Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods Table of Contents Exit.
-
Upload
melvyn-armstrong -
Category
Documents
-
view
220 -
download
1
Transcript of Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods Table of Contents Exit.
Chapter 1
Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
What is Psychology?
Psychology Psyche: Mind Logos: Knowledge or study
Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes Behavior: Overt, i.e. can be directly observed
(crying) Mental Processes: Covert, i.e. cannot be directly
observed (remembering)
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Philosophers try to explain psychological processes
2,000 yrs ago Aristotle wrote about sleep, dreams, the senses and memory.
1600s Rene Descartes puts forward idea of interactive dualism – the mind and body are 2 separate entities working together to form who we are and
what we know.
PSYCHOLOGISTS STILL DEBATE AND STUDY MUCH OF THE SAME ISSUES THAT PHILOSOPHERS DID CENTURIES AGO. HOW HAS IT CHANGED?
Influence of Physiology
Studies functions and parts of living organisms.
Most responsible for helping psych become a scientific discipline. Scientific discoveries made by physiologists helped prove
that scientific methods could be applied to describe human behavior and mental processes.
What Might a Psychologist Research?
Development: Course of human growth and development
Learning: How and why it occurs in humans and animals
Personality: Traits, motivations, and individual differences
Sensation and Perception: How we come to know the world through our five senses
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
What Might a Psychologist Research? (cont.)
Comparative: Study and compare behavior of different species, especially animals
Biopsychology: How behavior is related to biological processes, especially activities in the nervous system
Gender: Study differences between males and females and how they develop
Social: Human and social behavior
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
What Might a Psychologist Research? (cont.)
Cultural: How culture affects behavior
Evolutionary: How our behavior is guided by patterns that evolved during our history
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Psychology Today
Biopsychology: Our behavior can be explained through physiological processes Uses brain scans to gather data (MRI, PET) Looks at neurotransmitters
Cognitive: Study thoughts, memory, expectations, perceptions, and other mental processesPositive: Study of human strengths, virtues, and optimal behavior
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Many Flavors of Psychologists
Psychologists: Usually have masters or doctorate; Trained in methods, knowledge, and theories of psychologyClinical Psychologists: Treat more severe
psychological problemsCounseling Psychologists: Treat milder
problems, such as adjustment disorders
Not all psychologists perform therapy!
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Other Mental Health Professionals
Psychiatrists: MD; usually use medications to treat problems; Generally do not have extensive training in providing “talk” therapy
Psychoanalysts: Receive post-PhD. or M.D. training in Freudian psychoanalysis at an institute
Counselor: Adviser who helps solve marriage, career, work, or school problems
Psychiatric Social Workers: Many have masters degrees and perform psychotherapy Presently a very popular profession
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
History of Psychology (Brief!): Beginnings
Wilhelm Wundt: “Father” of Psychology1879: Set up first lab to study conscious
experience Introspection: Looking inward (i.e.,
examining and reporting your thoughts, feelings, etc.)
Experimental Self-Observation: Incorporates both introspection and objective measurement; Wundt’s approach
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
History of Psychology: Structuralism
Wundt’s ideas brought to the U.S. by Tichener and renamed Structuralism
Structuralists often disagreed, and no way to prove who was correct!
Structuralists: Introspection was a poor way to answer many questions
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Structuralism
Theory that the structure of conscious experience could be understood by analyzing the basic elements of sensations and feelings.
E.B. Titchener (1867-1927)
Analyzed the intensity, clarity and quality of the parts of consciousness
Founder of structuralism
Studied with Wundt in
Germany.
History of Psychology: Functionalism
William James (American) inspired by Wundt Taught A&P at Harvard Began writing about how the mind functions to
help us adapt and survive Functionalists admired Darwin and his Theory of
Natural Selection: Animals keep features through evolution that help them adapt to environments
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
William James (1842-1910)
First American psychologist
Author of the first psychology textbook, Principles of Psychology
Founder of Functionalism
“stream of consciousness”
Functionalism
Behavior functions to allow people and animals to adapt to their environment.
Used direct observation and introspection.
Tried to apply psychology to areas such as education, child rearing, and the work environment.
No longer exist!
StructuralismLimited to
introspectionFocused on
conscious experiences
Wanted to identify specific essential structures of consciousness
FunctionalismAdded direct
observationFocused on
conscious experiences
Believed consciousness was an ongoing stream of changes
History of Psychology: Behaviorism (1913)
Psychology must study observable behavior
Came from Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, that demonstrated dogs learn to associate a neutral stimulus (bell) with an automatic behavior (salivating for food).
The goal was to discover the fundamental principles of learning – how behavior is acquired and modified in response to environmental influences.
John Watson
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Behaviorist -B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
American psychologist whose brand of behaviorism focused on the role of responses in learning.
Focused on learning through reinforcement or punishment. (pigeons and rats)
Behaviorism dominated psychology for almost half of a century.
History of Psychology: Freud (Austria)
Psychoanalyis Our behavior is largely influenced by our unconscious wishes,
thoughts, and desires, especially sex and aggression Freud emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts in
determining behavior and personality. Glimpses of unconscious impulses are revealed through dreams,
memory blocks, slips of the tongue, and spontaneous humor. Childhood experiences form adult personality. Repression: When threatening thoughts are unconsciously held
out of awareness Recent research has hypothesized that our unconscious mind is
partially responsible for our behaviors.
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
History of Psychology: Humanism (1950s)
School of thought that focuses on the study of conscious experience, the individual’s freedom to choose, and the capacity for personal growth Each person has innate goodness and is able to
make free choices (contrast with Skinner and Freud)
Determinism: Behavior is determined by forces beyond our control
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Carl Rogers/Abraham MaslowProminent Humanists
Rejected idea that behavior is controlled by rewards and punishments
Stressed free will in decision making
Carl Rogers
Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs, proceeding through safety needs and then to psychological needs
Higher-level needs won’t become active until lower-level needs have been satisfied.
Self-actualization (Maslow): Fully developing one’s potentials and becoming the best person possible
Contemporary psychology
Biological Perspective
Psychodynamic Perspective
Humanistic Perspective
Behavioral Perspective
Cognitive Perspective (how mental processes influence behavior: focuses on how people process info, develop language, solve problems, and think) 1950s
Cross-Cultural Perspective (how culture influences behavior, 1980s)
Evolutionary Perspective (refers to the application of principles of evolution to explain psychological processes and phenomena, that psychological processes are subject to natural selection)
Read pgs14&15
What Are the Goals of Psychology?
Description of Behaviors: Naming and classifying various observable, measurable behaviors
Explain/Understand: The causes of behavior(s), and being able to state the cause(s)
Prediction: Predicting behavior accurately
Control: Altering conditions that influence behaviors in predictable ways Positive Use: To control unwanted behaviors, (e.g., smoking,
tantrums, etc.) Negative Use: To control peoples’ behaviors without their
knowledge
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Scientific Method
Definition: set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions.
Psychology is based on empirical evidence, evidence that is the result of objective observation, measurement, and experimentation.
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Psychologists assume…
Behavior and mental processes follow consistent patterns.
Events are explainable.
Behavior and mental processes have a cause or causes that can be understood through careful, systematic study.
Critical Thinking, the active process of …..
Trying to minimize the influence of preconceptions and biases while rationally evaluating evidence.
Determining the conclusions that can be drawn from evidence.
Considering alternative explanations.Read Pg 17
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Steps in the Scientific MethodFormulate a hypothesis (can describe the relationship between two or more variables)that can be tested empirically.
Design the study and collect data Descriptive Method – for observing and describing behavior, including identifying the factors that
seem to be associated with a particular phenomenon. Who, what, when, where, why?s Naturalistic observation, surveys, case studies, and correlational studies
Experimental Method – used to show how one variable causes change in a second variable. Researcher deliberately varies one factor, then measures the change produced in the second factor.
Analyze the data and draw conclusions. Researchers use statistics to summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions. Statistics helps determine
whether their results support their hypothesis. Statistically significant findings mean the results probably didn’t occur by chance.
Report the findings Who participated How participants were selected How variables were operationally defined What procedures of methods were used How the data were analyzed What the results seems to suggest
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
As research findings accumulate from studies, eventually theories develop.
A system of ideas that interrelates facts and concepts, summarizes existing data, and predicts future observationsA good theory generates predictions and
new hypotheses that can be tested by further research.
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Descriptive MethodsNaturalistic Observation Observing a person or an animal in the environment
in which they/it live(s) Problems
Observer Effect: Changes in behavior caused by an awareness of a person or animal being observed
Observer Bias: Occurs when observers see what they expect to see or record only selected details
Anthropomorphic Fallacy: Attributing human thoughts, feelings, or motives to animals, especially as a way of explaining their behavior (e.g., “Anya, my cat, is acting like that because she’s feeling depressed today.”)
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Correlational Studies: Find existence of a consistent, systematic relationship between two events, measures, or variablesCorrelation Coefficient: Statistic ranging from –1.00 to +1.00; the sign indicates the direction of the relationship Closer the statistic is to –1.00 or to +1.00, the
stronger the relationship Correlation of 0.00 demonstrates no relationship
between the variables
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Correlations and Relationships (cont.) Positive Correlation: Increases in one variable are
matched by increases in the other variable Negative Correlation: Increases in one variable
are matched by decreases in the other variable Correlation does not demonstrate causation: Just
because two variables are related does NOT mean that one variable causes the other to occur
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Case Studies Intensive, in-depth investigation of an
individual.Most often used by clinical psychologists.Used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme
conditions. Case studies can provide information that can
used to help explain normal behavior.
Surveys A direct way to find out about the behavior, attitudes, and
opinions of people. People respond to a structured set of questions about their
questions, beliefs, behaviors, or attitudes. Researchers select a sample – a segment of the larger
group or population.A representative sample very closely parallels, or
matches, the larger group on relevant characteristics, such as age, sex, race, marital status, and educational level.
Courtesy Bias: Problem in research; a tendency to give “polite” or socially desirable answers
Samples are not representative
The Experimental Method
To identify cause-and-effect relationships, we conduct experimentsDirectly vary a condition you might think
affects behaviorCreate two or more groups of subjects,
alike in all ways except the condition you are varying
Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
VariablesDefinition: Any condition that can change, and might affect, experiment's outcome
Independent Variable: Condition(s) altered by the experimenter; experimenter sets their size, amount, or value; these are suspected causes for behavioral differences
Dependent Variable: Demonstrates effects that independent variables have on behavior
Extraneous Variables: Conditions that a researcher wants to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment (e.g., number of hours slept before the experiment)
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Groups
Experimental Group: The group of subjects that gets the independent variable
Control Group: The group of subjects that gets all conditions EXCEPT the independent variable
Random Assignment: Subject has an equal chance of being in either the experimental or control group
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Evaluating Experiments’ Results
Statistically Significant: Results gained would occur very rarely by chance alone
Meta-analysis: Study of results of other studies
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Placebo EffectsPlacebo: A fake pill (sugar) or injection (saline)Placebo Effect: Changes in behavior that result from belief that one has ingested a drug Placebos alter our expectations about our own
emotional and physical reactions These expectancies then influence bodily activities Relieve pain by getting pituitary to release
endorphins Also gain some effect through learning
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Controlling Placebo Effects
Single Blind Experiment: Only the subjects have no idea whether they get real treatment or placebo
Double Blind Experiment: The subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the subjects get real treatment or placebo Best type of experiment if properly set up Herbal remedies may be based on placebo effect
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Experimenter Effects
Definition: Changes in behavior caused by the unintended influence of the experimenter
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that leads people to act in ways to make the prediction come true
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
The Clinical Method
Case Study: In-depth focus on all aspects of a single caseNatural Clinical Tests: Natural events, such as accidents, that provide psychological dataSurvey Method: Using public polling techniques to answer psychological questions
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Table 1.5 – Comparison of Psychological Research Methods
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Pseudo-Psychologies
Pseudo means “false.” Any unfounded “system” that resembles psychology and is NOT based on scientific testingPalmistry: Lines on your hands (palms)
predict future and reveal personality Phrenology: Personality traits revealed by
shape of skull and bumps on your head
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Pseudo Psychologies (cont.)
Graphology: Personality revealed by your handwriting
Astrology: The positions of the stars and planets at birth determine your personality and affect your behaviorExtremely popular today (“What’s your
sign?”)
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Pseudo Psychologies (cont.)
Barnum Effect: Always have a little something for everyone; Make sure all palm readings, horoscopes, etc. are so general that something in them will always apply to any one person! (e.g., “Crossing Over with John Edward”; Miss Cleo)Uncritical Acceptance: Tendency to believe positive or flattering descriptions of yourselfFallacy of Positive Instances: When we remember or notice things that confirm our expectations and forget the rest
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Separating Fact from Fiction (Are the Stories in the “National Enquirer” True?)
Be skepticalConsider the source of informationAsk yourself, “Was there a control group?”Look for errors in distinguishing between correlation and causation (are claims based on correlational results yet passed off as causations?)
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Separating Fact from Fiction (Are the Stories
in the “National Enquirer” True?) (cont.)
Be sure to distinguish between observation and inference (e.g., Robert is crying, but do we know why he is crying?)Beware of oversimplifications, especially those motivated by monetary reasonsSingle examples are not proof!
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Ethical Guidelines for Psychological Research
Do no harm
Accurately describe risk to potential subjects
Ensure that participation is voluntary
Minimize any discomfort to participants
Maintain confidentiality
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit
Ethical Guidelines for Psychological Research (cont.)
Do not unnecessarily invade privacy
Use deception only when absolutely necessary
Remove any misconceptions caused by deception (debrief)
Provide results and interpretation to participants
Treat participants with dignity and respect
Table of ContentsTable of Contents ExitExit