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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Tribal rights with regards to lands and forests

should be respected, The development of tribal’s along the

line of their own genesis without imposing anything on

them, attempts should be made to train and build up a

team of tribal themselves to do the work of administration

and development.

– Jawaharlal Nehru

India, it is the nation with the highest concentration of ‘indigenous

peoples’ in the world! They are identified as ‘Adivasis’, with the

population of 8.43 crores (8.2%) of the total population of country

according to 2001. They live in about 15% of the country’s areas. These

Adivasis are generally considered to be ‘indigenous people’ or ‘original

inhabitants’ or ‘Scheduled Tribes’. Though the term ‘Scheduled Tribes’

(STs) is not coterminous with the term ‘Adivasis’. Scheduled Tribes is an

administrative term used for purposes of ‘administering’ certain specific

constitutional privileges, protection and benefits for specific sections of

peoples considered historically disadvantaged and ‘backward’.

Primitive, geographically isolated, shy and socially, educationally

and economically backwardness these are the traits that distinguish

Scheduled Tribes of our country from other communities. In various

ecological and geo-climatic conditions ranging from plains to forests, hills

and inaccessible areas. Tribal groups are at different stages of social,

economic and educational development. While some tribal communities

have adopted a mainstream way of life at one end of the spectrum, there

are 75 Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs), at the other, who are characterized

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by (a) a pre-agriculture level of technology, (b) a stagnant or declining

population (c) extremely low literacy and (d) a subsistence level of

economy.

However, this administrative term does not exactly match all the

peoples called ‘Adivasis’. Out of the 5653 distinct communities in India,

635 are considered to be ‘tribes’ or ‘Adivasis’. In comparison, one finds

that the estimated number of STs varies from 250 to 593.There are over

500 tribes (with many overlapping communities in more than one State) as

notified under article 452 of the Constitution of India.

The Constitution of India seeks to secure for all its citizens, among

other things, social and economic justice, equality of status and

opportunity and assures the dignity of the individual. The Constitution

further provides social, economic and political guarantees to the

disadvantaged sections of people. Some provisions are specific to both

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and some are specific to only

Scheduled Tribes.

But in a process of marginalization today, the total forest cover in

India is reported to be 765.21 thousand square kilometers of which 71%

are Adivasi areas, of these 416.52 and 223.30 thousand square kilometers

are categorized as reserved and protected forests respectively. About 23%

of these are further declared as Wild Life Sanctuaries and National Parks

which alone has displaced some half a million Adivasis. And finally,

Forest Policy of 1952, Indian Forest Act of 1972, Wild Life Protection Act

of 1972 and Forest Conservation Act of 1980 downgraded these privileges

of the people to concessions of the state in the post-colonial period. The

rights of Adivasis were reduced to mere privileges conferred by the state.

With globalization, there are now further attempts to change these

paternalistic concessions to being excluded as indicated by the draft

“Conservation of Forests and Natural Ecosystems Act” that is to replace

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the forest act and the amendments proposed to the Land Acquisition Act

and Schedule V of the Constitution. In 1991, 23.03% of STs were illiterate

as against 42.83% among the general population. The Government’s

Eighth Plan document mentions that nearly 52% of STs live below the

poverty line as against 30% of the general population.

Tribal Society:

In general usage, the word ‘tribe’ is taken to denote a primary

aggregate of peoples living in a primitive or barbarous under a headman

or chief. The unnecessary moralistic overtones that this usage implies

can be avoided or minimized by the use of the expression ‘tribal

society,’ which is to be preferred to such synonyms as ‘primitive

society’ or ‘preliterate society.’ At the same time, the word ‘tribe’ need

not be discarded. Indeed, it has become a technical term denoting a

territorially defined political unit, a usage that recalls the original Latin

use of the word for the political divisions or patrician orders of the

Roman state.

Meaning of Tribe:

Tribe is a term used to describe certain human social groups.

Some scholars dislike the term because it lacks a precise meaning and

has been applied to many widely different groups. In addition, many of

the peoples called tribes consider the term offensive or inaccurate.

The first use of the word ‘tribe’ in English referred to the

Hebrews. Until about 1000 B.C. the Hebrew were loosely organized into

12 groups. These groups were called the 12 tribes of Israel. The term

‘tribe’ was soon extended to mean any group of families who traced

themselves to a common ancestor. Most Europeans regarded the

colonized peoples whose technology was less advanced than theirs as

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primitive. In time the word ‘tribe’ acquired the broad meaning of

‘primitive groups.’

Archeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state

tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one

type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable

resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to co-ordinate

production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting

or constraining people during times of surplus.

A tribe viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a

social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states.

Many anthropologists use the term to refer to societies organized largely

on the basis of kinship; especially corporate descent groups.

Etymology:

The English word tribe occurs in 13th century Middle English

literature as referring to one of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The word is

from Old French tribu, in turn from Latin tribus, referring to the original

tripartite ethnic division of the Roman state: Tities (Titienses), Ramnes

(Ramneses), and Luceres, corresponding, according to Varro, to the

Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans respectively. The Ramnes were named

after Romulus, leader of the Latins, Tities after Tatius, leader of the

Sabines, and Luceres after Lucumo, leader of an Etruscan army that had

assisted the Latins. According to Livy, the three tribes were in fact

squadrons of knights, rather than ethnic divisions.

The term’s ultimate etymology may be found in the Latin word

for three ‘tres’. The dative and ablative declensions of this word are

both ‘tribus’. The word ‘tribus’ could therefore mean ‘from the three’ or

‘for the three’.

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Another theory holds that tribus is perhaps derived from the PIE

roots *tri- ‘three’ and *bhew- ‘to be’. From 242-240 BC, the tribal

Assembly (comitia tributa) in the Roman Republic was organized in 35

Tribes (4 “Urban Tribes” and 31 “Rural Tribes”). The Latin word as

used in the Bible translates as Greek phyle “race, tribe, clan” and

ultimately the Hebrew or “scepter”. In the historical sense, “tribe”,

“race” or “clan” can be used interchangeably.

Definition:

Anthropologist Elman Service presented a system of classification

for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social

inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains

four categories:

1. Gatherer-hunter bands, which are generally egalitarian.

2. Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social

rank and prestige.

3. Stratified tribal societies led by chieftains.

4. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized,

institutional governments.

Anthropologists have added other characteristics to the definition

of tribe, though different scholars emphasize different features. Many

define a tribe as a group with a sense of shared identity and ties of

ancestry, customs, language and territory. Others believe a tribe must

have some form of political organisation, such as a means of making

decisions for the group and of settling disputes between its members.

Some scientists regard only groups without a written language as tribes.

Some Scholars also use the term tribe to refer to an early stage in the

development of political systems.

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A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name,

speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a

common territory and is not usually endogamous, though originally it

might have been so.

– Imperial Gazetteer of India

A tribe is a group of people in a primitive or barbarous stage of

development acknowledging the authority of a chief and usually

regarding them as having a common ancestor.

– Oxford Dictionary

A tribe is a group united by a common name in which the

members take a pride by a common language, by a common territory,

and by a feeling that all who do not share this name are outsiders,

‘enemies’ in fact.

– G.W.B. Huntingford

A tribe is a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous,

with no specialization of functions, ruled by tribal officers, hereditary or

otherwise, united in language or dialect, recognizing social distance with

other tribes or castes, without any social obloquy attaching to them, as it

does in the caste structure, following tribal traditions, beliefs and

customs, illiberal of naturalization of ideas from alien sources, above all

conscious of homogeneity of ethnic and territorial integration.

– D.N. Majumdar

The British administrators of pre-Independence India were

probably the first people who tried to grapple seriously with the problem

of administering the tribal areas and they had a vested interest in

cultivating, and perpetuating the above mentioned myths about the tribal

people of India. They did everything to ensure that the so-called

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aborigines, the Scheduled Tribes, remain isolated from the rest of the

Indian masses, because, the British Imperialists had realized the

potentiality of Indian tribes as explosive force in any national

movement. The tribes were isolated and their places of habitation were

declared as prohibited area. Thus, the alien rulers and Christian

missionaries were the only people who had access to the tribal areas in

the initial stages.

Fried Morton H. (1972) An anthropologist, In his study, The

Notion of the Tribe, provided numerous examples of tribes the members

of which spoke different languages and practiced different rituals, or

that shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes.

Similarly, he provided examples of tribes where people followed

different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of

other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by

fluid boundaries and heterogeneity, are not parochial, and are dynamic.

In some countries, such as the United States of America and India, tribes

are polities that have been granted legal recognition and limited

autonomy by the state.

History:

Over centuries, the Adivasis have evolved in intricate convivial –

custodial mode of living. They belong to their territories, which are the

essence of their existence; the abode of the spirits and their dead and the

source of their science, technology, way of life, their religion and

culture. Back in history, the Adivasis were in effect self-governing,

‘first nations’. In general and in most parts of the pre-colonial period,

they were notionally part of the ‘unknown frontier’ of the respective

states where the rule of the reign in fact did not extend, and the tribes

governed themselves outside of the influence of the particular ruler.

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In the Indian epics such as Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas

(folklores) there are many references to interactions and wars between

the forest or hill tribes and the Hindus. Eminent historians who have

done detailed research on the epic Ramayana (200 B.C. to 500 B.C.)

have concluded that ‘Lanka’, the kingdom of the demonic king Ravana

and ‘Kishkinda’, the homeland of the Vanaras (depicted as monkeys)

were places situated south of Chitrakuta hill and north of Narmada river

in middle India.

Accordingly, Ravana and his demons was an aboriginal tribe,

most probably the Gond, and the Vanaras, like Hanuman in the epic,

belonged to the Savara and Korku tribes whose descendants still inhabit

the central Indian forest belt. Even today, the Gond holds Ravana, the

villain of Ramayana, in high esteem as a chief. Rama, the hero of

Ramayana, is also known for slaughtering the Rakshasas (demons) in

the forests! Shabari (Bhil woman) offered ‘bor’ to Lord Rama when he

was in the jungles of Dhandakaranya, searching Sita.

The epic of Mahabharata refers to the death of Krishna at the

hands of a Bhil Jaratha. In the ancient scriptures, considered to be sacred

by the upper castes, various terms are used depicting Adivasis as almost

non-humans. The epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, the Puranas,

Samhitas Jambuvan (boar men), Naga (serpents), Bhusundi Kaka

(crow), Garuda (King of Eagles) etc. In medieval India, they were called

derogatorily as Kolla, Villa, Kirata, Nishada, and those who surrendered

or were subjugated were termed as Dasa (slave) and those who refused

to accept the bondage of slavery were termed as Dasyu (a hostile

robber).

Ekalavya, one of their archers was so skillful that the hero of the

Aryans, Arjuna, could not stand before him. But they assaulted him,

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cutting his thumb and destroying his ability to fight – and then fashioned

a story in which he accepted Drona as his Guru and surrendered his

thumb as an offering to the master! The renowned writer Maheshwata

Devi points out that Adivasis predated Hinduism and Aryanism, that

Shiva was not an Aryan god and that in the 8th century, the tribal forest

goddess or harvest goddess was absorbed and adapted as Shiva’s wife.

Goddess Kali, the goddess of hunters, has definitely had a tribal origin.

Little is known about the relationship between the tribal and non-

tribal communities during the Hindu and Muslim rules. There are stray

references to wars and alliances between the Rajput kings and tribal

chieftains in middle India and in the North-East between the Ahom

Kings of Brahmaputra valley and the hill Nagas. They are considered to

be ati-sudra meaning lower than the untouchable castes. Even today, the

upper caste people refer to these peoples as jangli, a derogatory term

meaning “those who are like wild animals” – uncivilized or sub-humans.

The introduction of the alien concept of private property began

with the Permanent Settlement of the British in 1793 and the

establishment of the “Zamindari” system that conferred control over

vast territories, including tribal territories, to designated feudal lords for

the purpose of revenue collection by the British.

In the process of economic, cultural and ecological change,

Adivasis have attached themselves to caste groups in a peripheral

manner, and the process of de-tribalisation is a continuous one. Many of

the Hindu communities have absorbed the cultural practices of the

Adivasis. Although Hinduism could be seen as one unifying thread

running through the country as a whole, it is not homogenous but in

reality a conglomeration of centuries old traditions and shaped by

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several religious and social traditions which are more cultural in their

essence (and including elements of Adivasi socio-religious culture).

Adivasis are not, as a general rule, regarded as unclean by caste

Hindus in the same way as Dalits are. But they continue to face

prejudice (as lesser humans); they are socially distanced and often face

violence from society. They are at the lowest point in every socio-

economic indicator. Today the majority of the population regards them

as primitive and aims at decimating them as peoples or at best

integrating them with the mainstream at the lowest rung in the ladder.

This is especially so with the rise of the fascist Hindutva forces.

None of the brave Adivasi fights against the British have been

treated as part of the “national” struggle for independence. From the

Malpahariya uprising in 1772 to Lakshman Naik’s revolt in Orissa in

1942, the adivasis repeatedly rebelled against the British in the north-

eastern, eastern and central Indian belt. In many of the rebellions, the

Adivasis could not be subdued, but terminated the struggle only because

the British acceded to their immediate demands, as in the case of the

Bhil revolt of 1809 and the Naik revolt of 1838 in Gujarat. Heroes like

Birsa Munda, Kanhu Santhal, Khazya Naik, Tantya Bhil, Lakshman

Naik, Kuvar Vasava, Rupa Naik, Thamal Dora, Ambul Reddi, Thalakkal

Chandu, etc. are remembered in the songs and stories of the Adivasis but

ignored in the official text books.

After the transfer of power, the rulers of the Residency Areas

signed the “Deed of Accession” on behalf of the ruled on exchange they

were offered Privy Purse. No deed was however, signed with most of

the independent Adivasi states. They were assumed to have joined the

Union. The government rode rough shod on independent Adivasi nations

and they were merged with the Indian Union. This happened even by

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means of state violence as in the case of Adivasi uprising in the Nizam’s

State of Hyderabad and Nagalim.

Some other tribal groups, groaning under the yoke of exploitation,

rebelled. In this context such uprisings as Ho mutiny of Singbhum in

1831, Khond uprising of 1846 and famous Santal rebellion of 1855 are

worth mentioning. The British Indian Government was also forced to

send punitive expeditions to Assam, Nagaland and Jaintia Hills between

1850 and 1890 and repeatedly to the Lushai Hills, Naga Hills and to the

Abor during the last decade of 19th

century and the first decade of 20th

century.

At this stage the idea that “distinct and special arrangements were

necessary for isolated tribal regions gained general acceptance, the

findings of anthropological researches seemed to support it” (Report of

the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commission, Vol. I (1960-

61). The British Government finally decided on a policy of segregating

the tribes into special areas where their lives and interests could,

supposedly, be adequately protected. Keeping this purpose in mind, an

Act was passed in 1874 to specify tribal areas into ‘Scheduled Districts.’

These areas were reconstituted under Section 52A of the

Government of India Act of 1919. This Act provided for the

appointment of officers to administer civil and criminal justice, to

superintend the settlement and collection of public revenues and all

matters relating to rent, and otherwise to conduct the administration

within the Scheduled Districts. It also provided for the extension, by

notification to the Scheduled Districts, laws in force in any part of

British India, with such special restrictions and modifications as were

deemed fit. Thus, wide powers of legislation by simple executive order

were vested in the Executive.

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The Indian Statutory commission (Simon Commission) suggested

that on financial and constitutional grounds the responsibility for the

tribal tracts should be entrusted to the centre. In the subsequent years

and up to 1947 numerous Acts and Regulations were promulgated and

various reforms introduced. In 1935 more stringent provision for a

special treatment of the tribal areas were incorporated by convening

them into “Totally and Partially Excluded Areas.”

After 1947:

With the dawn of Independence, the nation witnessed a

considerable awakening about the welfare of the tribal people. This was

reflected in various provisions of the Constitution independent India

adopted the Constituent Assembly on January 26, 1950. It visualized a

policy of progressive assimilation of the tribal people in the national

mainstream. In order to promote the integration of the tribal people with

the rest of their Indian brethren, the Constitution provided special

safeguards for the tribal communities for a period of ten years. This

period continues to be extended till now.

A tribal welfare department was instituted in 1951 for the

protection and advancement of the Scheduled Tribes and with the help

of various provisions of the Constitution, a new line of administration

was chalked out. Article 244 of the Constitution provides for the

administration of “Scheduled Areas” in accordance with the Fifth

Schedule and (in Assam) “Tribal Areas” under sixth Schedule.

The term ‘Tribe’ is nowhere clearly defined in the Constitution

and in fact there is no satisfactory definition anywhere. But the

Constitution has defined a ‘tribe’ to the extent that the Scheduled Tribes

are “the tribes or the tribal communities or parts of or groups within

tribe or tribal communities” which the President may specify by public

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notification (Article 342), this ambiguity sometime leads to confusion in

classifying and identifying a tribal population for declaring it a

Scheduled Tribe, but it should not be regarded as a hindrance in

implementing tribal welfare programmes.

Attributes of a tribal community:

To summarize in a nut shell the views of experts about the attributes

of tribal could be classified as follows:

1. Tribal live in an isolated area as culturally distinct groups.

2. Tribal trace their origin from the oldest ethnological section of the

population.

3. They follow primitive methods of occupations such as hunting,

gathering of minor forest produce and therefore they are backward

economically as well as educationally.

4. Members of tribal society profess a primitive religion and are not

always within the Hindu-fold in the usual sense.

5. Tribal have their own common dialect. Their dialect has no written

script.

6. Tribal love, music, dance and liquor.

7. Members of tribal communities dress scantily.

Tribes in India were considered to be as “Backward Class”, but later

the term was used to denote as the weaker sections of the Indian Society.

Until, 1919 they were termed as the Depressed Class. The Indian pro-

administration committee in 1919 however accorded a different

nomenclature for the census reports as under:

a) census 1931 referred them as primitive tribes

b) census 1941 referred them as “tribes”

c) census 1951 referred the Tribes as “scheduled tribes”

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The term “scheduled tribes” was inserted in the Constitution vide

Article 342(1) which empowered the president of India to specify tribal

communities by public notification. In pursuance of this power the

following presidential orders have been issued.

1) The constitution (scheduled Tribes) order 1950

2) The constitution (scheduled Tribes) part ‘C’ states order 1951

3) The scheduled Tribes list (Notification) order 1956 etc.

Characteristics of tribal society:

Wilson & Wilson (1945) while taking account of the implications

of such homely synonyms as “simple society”, “pre-industrial society”

or “folk society,” a satisfactory characterization of tribal society must

therefore concentrate upon criteria of form rather than of content. Here

the most useful general criterion is that of “scale”. Ideally, tribal

societies are small in scale, are restricted in the spatial and temporal

range of their social, legal, and political relations, and possess a

morality, religion, and world view of corresponding dimensions.

Characteristically, too, tribal languages are unwritten, and hence, the

extent of communication both in time and space is inevitably narrow. At

the same time, tribal societies exhibit a remarkable economy of design

and have a compactness and self-sufficiency lacking in modern society.

This is achieved by the close, and sometimes unilateral, connections that

exist between tribal institutions or principles of social organisation, and

by the concentration of a multiplicity of social roles in the same social

persons or offices. There is a corresponding unity and coherence in

tribal values that are intimately related to social institutions and are

endowed with an intensity characteristic of all “closed” systems of

thought. Tribal societies are supremely ethnocentric.

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Economic relations are usually of the subsistence type, although

trade and barter often extend outside the community. At the same time,

economic differentiation and specialization are not developed, and by

modern standards technological knowledge and environmental control

remain restricted. Ideally, indeed, a position of socioeconomic

equilibrium has been attained in relation to environmental conditions. In

these circumstances social change tends to be on a limited scale,

reproducing rather than drastically altering the existing order and

innovation are profoundly affected by the established institutions of

society. Yet the isolation and unchanged of tribal communities must not

be exaggerated, above all, it must be remembered that knowledge of

tribal life derives mainly from studies made at a particular point in time.

Constitutional Guarantee:

The Constitution of India provides social, economic and political

guarantees to disadvantaged sections of the people. Some provisions

specific for the Scheduled Tribes are:

(I) Social:

Equality before Law (Article 14);

The State to make special provisions for the advancement of any

socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the

Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes [Article 15 (4)];

Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to

employment or appointment to any office under the State(Article

16);

The State to make provisions for reservation in appointment, posts

in favor of any backward class citizens, which in the opinion of the

State is not adequately represented in the services under the State

[Article 16 (4)];

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The State to make provisions in matters of promotion to any class or

classes of posts in the services in favor of the Scheduled Castes and

the Scheduled Tribes [Article 16 (4A)];

A National Commission for Scheduled Tribes to investigate,

monitor and evaluate all matters relating to the Constitutional

safeguards provided for the Scheduled Tribes (Article 338 A);

Appointment of a Commission to report on the administration of the

Scheduled Areas and the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in the

States [Article 339 (1)];

Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of

socially and educationally backward classes and the difficulties

under which they labour and to make recommendations to remove

such difficulties and to improve their conditions (Article 340);

To specify the tribes or tribal communities to be Scheduled Tribes

(Article 342).

(II) Economic:

The State, to promote with special care the educational and

economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in

particular of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and

protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation

(Article 46);

Grants-in-Aid to be made available from the Consolidated Fund of

India each year for promoting the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes

and administration of Scheduled Areas [Article 275(1)];

The claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the

Scheduled Tribes in the appointments to services and posts in

connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State to be taken into

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consideration consistent with the maintenance of efficiency of

administration (Article 335).

(III) Political:

Special provisions, spelt out in the Fifth Schedule, for the

administration and control of Scheduled Areas and the Scheduled

Tribes in any State (other than the States of Assam, Meghalaya,

Tripura and Mizoram), Annual Reports are to be submitted by the

Governors to the President of India regarding the administration of

the Scheduled Areas, Tribes Advisory Councils are required to be

set up (especially in Fifth Schedule States) to advise on such matters

pertaining to the welfare and advancement of the Scheduled Tribes

{Article 244 (1)};

Special provisions, spelt out in the Sixth Schedule for the

administration of tribal areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya,

Tripura and Mizoram by designating certain tribal areas as

Autonomous Districts and Autonomous Regions and also by

constituting District Councils, Autonomous Councils and Regional

Councils {Article244(2)};

Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled

Tribes in the House of the People (Article 330);


Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the States (Article 332);


Tribes in every Panchayat (Article 243D);

Extension of the 73rd and 74th Amendments of the Constitution to

the Scheduled Areas through the provisions of the Panchayats

(Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 to ensure effective

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participation of the tribal in the process of planning and decision

making.

Scheduling and De-scheduling of Tribes:

The term "Scheduled Tribes" is defined in Article 366 (25) of the

Constitution as "such tribes or tribal communities or parts of, or groups

within such tribes, or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342

to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this Constitution". Article 342

prescribes the procedure to be followed in the matter of specification of

Scheduled Tribes.

Under Clause (1) of Article 342, the President may, with respect to

any State or Union Territory, and where it is a State, after consultation with

the Governor thereof, notifies tribes or tribal communities or parts of these

as Scheduled Tribes. This confers on the tribe, or part of it, a

Constitutional status invoking the safeguards provided for in the

Constitution, to these communities in their respective States/UTs.

Clause (2) of the Article empowers the Parliament to pass a law to

include in or exclude from the list of Scheduled Tribes, any tribe or tribal

community or parts of these.

Thus, the first specification of Scheduled Tribes in relation to a

particular State/ Union Territory is by a notified order of the President,

after consultation with the State Governments concerned. These orders can

be modified subsequently only through an Act of Parliament. The above

Article also provides for listing of Scheduled Tribes State/Union Territory

wise and not on an all India basis.

The criteria followed for specification of a community as a

Scheduled Tribe are:-

Indications of primitive traits,

Distinctive culture,

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Geographical isolation,

Shyness of contact with the community at large and

Backwardness.

These criteria are not spelt out in the Constitution but have become

well established and accepted. They take into account the definitions in the

1931Census, the reports of the first Backward Classes Commission

(Kalelkar) 1955, the Advisory Committee on Revision of SC/ ST lists

(Lokur Committee) 1965 and the Joint Committee of Parliament on the

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders (Amendment) Bill, 1967

(Chanda Committee) 1969.No community has been specified as a

Scheduled Tribe in relation to the States of Haryana and Punjab and Union

Territories of Chandigarh, Delhi and Pondicherry.

Scheduled Areas:

The Scheduled Tribes live in contiguous areas unlike other

communities. It is, therefore, much simpler to have an area approach for

development activities as well as regulatory provisions to protect their

interests. In order to protect the interests of Scheduled Tribes with regard

to land and other social issues, various provisions have been enshrined in

the Fifth Schedule and the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution.

The Fifth Schedule under Article 244(1) of Constitution defines

"Scheduled Areas" as such areas as the President may by order declare to

be Scheduled Areas after consultation with the Governor of that State.

The Sixth Schedule under Article 244 (2) of the Constitution relates

to those areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram

which are declared as "tribal areas" and provides for District or Regional

Autonomous Councils for such areas. These councils have wide ranging

legislative, judicial and executive powers.

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Fifth Schedule Areas

The criteria for declaring any area as a "Scheduled Area" under the

Fifth Schedule are:

Preponderance of tribal population,

Compactness and reasonable size of the area,

A viable administrative entity such as a district, block or taluka and

Economic backwardness of the area as compared to the neighboring

areas.

The specification of "Scheduled Areas" in relation to a State is by a

notified order of the President, after consultation with the State

Government concerned. The same applies in the case of any alteration,

increase, decrease, incorporation of new areas, or rescinding any Orders

relating to "Scheduled Areas".

The States of Madhya Pradesh and Bihar were reorganised vide the

Madhya Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2000 and Bihar Reorganisation Act,

2000 respectively. Consequently, a portion of Scheduled Areas of the

composite State of Madhya Pradesh stood transferred to the newly formed

State of Chhattisgarh and the whole of such areas stood transferred to

Jharkhand from the parent State of Bihar. In order to ensure that members

of the Scheduled Tribes in the newly formed States continue to get the

benefits available under the Fifth Schedule to the Constitution, it became

necessary to amend the Scheduled Areas (States of Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya

Pradesh and Orissa) Order 1977 (C.O.109) issued on 31 December, 1977

in so far as it related to the composite States of Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.

The President has promulgated a new Constitutional Order specifying the

Scheduled Areas in respect of the States of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and

Madhya Pradesh on 20th February 2003. The Scheduled Areas in the State

of Jharkhand have been redefined to be the Scheduled Areas within the

21

State of Jharkhand vide the Scheduled Areas (State of Jharkhand) Order,

2007 (Constitutional Order 229) dated11-04-2007.

Purpose and advantage of Scheduled Areas:

Scheduled Areas have certain distinct provisions meant to protect

and benefit tribal,

(A)The Governor of a State, which has Scheduled Areas, is empowered

to make regulations in respect of the following:

(I) Prohibit or restrict transfer of land from tribal;

(II) Regulate the business of money lending to the members of

Scheduled Tribes. In making any such regulation, the Governor may

repeal or amend any Act of Parliament or of the Legislature of the

State, which is applicable to the area in question.

(B)The Governor may by public notification direct that any particular

Act of Parliament or of the Legislature of the State shall not apply to a

Scheduled Area or any part thereof in the State or shall apply to such

area subject to such exceptions and modifications as he may specify.

(C)The Governor of a State having Scheduled Areas therein, shall

annually, or whenever so required by the President of India, make a

report to the President regarding the administration of the Scheduled

Areas in that State and the executive power of the Union shall extend

to the giving of directions to the State as to the administration of the

said area.

(D) Tribes Advisory Councils [TAC] shall be established in States having

Scheduled Areas. A TAC may also be established in any State having

Scheduled Tribes, but not Scheduled Areas, on the direction of the

President of India. The TAC should consist of not more than twenty

members of whom, as nearly as may be, three fourth should be from

the representatives of Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assembly

of the State. The role of TAC is to advise the State Government on

22

matters pertaining to the welfare and advancement of the Scheduled

Tribes in the State, as may be referred to it by the Governor.

(E) The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, vide

Which the Provisions of Panchayats, contained in Part IX of the

Constitution, were extended to Scheduled Areas, also contains special

provisions for the benefit of Scheduled Tribes.

The Sixth Schedule:

The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India under Article 244

makes provisions for the administration of tribal areas through

Autonomous District/ Regional Councils in the States of Assam,

Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura.

The term "tribal areas" generally means areas with a preponderance

of tribal population. However, the Constitution of India recognizes the

tribal areas within the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura & Mizoram, as

those areas are specified in Parts I, II, IIA & III of the table appended to

paragraph 20 of the Sixth Schedule. In other words, areas where provisions

of Sixth Schedule are applicable are known as "tribal areas". In relation to

these areas, Autonomous District Councils, each having not more than

thirty members, have been set up.

These Councils are elected bodies and have powers of legislation,

administration of justice apart from executive, developmental and financial

responsibilities. The State wise details of tribal areas are as under:-

Part-I (ASSAM)

1. The North Cachar Hills District

2. The Karbi-Anglong District

3. The Bodo Land Territorial Area District

23

Part II (MEGHALAYA)

1. Khasi Hills District

2. Jaintia Hills District

3. The Garo Hills District

[Part IIA] (TRIPURA)

Tripura Tribal Areas District

Part III (MIZORAM)

1. The Chakma District

2. The Mara District

3. The Lai District

The District or Regional Councils are empowered to make rules with

the approval of the Governor with regard to matters like establishment,

construction or management of primary schools, dispensaries, markets,

cattle ponds, ferries, fisheries, roads, road transport and water-ways in the

district. The Autonomous Councils of the North Cachar Hills and Karbi

Anglong have been granted additional powers to make laws with respect to

other matters like secondary education, agriculture, social security and

social insurance, public health and sanitation, minor irrigation etc. The

Councils have also been conferred powers under the Civil Procedure Code

and Criminal Procedure Code for trial of certain suits and offences, as also

the powers of a revenue authority for their area for collection of revenue

and taxes and other powers for the regulation and management of natural

resources.

24

The Scheduled Tribes:

Article 366 (25) of the Constitution of India refers to Scheduled

Tribes as those communities, who are scheduled in accordance with Article

342 of the Constitution. This Article says that only those communities who

have been declared as such by the President through an initial public

notification or through a subsequent amending Act of Parliament will be

considered to be Scheduled Tribes.

The list of Scheduled Tribes is State/ UT specific and a community

declared as a Scheduled Tribe in a State need not be so in another State.

The essential characteristics, first laid down by the Lokur Committee, for a

community to be identified as Scheduled Tribes are as mentioned earlier.

25

Distribution of Tribes:

Table No. 1.1

State wise Total & Tribal Population of India (2001 Census)

Sr.

No

State/Union

Territory

Population Percentage of

tribal

population Total Tribal

I INDIA 10,286.10 843.26 8.20

1. Andhra Pradesh 762.10 50.24 6.59

2. Arunachal

Pradesh

10.98 7.05 64.21

3. Assam 266.55 33.09 12.41

4. Bihar 829.98 7.58 0.91

5. Chhattisgarh 208.34 66.17 31.76

6. Delhi 138.51 -- --

7. Goa 13.48 0.01 0.07

8. Gujarat 506.71 74.81 14.76

9. Haryana 211.44 -- --

10. Himachal

Pradesh

60.78 2.45 4.03

11. Jammu &

Kashmir

101.43 11.06 10.90

12. Jharkhand 269.46 70.87 26.30

13. Karnataka 528.51 34.64 6.55

14. Kerala 318.41 3.64 1.14

15. Madhya Pradesh 603.48 122.34 20.27

16. Maharashtra 968.79 85.77 8.85

17. Manipur 21.67 7.41 34.19

18. Meghalaya 23.19 19.93 85.94

19. Mizoram 8.89 8.39 94.38

20. Nagaland 19.90 17.74 89.15

21. Orissa 368.05 81.45 22.13

22. Punjab 243.59 -- --

23. Rajasthan 565.07 70.98 12.56

24. Sikkim 5.41 1.11 20.52

25. Tamilnadu 624.06 6.51 1.04

26. Tripura 31.99 9.93 31.04

27. Uttar Pradesh 1661.98 1.08 0.06

28. Uttaranchal 84.89 2.56 3.01

29. West Bengal 801.76 44.07 5.50

26

II UNION

TERRITORIES

1. Andaman & Nicobar 3.56 0.30 8.43

2. Chandigarh 9.01 -- --

3. Dadra & Nagar

Haveli

2.20 1.37 62.27

4. Diu and Daman 1.58 0.14 8.86

5. Lakshdweep 0.61 0.57 93.44

6. Pondicherry 9.74 -- --

(Source: Census Report, 2001)

The tribal population of the country, as per the 2001 census, is 8.43

crore, constituting 8.2% of the total population. The population of tribes

had grown at the growth rate of 24.45% during the period 1991-2001.

More than half the Scheduled Tribe population is concentrated in the States

of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand and

Gujarat.

Tribal communities live in about 15% of the country's areas, in

various ecological and geo-climatic conditions ranging from plains and

forests to hills and inaccessible areas. Tribal groups are at different stages

of social, economic and educational development. While some tribal

communities have adopted a mainstream way of life, at the other end of the

spectrum, there are 75 groups, in number known as Particularly Vulnerable

Tribal Groups (PTGs), who were identified earlier for having the following

characteristics:

(a) Pre-agriculture level of technology;

(b) Stagnant or declining population; and

(c) Extremely low literacy;

(d) Subsistence level of economy

27

The distribution of the tribal population in different States/UTs of

India has been shown below:

Table 1.2: Distribution of STs Population in different States / UTs

No. STATE

Percentage of ST

Population in States/UTs

to the total ST

Population of the

country

(Descending Order)

1 Madhya Pradesh 14.51

2 Maharashtra 10.17

3 Orissa 9.66

4 Gujarat 8.87

5 Rajasthan 8.42

6 Jharkhand 8.40

7 Chhattishgarh 7.85

8 Andhra Pradesh 5.96

9 West Bengal 5.23

10 Karnataka 4.11

11 Assam 3.92

12 Meghalaya 2.36

13 Nagaland 2.10

14 Jammu and Kashmir 1.31

15 Tripura 1.18

16 Mizoram 1.00

17 Bihar 0.90

18 Manipur 0.88

19 Arunachal Pradesh 0.84

20 Tamil Nadu 0.77

21 Kerala 0.43

22 Uttarakhand 0.30

23 Himachal Pradesh 0.29

24 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 0.16

25 Sikkim 0.13


28

While the tribal population in some States is low when calculated as

the percentage of the total tribal population of India but it constitutes the

majority within the State or UT itself (e.g.in Lakshadweep, Mizoram,

Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Dadra & Nagar Haveli). A

very sizeable segment of tribal population, as stated earlier, resides in the

States of Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Orissa, Rajasthan, Maharashtra

and Madhya Pradesh.

29

The tribal population as percentage of the States/UTs is indicated in

below map,

Figure No. 1: State wise Tribal percentage in India.

30

The major tribes:

There are over 700 Scheduled Tribes notified under Article 342 of

the Constitution of India, spread over different States and Union Territories

of the country. Many tribes are present in more than one State. The largest

numbers of scheduled tribes are in the State of Orissa (i.e., 62). The

synonyms of these 700 or so tribes are also vary many a times and are

listed in the schedule.

Tribal Development Strategy and Programmes:

The first Five Year Plan emphasized the provision of additional

financial resources through a community development approach to address

the problems of tribal people rather than evolving a clear-cut tribal

development strategy. Towards the end of the plan (1954), 43 Special

Multipurpose Tribal Development Projects (MTDPs) were created. These

MTDPs could not fully serve the interests of the tribal people since the

schemes were numerous and of a general nature. This approach continued

during the Second Five Year Plan. In the Third Plan, a different strategy

for tribal development was evolved by converting those Community

Development Blocks where the concentration of tribal population was 66%

and above into Tribal Development Blocks (TDBs). By the end of the

Fourth Five Year Plan, the number of TDBs in the country rose to 504.

The strategy of development through TDBs had its limitations as well, as it

failed to address the cause of the tribal population of the country living

outside the TDBs, which comprised more than 60% of the total tribal

population.

The present strategy of Tribal Sub Plan:

The Tribal Sub Plan strategy was developed by an Expert

Committee set up by the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare in 1972

under the Chairmanship of Prof. S.C. Dube for the rapid socio-economic

31

development of tribal people and was adopted for the first time in the Fifth

Five Year Plan.

The strategy adopted continues till this day. Its salient features are:

(I) Preparation of plan meant for the welfare and development of tribal

within the ambit of a State or a UT plan is a part of the overall plan of

a State or UT, and is therefore called a Sub-Plan;

(II) The funds provided under the Tribal Sub-Plan have to be at least

equal in proportion to the ST population of each State or UT;

(III) Tribal and tribal areas of a State or a UT are given benefits under the

TSP, in addition to what percolates from the overall Plan of a State/

UT;

(IV) The Sub-Plan should:

(a) Identify the resources for TSP areas;

(b) Prepare a broad policy framework for development; and,

(c) Define a suitable administrative strategy for its implementation.

(V) The TSP strategy has been in operation in 22 States and 2 UTs. The

names of TSP States and UTs are given in Table 1.2

(VI) TSP concept is not applicable to the tribal majority States of

Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland and in the

UTs of Lakshadweep and Dadra & Nagar Haveli where tribal

represent more than 80% of the population, since the Annual Plan in

these States/ UTs are itself a Tribal Plan.

32

Table 1.3: TSP States & Union Territories

TSP States & Union Territories

1. Andhra Pradesh 13. Maharashtra

2. Assam 14. Manipur

3. Bihar 15. Orissa

4. Chhittisgarh 16. Rajasthan

5. Goa 17. Sikkim

6. Gujarat 18. Tamil Nadu

7. Himachal Pradesh 19. Tripura

8. Jammu & Kashmir 20. Uttar Pradesh

9. Jharkhand 21. Uttarakhand

10. Karnataka 22. West Bengal

11. Kerala 23. Andaman & Nicobar (UT)

12. Madhya Pradesh 24. Daman & Diu (UT)

(Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, GOI)

Though the States are expected to provide under the TSP funds

which are at least equal to the percentage of the tribal population to the

total population in the State, and though both the Ministry of Tribal Affairs

and the Planning Commission had written to the States to do so, this was

unfortunately not followed by all the states while preparing the Annual

Plan for 2009-10. The details of Annual Plan outlays for 2009-10 of

States/UTs and the proportion or funds provided under the TSP are given

at below table,

33

Table 1.4: STATUS OF THE TSP FORMULATED BY

STATES/ UTS FOR 2009-10

(a) States which have not made adequate provision.

S.No. State/UT ST

Population

%

A.P. 2009-10 (Rs. in crore)

State Plan

Outlay

Flow to

TSP

% of TSP

to

Annual

Plan

1 Assam 12.4 6000.00 55.28 0.9

2 Chhattisgarh 32.4 18310.32 NA -

3 Goa 12.1 2240.00 136.99 6.1

4 Gujarat 14.8 NA NA -

5 Jammu & Kashmir 10.9 5500.00 559.97 10.2

6 Maharashtra 8.9 NA NA -

7 Rajasthan 12.6 17322.00 2115.48 12.2

8 Sikkim 20.6 1045.00 NA -

9 Tamil Nadu 1.0 17500.00 36.36 0.2

10 Uttarakhand 3.0 NA NA -

(b) States which have made adequate/ excess provision.

S.No. State/UT ST Population

% A.P. 2009-10 (Rs. in crore)

State Plan

Outlay

Flow to TSP % of TSP to

Annual Plan

1 Andhra Pradesh 6.6 33496.75 2370.86 7.1

2 Bihar 0.9 16000.00 163.38 1.0

3 Himachal Pradesh 5.6 2700.00 243.00 9.0

4 Jharkhand 26.3 8200.00 5760.46 70.2

5 Karnataka 6.6 29500.00 1947.00 6.6

6 Kerala 1.1 8920.00 180.86 2.0

7 Madhya Pradesh 20.3 16174.17 3714.43 23.0

8 Manipur 34.2 2000.00 741.15 37.1

9 Orissa 22.1 9500.00 2171.48 22.9

10 Tripura 31.1 1680.00 575.91 34.3

11 Uttar Pradesh 0.1 39000.00 546.00 1.4

12 West Bengal 5.5 14150.00 963.55 6.8

13 A & N Islands 8.3 833.18 68.95 8.3

14 Daman & Diu 8.8 154.34 13.66 8.9 NA: Not available Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, D&N Haveli, Lakshadweep are tribal majority States, so do not have TSP. (Source: Planning Commission)

34

TSP Component of Central Ministries:

The TSP strategy is expected to be followed in the Central

Ministries/ Departments also. Therefore an adequate flow of funds in all

the Central Ministries/ Departments needs to be ensured. The Planning

Commission and the Ministry of Tribal Affairs have requested in the past

all the Central Ministries and Departments to quantify the funds for the

TSP in their Annual Plans in accordance with the population percentage of

STs in the country. i.e. 8.2%, as per 2001 census.

Many Ministries have reported difficulty in segregation of their TSP

component citing indivisibility of projects, because their projects are

applicable to all communities, including SCs/ STs. The Ministry taking

this into account has approached Planning Commission for devising a

different strategy for Central Ministries on TSP.

TSP of the State Government:

The Planning Commission has issued guidelines for the States to

earmark funds for TSP to be placed under a separate Budget Head Code

796 from total State Plan outlay. As per guidelines issued by the Planning

Commission,

The Tribal Sub Plan funds are to be non-divertible and non-lapsable.

The guidelines also provide that the Tribal Welfare Departments will be

nodal Departments for the formulation and implementation of the Tribal

Sub Plan in the States.

In order to provide incentive for adoption of TSP, as provided in the

guidelines for release of funds under the programme of SCA to TSP,

an amount equivalent to 10% of the total allocation is earmarked and

released to those States who qualify for incentive based on the past

performance of TSP implementation -i.e. those which have utilized more

than 75% of the approved Tribal Sub-Plan funds to the implementing

35

agencies through the budget head of the Tribal Development Department

of the State.

Similar provision of earmarking 10% is contained in the guidelines

for release of funds under the programme of grants under Article 275(1) of

the Constitution, under which such funds are released to those 22 states

which qualify as indicated above, and in the case of the 4 tribal-majority

States, utilization of 75% of the grants released under the Central Sector

Schemes of the Ministry is the criterion for qualifying for such special

funds, for consideration of innovative projects grants - Ministry scrutinizes

such proposals from the States to ensure that these are being used for

innovative projects only; as an instrument to bring about changes in the

institutional framework for adoption of the TSP.

Funding of Tribal Development Programme:

Funds for tribal development are sourced from:

(I) State Plans

(II) Special Central Assistance (SCA) to Tribal Sub Plan, Grants under

Article 275(1) of the Constitution and funds under other Schemes of

the Ministry.

(III) Sectoral programmes of Central Ministries/ Departments, and

(IV) Institutional Finance.

The Ministry: An Introduction

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs was constituted in October 1999 with

the objective of providing more focused attention on the integrated socio-

economic development of the most under-privileged sections of the Indian

society, the Scheduled Tribes (STs), in a coordinated and planned manner.

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is the nodal Ministry for overall policy,

planning and coordination of programmes for development of ST's. To this

end, Ministry of Tribal Affairs undertaken activities that follow from the

36

subjects allocated under the Government of India (Allocation of Business)

Rules, 1961. These include:

1. Social security and social insurance to the Scheduled Tribes.

2. Tribal Welfare: Tribal welfare planning, project formulation, research,

evaluation, statistics and training.

3. Promotion and development of voluntary efforts on tribal welfare.

4. Scheduled Tribes, including scholarship to students belonging to such

tribes.

5. Development of Scheduled Tribes.

5. (a) All matters including legislation relating to the rights of forest

dwelling Scheduled Tribes on forest lands.

6. (a) matters relating to autonomous districts of Assam excluding roads

and bridge works and ferries thereon; and,

(b) Regulations framed by the Governors of States for Scheduled Areas

and for Tribal Areas specified in Part 'A' of the Table appended to

paragraph 20 of the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution.

7. (a) Commission to report on the administration of Scheduled Areas and

the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes; and

(b)Issue of directions regarding the drawing up and execution of

schemes essential for the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in any

State.

8. The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.

9. Implementation of the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 (22 of 1955)

and the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of

Atrocities) Act, 1989 (33 of 1989), excluding administration of criminal

justice in regard to offences in so far as they relate to Scheduled Tribes.

Role:

It needs to be emphasized that the programmes and schemes of the

Ministry are intended to support and supplement, through financial

37

assistance, the efforts of other Central Ministries, the State Governments

and voluntary organizations, and to fill critical gaps taking into account the

situation of STs. The primary responsibility for promoting the interests

of Scheduled Tribes thus rests with all the Central Ministries. The

Ministry complements their efforts by way of various developmental

interventions in critical sectors through specially tailored schemes. These,

comprising schemes for economic, educational and social development,

are administered by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs and implemented

through the State Governments/Union Territory Administrations and

voluntary organizations.

Administration:

The establishment and general administration of the Ministry and

the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) are handled in the

Administration Division. In addition, establishment matters of officers

appointed under Central Staffing Schemes for the Department proper and

against ex-cadre posts of this Ministry and also posts belonging to other

Central Services i.e. Indian Economic Service cadre, various Statistical

cadres, etc. are being administered in this Division.

Ministry of Tribal Affairs had been facing severe crunch of space

since its inception. Some divisions viz., Research & Media, Plan and

Miscellaneous, Statistics and Cooperative Marketing & Regulation

Divisions have been located in August Kranti Bhawan at Bhikaji Cama

Place. It involves extra efforts of staff and vehicles for coordination. It will

be a major problem to accommodate any additional staff that this Ministry

is seeking to carry out the neglected and new functions in the Ministry.

38

Demographic Trends and Present Status:

Population Profile: According to the 2001 Census, the population of

Scheduled Tribes in the country is 8.43 crore, which is 8.2% of the total

population of the country. The population of Scheduled Tribes has been on

the increase since 1961. The State wise overall population, ST population,

growth rate etc during 1991 to 2001 as per census 2001 are given at above

graph,

Growth: The decadal population growth between the Census Year 1971 to

1981 in respect of the tribal population has been higher (35.79%) than that

of the entire population (25.0%). The decadal population growth between

the Census Year 1981 to 1991 in respect of the tribal population has also

been higher (31.64%) than that of the entire population (23.51%).

Similarly during census year 1991 to 2001 it has been 24.45% against the

growth rate of 22.66% for the entire population. The ST population in the

State of Karnataka has witnessed the highest growth rate of 80.82%

followed by Nagaland (67.23%).The increased rate of population growth,

in some cases, however, is as a result of addition of new communities to

the STs list. The lowest growth rate in respect of ST population as per

2001 census was recorded in Andaman & Nicobar (10.08%) followed by

Himachal Pradesh (12.02%).

Sex Ratio: As compared to the sex ratio for the overall population (933

females per 1000 male), the sex ratio among Scheduled Tribes is more

favorable, at 977 females per thousand males (2001 Census), though also

declining. In all States except Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and

Uttarakhand, the ST sex ratio as per 2001 Census was better than the

general sex ratio.

39

Child Sex Ratio: The 1991 Census revealed that the child sex ratio in 0-6

age group for the general population was 940 girls per 1000 boys for the

country as a whole. In case of STs, this ratio was more favorable and stood

at 985 girls per 1000 boys. In 2001, the child sex ratio in the general

population further reduced to 919 girls to 1000 boys. The situation among

STs, though also on the decline, remains comparatively better at 972 girls

per 1000 boys.

In the UT of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, the ST sex ratio for the 0-6

age group is positive. There were 1018 girls per 1000 boys in 1991, which

declined to 1009 girls per 1000 boys during 2001 Census. However, it was

still higher than the general sex ratio of 1005 girls (1991) and 911 girls

(2001) per 1000 boys in the UT. The State-wise detail of 1991 and 2001

census figures indicating child sex ratios is given below,

40

Table 1.5: CHILD SEX RATIO (POPULATION 0-6 AGE GROUP)

S.No. State 1991 Census 2001 Census

Total Gen. ST Total Gen. ST

India 945 940 985 927 919 973

1 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 973 981 897 957 957 956

2 Andhra Pradesh 975 972 978 961 957 972

3 Arunachal Pradesh 982 993 976 904 940 976

4 Assam 975 973 990 965 966 962

5 Bihar 953 950 983 942 938 975

6 Chandigarh 899 889 NST 845 834 NST

7 Chhattisgarh 984 978 996 975 962 998

8 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 1013 1005 1018 979 911 1009

9 Daman & Diu 958 966 911 926 923 983

10 Delhi 915 912 NST 868 861 NST

11 Goa 964 964 1122 938 937 915

12 Gujarat 928 916 988 883 865 966

13 Haryana 879 875 NST 819 807 NST

14 Himachal Pradesh 951 945 966 896 876 955

15 Jammu & Kashmir NA NA NA 941 939 979

16 Jharkhand 979 973 993 965 955 979

17 Karnataka 960 957 970 946 941 974

18 Kerala 958 957 961 960 961 974

19 Lakshadweep 941 1138 936 959 1057 957

20 Madhya Pradesh 941 929 987 932 915 979

21 Maharashtra 946 940 982 913 903 965

22 Manipur 974 979 968 957 955 959

23 Meghalaya 986 949 991 973 963 974

24 Mizoram 969 988 969 964 909 966

25 Nagaland 993 916 1003 964 919 969

26 Orissa 967 951 998 953 938 979

27 Pondicherry 963 962 NST 967 962 NST

28 Rajasthan 916 910 958 909 897 950

29 Sikkim 965 960 973 963 963 964

30 Tamil Nadu 948 943 955 942 937 945

31 Tripura 967 954 984 966 956 987

32 Punjab 875 865 NST 798 767 NST

33 Uttar Pradesh 927 926 967 916 911 973

34 Uttarakhand 949 945 973 908 899 955

35 West Bengal 967 967 983 960 958 981


41

1. Excludes Jammu & Kashmir from 1991 Census as 1991 was not

conducted in J&K;

2. Excludes figures of Paomata, Mao Maram and Purul sub-divisions of

Senapati district of Manipur for 2001;

Total Includes General, ST & SC population NA-Not available, NST-

No Notified STs, GEN-Other than SC/ST population.

Literacy: The literacy rate for the total population in India has increased

from 52.21% to 64.84% during the period from 1991 to 2001 whereas the

literacy rate among the Scheduled Tribes has increased from 29.60% to

only 47.10%. Among ST males literacy increased from 40.65% to 59.17%

and among ST female literacy increased from 18.19% to 34.76% during

the same period. The ST female literacy is lower by approximately 21

percentage point as compared to the overall female literacy of the general

population. However, the increase in total as well as female literacy among

STs is significant.

Literacy rate has increased from 8.53 percent in 1961 to 47.10

percent in 2001 for STs, while the corresponding increase for total

population was from 28.30 percent in 1961 to 64.84 percent in 2001. The

details are given in below table:

Table 1.6: Literacy among STs and all Social Groups

Year STs All Social Groups

Male Female Total Male Female Total

1961 13.83 3.16 8.53 40.40 15.35 28.30

1971 17.63 4.85 11.30 45.96 21.97 34.45

1981 24.52 8.04 16.35 56.38 29.76 43.57

1991 40.65 18.19 29.60 64.13 39.29 52.21

2001 59.17 34.76 47.10 75.26 53.67 64.84

(Source: Registrar General of India)

42

Literacy Rate increased by 17.5 percentage points from 1991 to

2001 for STs and increased by 12.63 percentage points for total population

during the same period. Male-female gap in literacy rate increased from

22.46 percentage points in 1991 to 24.41 percentage points in 2001for STs

while it declines from 24.84 percentage points in 1991 to 21.59 percentage

points in 2001 for total population.

The percentage of literacy gap between STs and all population

various from 0.5 to 31.9 percentage point during 2001. The States like

Tamilnadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharastra, Gujarat,

Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jammu &

Kashmir are having more than 17.7 (i.e. literacy gap at all India)

percentage gap of literacy rate between STs vis-a-vis total population

during 2001. All States registered a decline in literacy gap durring1991 to

2001 except in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Dadra & Nagar Haveli. Although

Uttar Pradesh and Bihar maintained almost the same gap as compared to

census 1991 but the gap was widened in case of Dadra & Nagar Haveli.

States like West Bengal, Orissa, Goa, Kerala and Tamil Nadu are having

more than 25 percentage point gap of literacy between STs and all

population in these states.

State-wise details are given in below table,

43

Table 1.7: Literacy Rate of Total Population and Scheduled Tribes Population

and Gap in Literacy Rate-India/States/Union Territories: 1991-2001 ST

Code

India/State/UT# Literacy rate -

1991

Gap in

Literacy

Rate

Literacy rate –

2001

Gap in

Literacy

Rate

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

INDIA 52.2 29.6 22.6 64.8 47.1 17.7

1 Andaman & Nicobar

Islands 73.0 56.6 16.4 81.3 66.8 14.5

2 Arunachal Pradesh 41.6 34.4 16.4 81.3 66.8 14.5

3 Assam 52.9 49.2 3.7 63.3 62.5 0.8

4 Andhra Pradesh 44.1 17.2 26.9 60.5 37.0 23.4

5 Bihar 37.5 18.9 18.6 47.0 28.2 18.8

6 Chandigarh# 77.8 NST -- 81.9 NST --

7 Chhattisgarh 42.9 26.7 16.2 64.7 52.1 12.6

8 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 40.7 28.2 12.5 57.6 41.2 16.4

9 Daman & Diu 71.2 52.9 18.3 78.2 63.4 14.8

10 Delhi# 75.3 NST -- 81.7 NST --

11 Goa 75.5 42.9 32.6 82.0 55.9 26.1

12 Gujarat 61.3 36.4 24.9 69.1 47.7 21.4

13 Haryana 55.8 NST -- 67.9 NST --

14 Himachal Pr. 63.9 47.1 16.8 76.5 65.5 11.0

15 Jammu & Kashmir NA NA NA 55.5 37.5 18.0

16 Jharkhand 41.4 27.5 13.9 53.6 40.7 12.9

17 Karnataka 56.0 36.0 20.0 66.6 48.3 18.3

18 Kerala 89.8 57.2 32.6 90.9 64.4 26.5

19 Lakshadweep 81.8 80.6 1.2 86.7 86.1 0.6

20 Madhya Pradesh 44.7 18.4 26.3 63.7 41.2 22.5

21 Maharashtra 64.9 36.8 28.1 76.9 55.2 21.7

22 Manipur 59.9 53.6 6.3 70.5 65.9 4.6

23 Meghalaya 49.1 46.7 2.4 62.6 61.3 1.3

24 Mizoram 82.3 82.7 0.4 88.8 89.3 0.5

25 Nagaland 61.6 60.6 1.0 66.6 65.9 0.7

26 Orissa 49.1 22.3 26.8 63.1 37.4 25.7

27 Pondicherry# 74.7 NST - 81.2 NST --

28 Punjab 58.8 NST - 69.7 NST -

29 Rajasthan 38.6 19.4 19.2 60.4 44.7 15.7

30 Sikkim 56.9 59.0 2.1 68.8 67.1 1.7

31 Tamil Nadu 62.7 27.9 34.8 73.5 41.5 32.0

32 Tripura 60.4 40.4 20.0 73.2 56.5 16.7

33 Uttar Pradesh 40.7 20.0 20.7 56.3 35.1 21.2

34 Uttarakhand 57.8 41.2 16.6 71.6 63.2 8.4

35 West Bengal 57.7 27.8 29.9 68.6 43.3 25.2

(Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, GOI)

44

1. Excludes Jammu & Kashmir where 1991 census was not conducted.

2. Excludes figure of Paomata, Mao Marm & Purul Sub divisions of

Senapati districts of Manipur for 2001.

# NST – No Notified Scheduled Tribes in the States.

Indicators of Backwardness:

According to the 2001 Census figures, 44.70% of the ST population

were cultivators, 36.9% agricultural labourers, 2.1% house hold industry

workers and 16.3% were other occupation workers. Thus, about 81.6% of

the main workers from these communities were engaged in primary sector

activities. These disparities are compounded by higher dropout rates in

formal education, resulting in disproportionately low representation in

higher education. Not surprisingly, the cumulative effect has been that the

proportion of STs below the poverty line is substantially higher than the

national average. As per the statement provided by the Planning

Commission, it is observed that ST people living below the poverty line in

1993-94 were 51.94% in the rural areas and 41.14% in the urban areas

respectively. This percentage of ST population living below the poverty

line has decreased to 47.3% in the rural areas and 39.9% in the urban areas

as per poverty line estimates in the year 2004-05. There is a decrease of

STs living below the poverty line by about 4.7% in the rural areas and

1.15% in urban areas since 1993-94 to 2004-05. State-wise details are in

table below:

45

Table 1.8: Percentage of Population (Social Group Wise) below

poverty line by states 2004-05

S.No. States Rural Urban

ST SC OBC Others ST SC OBC Others

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 Andhra

Pradesh 30.5 15.4 9.5 4.1 50.0 39.9 28.9 20.6

2 Assam 14.1 27.7 18.8 25.4 4.8 8.6 8.6 4.2

3 Bihar 53.3 64.0 37.8 26.6 57.2 67.2 41.4 18.3

4 Chhattisgarh 54.7 32.7 33.9 29.2 41.0 52.0 52.7 21.4

5 Delhi 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.6 9.4 35.8 18.3 6.4

6 Gujarat 34.7 21.8 19.1 4.8 21.4 16.0 22.9 7.0

7 Harayana 0.0 26.8 13.9 4.2 4.6 33.4 22.5 5.9

8 Himachal

Pradesh 14.9 19.6 9.1 6.4 2.4 5.6 10.1 2.0

9 Jammu &

Kashmir 8.8 5.2 10.0 3.3 0.0 13.7 4.8 7.8

10 Jharkhand 54.2 57.9 40.2 37.1 45.1 47.2 19.1 9.2

11 Karnataka 23.5 31.8 20.9 13.8 58.3 50.6 39.1 20.3

12 Kerala 44.3 21.6 13.7 6.6 19.2 32.5 24.3 7.8

13 M.P. 58.6 42.8 29.6 13.4 44.7 67.3 55.5 20.8

14 Maharashtra 56.6 44.8 23.9 18.9 40.4 43.2 35.6 26.8

15 Orissa 75.6 50.2 36.9 23.4 61.8 72.6 50.2 28.9

16 Punjab 30.7 14.6 10.6 2.2 2.1 16.1 8.4 2.9

17 Rajasthan 32.6 28.7 13.1 8.2 24.1 52.1 35.6 20.7

18 Tamilnadu 32.1 31.2 19.8 19.7 32.5 40.2 20.9 6.5

19 Uttar

Pradesh 32.4 44.8 32.9 19.7 37.4 44.9 36.6 19.2

20 Uttarakhand 43.2 54.2 44.8 33.5 64.4 65.7 46.5 25.5

21 West

Bengal 42.4 29.5 18.3 27.5 25.7 28.5 10.4 13.0

All India 47.3 36.8 26.7 16.1 33.3 39.9 31.4 16.0

(Source: Planning Commission)

Legend SC – Scheduled Castes, ST – Scheduled Tribes, OBC – Other

Backward Classes,

46

Health Indices of STs versus Others:

The infant mortality, under-5 child mortality and percentage of child

mortality rate for STs as well as of other disadvantaged socio-economic

groups as shown in the below table,

Table 1.9: Some Health Indicators

Indicator

Infant

mortality /

1000 live

birth

Under-5

mortality /

1000 live

birth

Child

mortality

rate

India 57.0 74.3 18.4

SC 66.4 88.1 23.2

ST 62.1 95.7 35.8

OBC 56.6 72.8 17.3

Others 48.9 59.2 10.8

(Source: NFHS 3: 2005-06, Minstry of Health & Family Welfare, GOI)

Education:

Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for elementary stage (classes’ I-VIII)

is defined as percentage of the enrolment in Elementary stage to the

estimated child population in the age group of 6 to below 14 years. GER

has increased from 102.4% in 2004-05 to 109.6% in 2006-07 for all STs

and from 93.5% in 2004-05 to 97.1% in 2006-07 for total population.

The enrolments in these stages include underage and over-age and

hence the total percentage may be more than 100% in some cases. Gender

disparity in GER at elementary stage declined 12.7 percentage points in

2004-05 to 10.5 percentage points in 2006-07 for ST children and declines

7.0 percentage points in 2004-05 to 6.9 percentage points in 2006-07 for

total population.

47

Problems of Development:

The Adivasi territories have been divided amongst the states formed on

the basis of primarily the languages of the mainstream castes society,

ignoring the validity of applying the same principle of language for the

Adivasis in the formation of states. Jharkhand has been divided amongst

Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa though the Bihar part of

Jharkhand has now become a separate state after decades of struggle. The

Gond region has been divided amongst Orissa, Andhra, Maharashtra and

Madhya Pradesh. Similarly the Bhil region has been divided amongst

Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan. The call for a

socially homogenous country, particularly in the Hindi Hindu paradigm

have suppressed tribal languages, defiled cultures and destroyed

civilizations.

The invasion of Adivasi territories, which for the most part

commenced during the colonial period, intensified in the post colonial

period. Most of the Adivasi territories were claimed by the state. The

systematic opening up of Adivasi territories, the development projects and

the ‘trial development projects’ make them conducive for waves of

immigrants. Over 10 million Adivasis have been displaced to make way

for development projects such as dams, mining, industries, roads, protected

areas etc. Though most of the dams (over 3000) are located in Adivasi

areas, only 19.9% (1980-81) of Adivasi land holdings are irrigated as

compared to 45.9% of all holdings of the general population.

According to the Central Planning Committee of the Government of

India, nearly 41 districts with significant Adivasi populations are prone to

deaths due to starvation, which are not normally reported as such. Few

Adivasi communities which are forest dwellers have not been displaced

and continue to live in forests, away from the mainstream development

activities, such as in parts of Bastar in Madhya Pradesh, Koraput, Phulbani

48

and Mayurbanj in Orissa and of Palamu in South Bihar have reported sever

food shortage.

India produces as many as 52 principal, 3 fuels, 11 metallic, 38 non-

metallic and a number of minor minerals. Of these 45 major minerals

(coal, iron ore, magnetite, manganese, bauxite, graphite, limestore,

dolomite, uranium etc) are found in Adivasi areas contributing some 56%

of the national total mineral earnings in terms of value. Of the 4,175

working mines reported by the Indian Bureau of Mines in 1991-92,

approximately 3500 could be assumed to be in Adivasi areas. Income to

the government from forests rose from Rs. 5.6 million on 1869-70 to more

than Rs. 13 billions in the 1970s. The bulk of the nation’s productive

wealth laid in the Adivasi territories. Yet the Adivasi has been driven out,

marginalized and robbed of dignity by the very process of ‘national

development’.

Internal colonialism Constitutional privileges and welfare measures

benefit only a small minority of the Adivasis. These privileges and welfare

measures are denied to the majority of the Adivasis and they are

appropriated by more powerful groups in the caste order.

Despite the Bonded Labour Abolition Act of 1976, Adivasi’s still

form a substantial percentage of bonded labour in the country. The

Adivasis have preserved 90% of the country’s bio-cultural diversity

protecting the polyvalent, precolonial, biodiversity friendly Indian identity

from bio-cultural pathogens. Excessive and indiscriminate demands of his

urban market have reduced Adivasis to raw material collectors and

providers. It is a cruel joke that people who can produce some of India’s

most exquisite handicrafts, who can distinguish hundreds of species of

plants and animals, who can survive off the forests, the lands and the

streams sustainably with no needs to go to the market to buy food, are

49

labeled as ‘unskilled’. Equally critical are the paths of resistance that many

Adivasi areas are displaying.

Though the Constitution recognizes them as a distinct cultural

group, yet when it comes to religion those who do not identify as

Christians, Muslims or Buddhists are compelled to register themselves as

Hindus. Hindus and Christians have interacted with Adivasis to civilize

them, which has been defined as sanscritisation and westernization.

However, as reflected during the 1981 census it is significant that about

5% of the Adivasis registered their religion by the names of their

respective tribes or the names adopted by them. In 1991 the corresponding

figure rose to about 10% indicating the rising consciousness and assertion

of identity!

The significance of their sustainable subsistence economy in the

midst of a profit oriented economy is not recognized in the political

discourse, and the negative stereotyping of the sustainable subsistence

economy of tribal societies is based on the wrong premise that the

production of surplus is more progressive than the process of social

reproduction in co-existence with nature.

The source of the conflicts arises from these unresolved

contradictions. With globalization, the hitherto expropriation of rights as

an outcome of development has developed into expropriation of rights as a

precondition for development in response, the struggles for the rights of

the tribal have moved towards the struggles for power and a redefinition of

the contours of state, governance and progress.

50

TRIBAL SUB-PLAN AREA (TSP AREA)

Figure No. 2: Map of Maharashtra.

Figure No. 3: Tribal Sub-Plan Map of Maharashtra

Source: TRTI, Pune.

51

Tribal Areas in Maharashtra:

The Scheduled Area notified by the Government of India consists

of 5809 villages and 16 towns in 12 districts covering an area of

46,531sq.kms. in state, this is about 15.1% of the area of the State.

These districts are Thane, Pune, Nashik, Dhule, Nandurbar, Jalgaon,

Ahmednagar, Nanded, Amravati, Yeotmal, Gadchiroli and Chandrapur.

The Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) area covers the scheduled area. In addition,

the State Government felt that 773 villages in the districts of Raigad,

Bhandara, Gondia, Chandrapur, Yeotmal and Pune also deserved to be

extended the benefits of TSP, though these villages did not strictly

satisfy the criteria laid down by the Government of India for inclusion in

TSP area. These areas were designated as Additional Tribal Sub-plan

(ATSP) areas.

In addition the Government of India had also decided that a group

of villages having a total population of 10,000 or more with more than

50% tribals should be brought under the Modified Area Development

Approach (MADA). Similarly, a group of villages having a total

population of more than 5000 with more than 50% tribals are to be

constituted into Mini-MADA pockets. All together 1754 villages in the

State have been included in MADA and Mini-MADA pockets. All the

benefits available to the tribal in the TSP areas as approved by the

Government of India have been extended to the tribal in the ATSP,

MADA, and Mini-MADA areas.

The population of scheduled tribes in Maharashtra as per the 2001

census is 85.77 lakh (Maharashtra has the second highest tribal

population in the country, next to Madhya Pradesh having a population

of 122.34 lakh). 49.0% of the tribals live in scheduled areas (main TSP

52

area) 2.6% in ATSP areas, 6.8% in MADA and Mini-MADA pockets.

The remaining 41.6% of the tribal live outside all these areas.

There are 47 scheduled tribes in the State. The tribes each having

a population over one lakh as per the 2001 census (with population in

lakhs) are:

Table No. 1.10: Tribe wise population in Maharashtra

TRIBES POPULATION

(IN LAKHS)

1. Gond 11.63

2. Bhil 9.93

3. Mahadeo Koli 7.87

4. Warli 3.61

5. Kokna 3.53

6. Thakur 3.23

7. Halba 2.43

8. Andh 2.32

9. Koli Malhar 1.77

10. Katkari 1.75

11. Kolam 1.18

12. Korku 1.16

13. Gamit 1.11

(Source: Tribal Development Department, Maharashtra State)

Administrative set-up:

A separate Tribal Development Department (TDD) was set up in

the year 1983 to look after the welfare and development of the tribals in

the State. Initially, the field organisation of the Tribal Development

Department consisted of two separate wings, namely the Directorate of

Tribal Development and the Additional Commissioners of Tribal

Development. As this arrangement was not found effective, the field set-

up of the Department was reorganized in 1992 by merging the two

wings to achieve a single line of command and creating a post of Tribal

Commissioner with Nashik as headquarters. There are four posts of

Additional Tribal Commissioner at Thane, Nashik, Amravati and

53

Nagpur. The State has been divided into 24 Integrated Tribal

Development Projects mainly concentrated in the TSP, ATSP, MADA

and Mini-MADA areas. Each ITDP Project is headed by a Project

Officer.

In order to ensure public participation in the planning,

implementation and monitoring of the schemes for tribal development at

the district level, District Tribal Sub-Plan Committees have been set up.

The concerned District Minister is the Chairman, the Divisional

Commissioner and the Additional Tribal Commissioner are the Vice

Chairmen and among others, the tribal MPs, MLA and MLCs members.

The Collector is the Member-Secretary of this Committee. At the

Project level, there is an Implementation Committee under the

chairmanship of the local MLA. The Additional Tribal Commissioner is

the Vice Chairman and the Project Officer Member Secretary of this

committee, which is required to meet every month and review the

progress of the tribal development schemes.

Staff:

Total Administrative & Teaching Staff strength is 20,000. In

addition to this there is also teaching and non-teaching staff in Aided

Ashram Schools and Hostels.

Schemes/Oppurtunities for Employment and Self-Employment:

Recruitment in Government and semi-government services:

7% of the posts in the services of the State are reserved for

Scheduled Tribes who account for about 9.4% of the population. This

percentage has been increased to 9% - 22% in the districts of Raigad,

Yeotmal, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Thane, Nashik, Dhule and Nandurbar

54

which have high tribal population. The monitoring of the recruitment of

ST candidates and filling up of the backlog vacancies is done by the

General Administration Department. The Tribal Development

Department also monitors this.

Training for securing employment

As there is a substantial backlog of the posts of drives reserved for

STs in Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation (MSRTC), Tribal

Development Department in collaboration with the MSRTC has taken

up a programme for imparting training in the driving of heavy vehicles

to tribal youth, so as to equip them for appointment as drivers in

MSRTC and similar organizations. A motor driving training centre was

started at various tribal regions.

In order to train the tribal youth for recruitment in the Army and

Police forces, the State Government has set up recruitment centre at nine

places n the predominantly tribal districts. At each centre about 100

students are enrolled during each session lasting for about four months

and three such sessions are held every year.

Assistance for setting up self-employment schemes with NSFDC

funds

The scheme of providing self employment to the tribals with the

help of financial assistance sanctioned by the National Scheduled Castes

/ Tribes Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC) was taken up

by TDC from the year 994-95. Under this scheme 75% of the total

project cost is sanctioned by the NSFDC as loan, 15% by TDC as loan

and 10% has to be contributed by the beneficiaries. The State

Government provides guarantee to the loan sanctioned by NSFDC.

55

Shabari Tribal Finance and Development Corporation

It was found that TDC, which is preoccupied with its marketing

activities, was not able to pay adequate attention to the task of helping

tribal to start self-employment. The Government has, therefore, set up in

December, 1998 a separate Shabari Tribal Finance and Development

Corporation for the scheduled tribes for assisting them to start their own

business by providing financial assistance through subsidy, seed capital,

loan etc., This Corporation is registered under the companies Act, 1956.

Maharashtra is the first State in the country to have established a

separate Finance and Development Corporation for the scheduled tribes.

Seed money assistance to educated unemployed

This scheme was introduced in 1976-77 as a State Plan Scheme.

The scheme is intended to encourage educated unemployed persons to

take up self employment ventures. Persons between the age group of 18

to 50 who have passed at least the VIIth

standard examination are

eligible to avail of seed money assistance upto Rs. 1.5 lakh. The loan is

granted for a period of seven years at the interest rate of 10%. The

recovery of the loan is started with effect from third year from the year

of granting the loan.

Entrepreneurial training programme

The objects of the scheme are to encourage entrepreneurs to start

new ventures; training programmes are arranged and stipend is provided

to participants of the programme.

District Industries Centres

Under this scheme, soft loans to meet margin requirements are

granted to entrepreneurs in respect of industrial/service units with an

56

investment in plant and machinery below Rs. 2 lakh in areas with a

population below 1 lakh, the rate of interest being 4%.

Tribal Research and Training Institute

The Tribal Research and Training Institute (TRTI) was

established in 1962 at Pune with the main objectives of conducting

research about the tribal in general and specific areas of economic

activities affecting tribal life in particular; carrying out of evaluation and

monitoring of developmental schemes; collecting and disseminating

information regarding tribal life; organizing training programmes for

tribal; and building up a museum and a library on tribal.

The main activities of TRTI at present relate to research;

Integrated Area Development Programme; training; publications;

library, museum and cultural unit; production of films on tribal life and

culture; and scrutiny and verification of tribe claims. To look after the

activities of TRTI, a governing council headed by Minister, Tribal

Development has been constituted. Brief details of the major activities

of TRTI are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Encouragement to Tribal art and handicrafts

The Institute holds tribal handicraft exhibitions so as to expose the

tribal artists to the urban market. The institute has succeeded in

upgrading the economic status of tribal artists by giving them an

opportunity to become self-employed. With a view to preserve the tribal

dance tradition and to encourage the tribal dance groups, dance

competitions are organized. The dance groups are given prizes, besides

providing them allowance to meet incidental expenses. To promote and

preserve the art of Warli painting, the Institute has been holding Warli

57

painting competitions in tribal areas for adults as well as school

children.

Production of documentary films

Documentary films on various aspects of tribal life and

development are produced by the Institute. Since 1981-82, such films

have been prepared on 45 topics.

Tribal Cultural Museum

The Institute had set up in 1965 a museum which displays nearly

1770 exhibits of all the 47 tribes in Maharashtra. The museum is visited

regularly by tourists on Pune Darshan and students. The museum serves

as a medium to spread awareness about the tribal and their activities.

Evaluation studies

TRTI conducts evaluation studies regarding the impact of

different schemes implemented for welfare of tribal. So far 201 such

studies have been conducted and reports submitted to the Government.

Verification of caste certificates issued to ST candidates.

Individual Beneficiary Schemes

Eradication of poverty, removal of disparity in income and

upliftment of the living standards of the weaker sections of the society

form part of the twenty point programme. There are 22 individual

beneficiary schemes implemented under the programme.

Nucleus Budget Scheme

In order to provide for local variations and specific needs which

cannot be met from regular schemes, a special scheme ‘Nucleus Budget’

is being implemented since 1982-82. Under the scheme, the project

officers of the ITDPs are empowered to formulate and implement (if

58

necessary through other departments), schemes of local importance. The

ceiling for financial assistance under this scheme is Rs. 10,000 per

family. The schemes under nucleus budget are categorized into four

groups:

1. Income generation schemes like minor irrigation increase in

agricultural production and land leveling. The grant-in-aid given

to the beneficiary is 50% for normal tribal and 60% for primitive

tribal. In respect of schemes costing below Rs. 2000, full amount

is given as subsidy to all tribal.

2. Training schemes under which various training programmes are

arranged for unemployed tribal, for example, pre-recruitment

training; training in radio repairing, wiring carpentry, etc.

3. Welfare schemes for women and children.

4. Human resource development schemes related to sports, tribal

arts and tribal culture.

Supply of Electric pumps and oil engines

Replacement of thatched roofs with Mangalore tiles / GI sheets

Backward Class Co-operative Housing Scheme

BPL tribal families and how to bring them up

BPL families to come up above the poverty line are creation of

irrigation facilities, self-employment programmes implemented with

NSFDC assistance, Employment Guarantee Scheme and construction

stage employment on irrigation and road works. It has been estimate that

with the present level of funding, the number of families which can be

brought above poverty line in the TSP areas with these latter schemes is

about 5500.

59

Special Facilities for Education of Tribal:

The tribal areas have facilities for school education like the rest of

the State. There are 8445 primary, 864 secondary and 151 higher

secondary schools run by Zilla Parishads in these areas. The number of

students is 8.43 lakh in primary, 3.68 lakh in secondary and 1.46 lakh in

higher secondary schools. The Tribal Development Department,

however, implements certain special schemes in order to improve the

quality of education and to enable more tribal students to pursue their

studies.

Government Ashram School complex

To provide higher education to tribal boys and girls, the

Government started to upgrade some of the Ashram Schools to Post

Basic Ashram Schools (with classes up to Xth

) since 1978-79. At present

there are 273 Post Basic Ashram Schools out of the 410 Ashram

Schools. Approximately 1.35 lakh tribal students get education in these

schools.

The Government has converted 22 Post Basic Ashram Schools

into Girls Ashram Schools in June, 1999. With a view to provide

opportunity to the tribal children to achieve merit in education, the

Tribal Development Department has started 2 model schools at

Bhandara, in Ahmednagar District and Deomogara in Nandurbar

District. These schools have been established on the lines of

Vidhyaiketan and Navodaya Vidhyala. The students in these model

schools are selected through entrance examination.

Government has sanctioned 11th

and 12th

standards in Arts and

Science faculties in 31 Government Post Basic Ashram Schools in June,

1999. With the objective of raising the standard of Ashram Schools, to

60

enable the tribal students to find employment, Government has

sanctioned 4 vocational training centres at Kasansur and Kotgul in

Gadchiroli district, Vinval in Thane district and Patharaj in Raigad

district.

Grant-in-aid Ashram Schools

At present there are 507 aided Ashram Schools in the State out of

which 161 Ashram Schools have been upgraded to Post Basic Ashram

Schools (adding standards 8 to 10). In these Ashram Schools, about 1.34

lakh students have been enrolled in the year 1999-2000. These voluntary

agencies get 100% grant on the salary of the teaching and non-teaching

staff and maintenance grant at the rate of Rs. 335 per student per month.

In addition to this, to meet contingency expenditure on account of

furniture, building repairs, books and notebooks, writing instruments,

uniforms, bedding, utensils, etc., a grant of 8% and 12% on the salary of

the teaching and non-teaching staff is paid to the Ashram Schools and

Post Basic Ashram Schools respectively.

Government hostels for tribal students

Government hostels have been started at divisional/district/tahsil

places in order to attract the tribal students to pursue higher studies.

There are 188 government hostels (124 for boys and 64 for girls) in the

State. These hostels provide accommodation to 15,170 tribal students

(10,200 boys and 4,970 girls). The location of new government hostels

is decided on the basis of total population of tribal, educational facilities

and number of tribal students in the vicinity.

Free lodging and boarding facilities are available in the

Government hostels (124 for boys and 64 for girls) in the State.

61

Post matric scholarship scheme

The Post Matric Scholarship Scheme has been introduced to

enable backward class students whose financial condition is poor to

pursue higher education. The prevailing monthly rates of scholarship for

hostellers vary from Rs. 150 (for students in 11th

and 12th

standards) to

Rs. 425 (for students studying medical, engineering and other

professional degree courses). The rates for day scholars range from Rs.

90 to 190. Maintenance allowance at these rates and full fee exemption

are available for all students whose parents do not have annual income

above Rs.2 Lakh (latest by 2011).

Conclusion:

Tribes are in situation, where the Government’s efforts of tribal

Welfare with protective and developmental measures do not make any

remarkable impact on tribal development. Tribal development is

challenge for government till now. Hence, researcher felt appropriate to

investigate the impact of welfare measures on tribals with social work

perspective.

62

REFERENCES

Books:

1. Annual Tribal Sub Plan (2000-2001), Government of Maharashtra,

Tribal Development Department.

2. Census Report (2001), Census Department, GOI.

3. Civil Estimates (2010), Tribal Development, Government Central

Press, Mumbai.

4. Fried, Morton H. (1972), The Notion of Tribe, Cummings Publishing

Company

5. Nehru Pandit Jawaharlal, Panchsheel for Development (Pub. Tribal

Research Bulletin, March, 1981)

6. Report of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe Commission, Vol-I,

1960-61.

6. The World Book Encyclopedia, World Book, Inc

7. Yadav, C.P. (2000), Encyclopedia of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled

Tribes, Published by Anmol Publication (P) Ltd, New Delhi.

8. Wilson, Geoffrey and Wilson, Monica H. (1945), The Analysis of

Social Change, Based on observations in Central Africa, Cambridge

University Press.

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