was training. Most of the respondents in Kerala attended PMRY
training, whereas it was EDP training in Tamilnadu. Their repayment
record was excellent, the study reported. The majority of the women
entrepreneurs in both the States approached public sector banks for
financial assistance. However, they had not much awareness about the
financial institutions\lending schemes.
Saikou E, Sanyang and Wen-Chittuang (2008) found that Women
represented about 40% of the total labor force in Taiwan. The majority of
42
women employment was concentrated in manufacturing and service sector
such as commerce and social or personal community work. Small and
medium enterprises in Taiwan accounted for 97.8% of the total enterprises
and employed about 78% of the total work force. Small and medium
enterprises had played a crucial role in economic development of Taiwan.
There was also lack of sufficient research on women’s role in small and
medium enterprise development. Women owned small and medium
enterprises in Taiwan and 81.6% of the women employers employed 2-9
persons and 13.2% employed 10-29 persons. This paper proved that many
women employers owned larger firms that employ up to 200-499 persons,
suggesting that women entrepreneurs were capable as men in running
business. The findings also suggested that women in middle ages, between
mid-30s and mid-40s, were more likely to set up their own businesses.
Andrea E. Smith Hunter, Suithna Mboko (2009) used an
entrepreneurship framework to study female entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe.
The study sought to explain strategy processes employed by Zimbabwean
female small business owners, and to establish the link between the
strategy processes and firm outcome. The research used interviews to
collect data, using a case study method approach, which directed the
interview process. The analysis focused on meanings and interpretations of
the data collected. The findings suggested that a strategic approach to
managing small firms was necessary for firm growth. The research was
carried out during a period of economic turbulence in Zimbabwe, which
might have influenced the entrepreneurs' assessment of appropriate
approaches to operating their businesses. The overall conclusion was that
Zimbabwean female business owners had strong entrepreneurial
competence but lack the ability and support to develop their firms to their
full potential. The findings had implications for policy makers who need to
43
put in place measures to improve female entrepreneurs' managerial
competence.
Alivelu, Srinivasulu, Gopinath Reddy (2009) attempted to enquire
into the politics of state-business relations (SBR), how it had affected
industrial development in general, and expansion of the manufacturing
sector in the State of Andhra Pradesh (AP) in particular. In AP, SBRs had
evolved gradually under different political regimes - from 'indifferent'
SBRs during the initial decades passing through critical junctures in the
form of 'active' and 'proactive' phases and finally reaching their zenith
during Chandrababu Naidu’s regime and continuing in the Congress
regime. The SBRs in AP were seen evolving through different political
regimes, and sought to capture their impact of the performance of
manufacturing sector, based on both qualitative and quantitative sources.
Examination of the secondary data revealed the dominance of registered
manufacturing in AP’s total manufacturing output. Firm level perceptions
revealed that business associations played a major role in the dissemination
of information, rather than in lobbying the government as might be the case
in other states. Small firms were at a disadvantage compared to large and
medium firms.
1.6.3 Institutional and Organizational Support
Pareek (1978) highlighted the problems of small scale industries
with particular reference to finance brought home to the readers an analysis
of the capital structure of 181 small scale units of different capital bases
belonging to various industrial groups. The study reviewed the role of
financial institutions and state agencies in extending credit to small scale
industrial units and pin-pointed their attitude of indifference in catering to
the needs of the tiny units. The main thesis of the author was that the
44
financial institutions had to tune their lending policies in consonance with
the needs of the small-scale sector in general and the smaller among the
small scale in particular.
Mathew (1985) made an analysis of women’s employment in
Kerala, to examine the changing strategies of exploitation inherent in the
employment of women’s labour in the industrial sector in Kerala state and
to analyze the socio-political forces operating behind them. The paper was
divided into three sections viz., (a) the first section attempted to examine
certain broad theoretical aspects of women’s employment, (b) the second
one dealt with certain emerging trends in the structure of employment in
Kerala and in the country and (c) the third section dealt with the modus
operandi of gender-based exploitation of labor under changing
environment and institutional framework.
Shailaja Devi (1987) observed that the women entrepreneurs were
from well to do families and had influential social and political
connections. They were educationally qualified also. The impact of
financial and technical assistance on the growth of women entrepreneurs
was significant. Fresh capital supplied by partners or personal saving did
not constitute an important source of funds. The units did not have any
serious production problems and the entrepreneurs did not take any outside
help for running their units.
Shanta Kohli Chandra (1991) in her study had discussed public
policies and programmes affecting women entrepreneurs. She had
suggested in her study that government must analyze the current status and
potential role of women in the process of industrialization with a view to
bring positive change which would result in sharing responsibilities and
benefits by both sexes. She had further stated that effective and adequate
45
legislation for social facilities, health provisions, maternity and social
security benefits would enhance the process of women’s involvement in
the development process of the country.
Deka, Phan and Baruah (1992) established that women were as
much endowed with entrepreneurial talents as men, admitting in the same
breath that the number of women engaged in self employment was very
low. The reasons for this paradox in the context of the north-eastern region
of India were no concerted efforts for development of women
entrepreneurship till mid, 1980s. In fact, one of the major constraints in the
economic development of the North Eastern Region was the limited
number of highly motivated entrepreneurs, in spite of the vast natural
endowments and a series of incentives, subsidies and other economic
benefits offered by the state and central governments. One of the
fundamental challenges faced by women entrepreneurs were in the realm
of self-environment.
Singh Kamala (1992) described with the help of statistical analysis
the linkages and communication patterns between various supporting
agencies and institutions and women entrepreneurs. Stating that
entrepreneurship comprised four sub-systems, vessel-sphere, socio-psycho
dynamics, resource base, and support system, the author defined a women
entrepreneur as a confident, innovative and creative women capable of
achieving economic independence individually or in collaboration, who
generates employment opportunities for others through initiating,
establishing and running an enterprise by keeping pace with her personal,
family and social life The main finding of the study was that business
world was mainly dominated by men, the women entrants into this arena
face serious constraints such as lack of awareness of government
46
coordination between different agencies, and long and complicated
procedures to avail of the incentives offered by them.
Anjali Mehta (1993) provided the profile of women entrepreneurs of
Ahmedabad city. According to her study the women entrepreneurs
appreciated the training programmes conducted by CED but were little
unhappy about its lack of substantial follow-up action. Further, a bank
financing had been found to be an important formidable barrier. Moreover,
the paperwork was found fabulous, and the procedural work was unending.
The third major area of difficulty was with the inability of women to
operate freely in male-dominated business world, though some of the
women entrepreneurs were greatly appreciated by their male counterparts
and society at large. The major part of women entrepreneurs belonged to
the garments and domestic product category (23%) while 5 percent were in
professional service in a sample of 41 entrepreneurs. The remaining 13
percent had ventured into novel fields ranging from printing (2), making
loud speakers (1) to diamond cutting (1) etc.
Cherian (1994) conducted a study on the performance of SSI Units
in Kollam District and examined whether the business and family
background of the entrepreneurs played a significant role in the
performance of their enterprise in relationship with the exposure to EDP
training. The EDP training was positively associated with the development
of women entrepreneurship. The performance of the units of EDP trained
women entrepreneurship was much better than the performance of the units
of untrained women entrepreneurs. The extent of family supports in
running the units of women entrepreneurship, both trained and untrained,
also was very high. Hence, the EDP training could be fruitfully employed
as a strategy to improve the operational efficiency of the Units and to raise
47
the status of women in the society. There was great potential at least for a
few units under study to expand their volume of business. Expansion of
profit making units accelerated the rate of industrialization and reinforced
the confidence of prospective entrepreneurs.
A very important study related with the topic on training issues
regarding women in micro and small business was done by Awori Thelma
(1995) in Africa. The study revealed that systematic entrepreneurial
training for women was still at its infancy in the continent. However,
women were segregated into three types, the training for low income
women, training for women who were already entrepreneurs and training
for trainers.
Sarnagadharan and Resia Beegam (1995) undertook a study to
assess the institutional support provided to women entrepreneurship in
India in general and Kerala in particular. The problems confronted by the
women entrepreneurs in Kerala, engaged in various industrial\business
activities were shortage of working capital and high rates of interest
charged by banks. Traveling a long distance for procuring raw materials
were also inconvenient for the women entrepreneurs.
Aparajita and Nayan Barua (1998) said that constant endeavour to
bring in hidden talents of the entrepreneurs of the North-Eastern Region
was worth mentioning. Then the women entrepreneurs of the region
needed special attention as it had been observed that only a fraction of the
trained women entrepreneurship came to the real world of business. The
other part enjoyed such programmes as a pass time only without any
followed action. In this context, monitoring cells were needed to be setup
by State governments of the region to assist and guide all types of women
entrepreneurs in finding financial assistance.
48
Until recent times in Ireland, entrepreneurship education, training
and development programmes had been gender neutral. Common
criticisms of such programmes were that they tend to be male dominated
and dismissive of women (Carter, 2000). These programmes were
frequently “start your own businesses” courses which, in the main, cater
for service type industries and micro-enterprises rather than for growth
oriented businesses. The current research showed that the level of women
entrepreneurs engaging in incubation type programmes, and/or
entrepreneurship programmes geared for high-growth, high-tech sectors
was still less than 10%. However, contrary to previous research on female
entrepreneurs in growth businesses and female entrepreneur’s attitudes
towards growth, this research had shown that a significant 82% of women
in businesses considered to be growing and 74% of women in business in
the region expressed a desire to grow their businesses further.
Krishnan Embram (2003) conducted a study on women
entrepreneurship in Kerala and explained the growth of women in the
entrepreneurial sector and institutional network and promotional measures
that supported the women entrepreneurs. The study also highlighted the
real factors responsible for the poor conditions of women entrepreneurs
and evaluated the functioning of women entrepreneurs. Mover over the
study undertook real problems which led to the high rate of sickness and
mortality among women enterprises.
Natarajan and Kavitha (2003) in their study focussed the importance
of the competencies of women entrepreneurs and suggested appropriate
measures to improve the competencies of the women entrepreneurs. The
findings of the study revealed that there was no significant difference in the
overall competencies of the women entrepreneurs belonging to different
49
age, education, experience, location, status and nature of operation with the
entrepreneurial activities. In addition to their inability to adjust the family
problems, other issues were inadequate knowledge on competitor’s
strategies, legal aspects of business, public relations, inability to access
financial assistance, lack of knowledge about various incentives schemes
etc.
Raju (2003) concentrated on women entrepreneurship through
DWCRA scheme. The scheme helped the women entrepreneurs in
increasing knowledge as they had been provided with opportunities of
participation in various trades. Other women in rural areas should be
encouraged to participate in these programmes, so that they also could gain
more knowledge about different trades and become self-employed.
Problems were part and parcel of any venture. This scheme was no
exception. Strenuous efforts should be made to address them effectively.
In this task the following suggestions were put forwarded for government
and non-government organizations responsible for promoting and
developing entrepreneurship amongst women, viz., active policy
intervention for better infrastructure, adequate finance, better marketing
etc, to enhance women’s motivation and involvement in job, thus leading
entrepreneurs to challenge traditional and stereotyped ideas of women’s
potential and role.
Sarada (2004) attempted to develop a stress model, conceptualizing
work as a combination of both homework and organizational work. It
studied work stress emanating from the role system composed of multiple
roles of women, generating different kinds of work that acted as sources of
stress that demanded abilities and skills of women to cope with stress.
50
Attempt should be done to generate various interventions focusing on
empowering women to manage stress.
Aparajeeta and Nayan Barua (2005) examined the role of support
organizations in marketing entrepreneurial services to women and also the
entrepreneurial culture and application of EDP training among EDP trained
women entrepreneurs and their comparative position with the non-trained
women entrepreneurs. Among the women a few had reported to have taken
follow up steps. The trained women preferred and sold through own retail
outlets. There were more trained female urban entrepreneurs than the rural
entrepreneurs.
Lalitha (2005) conducted a case study of women entrepreneurs of
self help groups and also made an attempt to study the experiences of
successful entrepreneurs which would motivate the prospective
entrepreneurs. The findings of the study revealed that ten members from
two SHGs in Uchanampatty were engaged in the activity for the past seven
years successfully as a part-time activity. Support from the self help
institutions, group dynamics, self confidence, hard work and determination
of the group members and selection of enterprises based on demand were
the factors which contributed to the success of SHGs in promoting
enterprises.
Asha Patil and Anuradha Mathu (2007) stated the problems faced by
women entrepreneur and importance of training and institutional support
for women empowerments and confidence to overcome constraints of
women entrepreneurs.
Femida Handy, Bhagyashree and Meenz Kassam (2007) opined that
entrepreneurial activity attracted certain kinds of individuals, whether it
51
was to promote a social cause in the nonprofit sector or profit sector. This
article looked at the behavior of women entrepreneurs in India in both the
for-profit and nonprofit sectors to test for potential differences and
similarities. They chose two groups of entrepreneurial women who
founded and led relatively similar-size organizations in the same city and
who provided services primarily to women and children. Their findings
showed that while all nonprofit entrepreneurs received a high payoff from
promoting social causes, there was no single unifying payoff for for-profit
entrepreneurs. Family background and support, however, played an
important role for both sets of entrepreneurs. They found that experience
in the sector, social class, caste and education influenced entrepreneurial
behavior and that this influence differed by sector.
Vasanthagopal (2008) dealt with various dimensions of women
entrepreneurship in India. He also explained the experience of other
countries. Moreover detailed explanations of government agencies
promoting women entrepreneurship at national, state level and
International agencies promoting women entrepreneurship were also given.
The review of literature presented here reveals that research on
women entrepreneurship as such is scarce and scattered with only a few in-
depth studies of a limited nature. It also reveals that there is wide scope
for research on women entrepreneurship in manufacturing sector in
developing countries like India. However the factors and forces
determining entrepreneurship are highlighted, especially the family
background, government policies, institutional support etc. Though
personal attributes are very important in entrepreneur, market forces are
equally applicable in deciding the future of enterprise. Women capable of
acquiring or inheriting entrepreneurial acumen who are associated with
52
adequate institutional\policy support have more chance to win. Review has
enabled to list entrepreneurial requirements more than the methodology of
study.
1.7 SCOPE /LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Study of women entrepreneurs always create much curiosity and
interest to unravel the activities of the fair sex in business world.
Endearing environment for the entry of women entrepreneurs is a clarion
call for the economic independence of a neglected group. Simultaneously
it augments the exchequer of the economy. As such the present study of
women entrepreneurs had looked into all the functions discharged by
women as entrepreneurs. Role of relevant institutions and organisations
like government, non government, family, friends, associates, etc. in
influencing women entrepreneurs were also highlighted to measure the
support they got to manage their enterprises. The study had attempted in
measuring the level of functional efficacy by classifying entrepreneurial
functions into six and identifying minimum of six objective parameters for
every function for measurement. Functional Desirability Index and
Entrepreneurial Quotient could thus, provide necessary informations to
objectively examine the degree of performance of entrepreneurial
functions.
Though women constitute half of the population, their participation
in various activities are either underestimated or unrewarded in general.
The realm of business enterprise is also not an exception to this. Though
Kerala is a developing society, business enterprises are limited in number
due to its special nature of developmental shift from agriculture to service
sector directly with modest presence in industries. When women
entrepreneurs were taken for study, the scope was limited by a host of
53
gender related parameters. The study examined women entrepreneur’s
capabilities in carrying out various entrepreneurial activities. The
entrepreneurial avenues are wide and varied. Therefore the study had
focused only in manufacturing sector. It will be helpful for the new
women entrepreneurs entering into the field of enterprises and pointers to
policy makers to undertake appropriate programmes and packages to
promote women entrepreneurs.
Scope of the study was limited to Thrissur district of Kerala State as
study region. Self employed individual entrepreneurs and enterprises with
less than three years of experiences were also excluded from the study.
The result may not be generalized as such. All the aspects of women
entrepreneurship were not covered in this study like constraints of
entrepreneurs as females to overcome hurdles, limitations, inadequacies
and competition. Non-manufacturing units were excluded. Focus of the
study was always the entrepreneurs than their enterprises. Moreover,
majority of the entrepreneurs surveyed were operating on small and micro
units. They did not have the practice of maintaining proper set of records
on the performance of their business. Some of them were naturally
hesitant to give details of their turnover, profits, or other financial matters
either because of fear to disclose such details or lack of interest in such
interviews. Some of the entrepreneurs provided data from their memory.
There was no way of verifying the veracity of the data provided by them in
such cases. DIC Thrissur also did not maintain detailed records of women
entrepreneurs in the district.
1.8 ORGANISATION OF THE REPORT
The report is organised in five chapters. Chapter one deals with
research methodology and design which explained statement of the
54
problem, objectives, methodology, scope/limitations of the study, review of
literature and scheme of the study. Second chapter gives a theoretical
perspective of women entrepreneurs and a profile of the manufacturing
sector in India/Kerala. The analysis parts are given in the next two
chapters and the fifth and final chapter presents summary of findings and
conclusions of the study. Bibliography and Annexures have followed the
last chapter.
Selected References
(a) Factors Determining Entrepreneurial Activities
1. Gaikward and Tripathy R.N, (1970). Socio-Psychological factors
influencing Industrial entrepreneurship in rural areas, a case study in
Tanuka region of West Godavari, A.P. Hyderabad. SEDME 304, pp.
13-16.
2. Sexton and Kent, (1981). Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship, Hall
Englewood Cliffs, Prentice, pp. 81-90.
3. Lalitha Devi, (1982) “Status and Employment of Women in India”,
B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, p.186.
4. Mohiuddin Asghari (1983). “Retrospect’s among Women”,
SEDME, Entrepreneurship Development, pp. 18-22.
5. Surti K. and Sarupriya D (1983). "Psychological Factor Effecting
Women Entrepreneurs”, Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol.III,
pp. 440-442.
55
6. Singh N.P and Sengupta, (1985), Potential women Entrepreneurs:
Their profile, Vision and Motivation: An Exploratory Study,
Research Report Serial One, NIESBUD, New Delhi, pp. 112-120.
7. Shah Hina (1987). “Fostering Entrepreneurship: A Study of
Distinctive Women Features”, Research Report Serial three, New
Delhi, NIESBUD, pp. 78-80.
8. Vinze, Medha Dubhashi (1987), “Women Entrepreneurs in India”,
Mittal Publications, New Delhi, p.91.
9. Savitha Singal and Kamala Srinivasan (1989), “An exploratory
study of the Constraints", Indian Journal of Training and
Development, Vol.19, pp. 221-223.
10. Pillai NC and Anna V (1990). "The Entrepreneurial Spirit among
Women-A Study of Kerala”, Indian Management, Nov. Dec. pp.86-
90.
11. Anna V (1990). Women entrepreneurship in Kerala, PhD thesis,
Department of Economics, Cochin University and Science and
Technology, Cochin, p.18.
12. Harinarayaba Rao C (1991), “Promotion of Women
Entrepreneurship: A Brief Comet”, SEDME, Vol. 18(2), pp.90-99.
13. Lalitha Iyer, (1991), “Women Entrepreneurs: Challenges and
Strategies”, Friedrich Ebert Sifting, New Delhi, pp. 87-89.
14. Nelson Bloaom O’ Meally, (1991), Small Business Opportunities
for Women in Jamaica, SEDME, Vol.17, pp. 90-99.
56
15. Ajith Kanitkar and Nalinee Contractor, (1992), The women
entrepreneurs of India, Entrepreneurship Development Institute of
India, Ahamedabad, p. 47.
16. Jothi V and Prasad G (1993), “A Profile of Potential Rural Women
Entrepreneurs”, SEDME, Vol. XX, p.2.
17. Nazma Ara Hussain (1994), “Women Entrepreneurs in a Poverty
Ridden Society - A Case Study of Bangladesh”, Women in
Management Champions of Change, Khair Jahan Sogra (Ed),
University Press Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp.32-34.
18. Srivastava RM (1994), "Emerging Profile of Small women
Entrepreneurs cum Managers in India - A Case Study, "Woman in
Management Champions of Change, Khair Jahan Sogra, (Ed),
University Press Ltd, Dhaka, Bangladesh, p. 69.
19. CUPR (1995), “Women Entrepreneurs of Baltimore”, Micro
Enterprise Development as an Economic Adjustment Strategy,
Centre for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, pp. 77-79.
20. Jayasree Amma (1995), "Women Entrepreneurship in Kerala, A
case study of Alappuza District, University of Kerala, Trivandrum,
p. 20.
21. Priscilla Pue Ho Chu (1999), The Phenomena of Women
Entrepreneurs in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, The City University
Press, Hong Kong, p. 14.
22. SoundaraPandian (1999), Women Entrepreneurship Issues and
Strategies, Kenosha Publishers, New Delhi, p. 14.
57
23. Rajinder Kaur and Shally Bawa (1999), “Psychological Correlates
of Entrepreneurial Performance among Women”, The Journal of
Entrepreneurship, Vol.8, No.2, p.51.
24. Mallika Das (1999), "Women Entrepreneurs of Southern India: An
Exploratory Study”, The Journal of Entrepreneurship, Vol. 2, p. 66.
25. Bhatia .B.S, Dhameja S.K, Saini J.S. (2000), Women Entrepreneurs
Their Perceptions about Business Opportunities and Attitudes
Towards Entrepreneurial Support Agencies, Punjabi University,
Patiala, December, pp. 51-52.
26. Sasikumar (2000), “Women Entrepreneurship”, Vikas Publishing
House, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
27. Schultz Grafisk (2000), Danish Agency for Trade andIndustry,
Danish, Electronic edition by Schultz Grufisk, p. 17.
28. Brysy and Menzies (2001), "Women Entrepreneurs - An
Exploratory Study", SEDME, Derogatory Myths about Women
Entrepreneurs, p. 91.
29. Aravinda .S, Renuka (2001), "Women Entrepreneurs", International
Journal of Ideas, Third Concept, March Vol. 120, p. 22.
30. Sebastian Titus (2002), "Promotion of Women Entrepreneurs
through SHGS, Khadigramodyog", The Journal of Rural Economy,
November, pp. 69-70.
31. Zewde and Associates, (2002), "Gender, Women’s Enterprise
Development in Ethiopia”, ILO, Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, No.18,
p.11..
58
32. Supriya M.V, Srinath T.T (2003), “Perceptions of Small Scale
Entrepreneurs In Tamil Nadu Regarding Successful And
Unsuccessful Qualities of Entrepreneurs", SEDME, September, pp.
200-201.
33. Pameela Anna Mathew (2003), Among Business Leaders of Kerala,
OEN India Limited, Ernakulum, October, p. 1.
34. Beena C. and Sushama B. (2003), “Women Entrepreneurs
Managing Petty Business: A Study from Motivational Perspective,”
Southern Economist, May, Vol 42, pp. 5-8.
35. Bannur, BC. (2006). "Problems and Prospectus of Women
Entrepreneurs in Hubli-Dharwad, Industrial Estates-A Case Study”,
International Journal of Ideas, Third Concept, January, Vol. 119, No
227, pp. 56-58.
36. Menzies, Gabrielle and Louis, (2006). “Derogatory Myths about
Women Entrepreneurs, Canada", Paper published in Management
International Spring, ISSN.0840-853X, Vol.10, p. 83.
37. Terri. R. Lituchy, Martha A. Reavley, Elena Lvina, Ronald J.
Abraira, (2006), “Success factors of Aboriginal Women
Entrepreneurs", International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small
business, Vol. 3, No.6, p.121.
(b) Functions of Entrepreneurs
1. Sharma.K.L, (1980), “Entrepreneurial Growth and Development
Programmers In Northern India: A Sociological Analysis”, New
Delhi, pp. 101-102.
59
2. Usha. Rao (1983), “Women in a Developing Society”, Hashish
Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 180.
3. Seth Salma (1988), “Psychological Characteristics of Indian Women
Entrepreneurs an Empirical Study” Unpublished Masters
Dissertation, University of Delhi, New Delhi, p. 7.
4. Christudas (1992), "Performance of Women Entrepreneurs in
Trivandurm District", Ph.D. thesis, Dept of Economics, University
of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala, p.18.
5. Anju Deepak, (1993), “Value Orientations among Women
Entrepreneur”, Asian Entrepreneur, pp. 16-19.
6. Sudha S (1996), “Performance evaluation of women entrepreneurs
in Small Scale industries in Kollam District” M.Phil. thesis, p. 111.
7. Manimala, Mathew J. (1999), "Entrepreneurial Policies and
Strategies - the Innovators Choice, Sage Publications, New Delhi,
pp. 83-88.
8. Gregory K. Ericksen, (1999), “Women Entrepreneurs Only” 12
Women Entrepreneurs Tell the Stories of their Success, pp. 8-10.
9. Jean Lee Siewkim, Choo Seow Ling, (2001). “Work –family
conflict of Women Entrepreneurs in Singapore”, Journal for
Women In Management Review, ISSN O964-9425, pp. 13-14.
10. Susan Thomas P (2001), "Women Entrepreneurs in Ernakulum
District in Kerala - An Analytical Study, Gandhigram Rural
Institute, Tamil Nadu, October, p. 17.
60
11. Ganesan S (2003), "Status of Women Entrepreneurs in India, New
Delhi, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, p. 17.
12. Maria Baeva (2004), "An interesting fact about Bulgarian Women
Entrepreneurs", “Nye Zenith” (We Women) Weekly, pp. 29-30.
13. Istanbul (2004), "Issues and Policies of women Entrepreneurship",
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
Publications, France, pp. 78-79.
14. Bhatia B.S (2005), "A Reflection of the Indian women in
Entrepreneurial World", Journal of General Management, pp. 45-47.
15. Nirmala V (2005), "Information Technology for Empowerment of
Women Entrepreneurs, Journal of Extension and Research, January,
Vol.VII, p. 57.
16. Browse (2005), "Developing Women Entrepreneurs in South Asia
Issues, Initiatives and Experiences", Economic sector, Asia Pacific
Publications, Catalogue 2010, December, United Nations,
December, p. 150.
17. Friederike Welter David Small bones Nina B. (2006), "Enterprising
Women in Transition Economics, Isakova, Ashgatic, Publishing
Limited, p. 23.
18. Santha (2007), “Women Entrepreneurs Enjoy High Social Status”,
The Hindu, Newspaper Daily, Cochin, December 16th
, p.2.
19. Mehdi Hassan (2007), "Support of Women Entrepreneurs". South
Asian Business News, January, Pakistan, p.18.
61
20. Saikou E, Sanyang and Wen-Chittuang (2008), "Small and Medium
Enterprises for Women entrepreneurs in Taiwan", World Journal of
Agricultural Sciences, Vol.4, ISSN 1817-3047, DOSI Publications,
p. 170.
21. Alivelu, G., Srinivasulu, K. Gopinath Reddy, M. (2009), "State
Business Relations and Performance of Manufacturing Sector in
Andrapradesh - A Case Study, Research programme consortium for
improving Institutions for poor growth, Nov, p.63.
22. Andrea E, Smith Hunter, Suithna Mboko (2009), "Women
Entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe - A Case Study, Journal of Global
Business Issues, p. 65.
(c) Support Institutions
1. Pareek H.S. (1978), Financing of small industries in a developing
economy, National, New Delhi, p. 115.
2. Mathew, P.M. (1985), Exploitation of women Labor: An Analysis
of Women’s Employment in Kerala, Social Scientist, Vol, 13, No
10\11, Nov, Oct, p. 71.
3. Shylaja Devi SG (1987), Women entrepreneurs of Kerala, A Case
study of selected units in Trivandrum, M.Phil. thesis, University of
Kerala, pp. 90-97.
4. Santa Kohli Chandra (1991), “Development of Women
Entrepreneurship in India”, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, p. 68.
5. Deka Phani, Baruah A.R. (1992), “Women Entrepreneurs-
Challenges and Expectations: A study in North-Eastern Region”,
Asian Entrepreneur (Autumn), p.20.
62
6. Kamala Singh, (1992), Women Entrepreneurs, Hashish Publishing
House, New Delhi, p. 69.
7. Anjali Mehta (1993), “A Study of Women Entrepreneurs in
Gujarat”, Times of India, Ahamedabad, 8th December, p. 11.
8. Cherian (1994), "Impact of Entrepreneurship Development
Programmed on the Performances of SSI Units in Kola District,
CUSAT, Cochin, p. 14.
9. Sarngadharan, M, Beegam, S Lesia (1995), "Women
Entrepreneurship: Institutional Support and Problems, Discovery
Publishing House, Darya Gang, New Delhi, p. 13.
10. Awori Thelma (1995), "Women in Micro and small scale enterprises
Development, University Press of America, West View Press, p.
116.
11. Nayan Baruo Aparajeetha Borkakoty (1998), "Women
Entrepreneurship" APH Publishing Corporation New Delhi, pp. 40-
103
12. Swarajya Laxmi (1998), "Women Entrepreneurship in India,
Problems and Prospects, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi,
pp. 13-16.
13. Carter (2000), "Women in Business - Exploding Some Myths
About Entrepreneurship Education of Female Entrepreneurs", Diana
Project, London, p. 330.
14. Natarajan C, Kavitha M (2003), "Competencies of the Women
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09707247, pp. 36-38.
63
15. Krishnan Embram (2003), "A Study on Women Entrepreneurship in
Kerala, M.G. University, p. 13.
16. Raju (2003), "Women Entrepreneurship through DWCRA Scheme,
December, SEDME 304, p. 9.
17. Saradha S (2004), “Stress of Women Entrepreneurs a Comparative
Study with Women in Selected Groups in the District of
Ernakulam”, (MBA Project Report), CUSAT, Cochin, April, p. 16.
18. Lalitha N (2005), "Women entrepreneurs of SHGS - A Case
Study", Journal of Extension and Research, VII Nos. 1&2, January,
p.43.
19. Aparajeeta, Nayan, (2005), “Women Entrepreneurship”, APH
Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.
20. Asha Patil, Anuradha Mathu (2007), "Women and Entrepreneurship
- Issues and Challenges, Kalpazpaz Publications, Delhi, p. 322.
21. Femida Handy, Bhagyashree Ranade, Meenaz Kassam, (2007),
"Non Profit Management and Leadership", University of
Pennsylvania, June, Volume 17, p. 66.
22. Vasanthagopal R (2008), "Women Entrepreneurship in India, New
Century publications, p.16.