Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW -...
-
Upload
nguyenhanh -
Category
Documents
-
view
227 -
download
0
Transcript of Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW -...
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION AND
OVERVIEW
1.1 Introduction
Water is the prime natural resource, the basic human need and precious natural
asset. It is a life supporting, life sustaining and life purifying element and water is
sacred. The extend to which water is abundant or scarce, clean or polluted, beneficial
or destructive has a major influence on the rapidly changing world with ever increasing
population and fast rate of scientific and technological advancement.
Even though our land was referred to as the gallery of waters and mountains, this
harmonious co-existence with nature has been shaken by rapid development starting in
the early 1970s and characterized by export led industrialization and urbanization. In
particular, extensive economic growth triggered a break in the balance between nature
and human desire. Water is now treated as an economic good and the approach to
water development, production and supply are shifting towards a demand responsive
mode.
Facing ever increasing demand, and suffering widespread degradation, the world’s
water resources are under serious stress. This often debases the quality of life for many
and in extreme cases threatens the vital life supporting infrastructure of our planet. As
the poor are the worst affected, because of water scarcity, improved access to drinking
water and sanitation has emerged as a significant component of any poverty reduction
strategy now a days. Safe drinking water and sanitation are the basic priority for a
healthy community. The lack of this priority is one of the major causes of diseases and
1
death world wide. Every year over 5 million people die from water related diseases,
some 3 million from diarrhoea, and around 2 million from malaria. Within a few
decade about one third of the world’s people are expected to suffer from chronic water
shortage. If there are adequate supplies of safe drinking water and adequate sanitation,
the incidents of disease and death around the world could be minimized. There have
been improvements over the past decades.
Increasing demand for fresh water has been identified as the quantity of water re-
quired to be supplied for specific use and includes consumptive as well as necessary non
consumptive water requirements for the user sector. At the present rate of investment
safe drinking water will not be provided to all people of Asia before 2025. The rate
of progress urgently needs to be accelerated. At the millennium summit in September
2000 the world nations resolved to reduce by half the number of people with out access
to safe and affordable drinking water by 2015. Since fresh water is essential for water
supply and sanitation, an examination of the fresh water situation in India is required.
The fresh water availability is uneven across India and a huge disparity exists from
basin to basin, region to region, state to state and in many cases even with in states.
According to CWRDM, 1995 the basin demand of water in various sectors in the
year 2021 will be as follows:
Rivers play an important role in human development and are an important natural
resource. The hydro electrical characteristics of water determine its usefulness for
municipal, commercial, agricultural and domestic water supplies. Development modes
of present age leads to pollution of river water.
The changes in the quality of water respond to variations in physical, chemical and
biological environment through which it passes. Usually pollution load is measured
in terms of monitoring of physico-chemical and biological parameters. The traditional
techniques do not reflect the long term effect if any pollutant in an ecosystem do not
provide any information regarding the effect of pollution on the aquatic bio-diversity.
According to Nwankwo1 an important ecological ramification of increasing population
pressure, poor sewage system, industrialization and poor waste management in Nige-
rian coastal area is that pollutants freely find their way through drains, canals, rivers,
creeks and lagoons. Unwise utilization of water resources, dehumanizing measures of
urbanization, industrialization and other activities are responsible for the deterioration
of water. Water served to the consumers must be free from disease carrying bacteria,
toxic substances and excessive amount of minerals and organic matter2.
2
Table. 1.1 Water demand in mm3 in the year 2021 (Source- CWRDM 1995 ).
River Domestic Industrial Irrigation
Mangeswar Uppale 13.6 45 149
Shiriya 14.9 45 187
Mogral Chandragiri 32.9 45 507
Chittari 14.5 45 81
Nileswar Karingod 36 45 329
Kavvagi- Peruvamba Ramapuram 27.1 45 527
Kuppam 43.9 90 22.3
Valapattnam 82.4 45 331
Anjarakkandi 32.5 45 89
Tellicherry 15.2 45 81
Mahi 24.9 45 194
Kuttiadi 58.8 450 352
Korappuzha-Kallai Chaliyar-Kadalundi 631 45 3514
Tirur 28.2 450 221
Bharathapuzha 338 45 4684
Keecheri- Puzhakkal 61.75 90 822
Karuvannur 127 90 970
Chalakkudy 97.6 450 1093
Periyar 260 400 1844
Muvattupuzha 227 90 2141
Meenachil 166 90 1180
Manimala 85.6 400 402
Pampa 185 45 1732
Achencoil 38 400 889
Pallickil- Kallada 244.5 45 1162
Ithikkara 103.5 45 493
Ayroor-Vamanapuram Mamom 169.9 45 755
Karamana 106.8 45 466
Neyyar 94.1 400 502
Kabbini 62.5 45 2182
Bhavani 5.8 20 476
Pambar 1.94 45 298
3
The demand for water is continuously rising with the growth of population, industry
and agriculture3. Water pollution is a serious problem as almost 70% of Indian surface
water resources and a growing number of ground water reserves have been contaminated
by biological, organic and inorganic pollutants4.
Even with this plenty of water resources, India faces numerous problems associated
with water year after year. Most of the rains are localised in the eastern and western
regions there by creating floods in some areas and droughts in other at the same time.
Thus India is now identified with the need for conservation of water resources.
One of the major goals of surface water quality data collection is the estimation of
magnitude of changes in the concentration of various constituents5.
1.2 Indian Rivers
On the basis of origin, the rivers of India can be divided into Himalayan rivers and
Peninsular rivers.
Himalayan rivers
The main Himalayan river systems are the Ganga, the Indus and the Brahmaputra
river systems. The Himalayan Rivers form large basins and many of them pass through
the Himalayas. These deep valleys with steep rock sides were formed by the down -
cutting of the river during the period of the Himalayan uplift. They perform intense
erosional activity up the streams and carry huge load of sand and silt. In the plains,
they form large meanders, and a variety of depositional features like flood plains, river
cliffs and levees. These rivers are perennial as they get water from the rainfall as well
as the melting of ice. Nearly all of them create huge plains and are navigable over long
distances of their course. These rivers are also harnessed in their upstream catchment
area to generate hydroelectric power.
Peninsular rivers
The main peninsular river systems include the Narmada, the Tapti, the Godavari,
the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Mahanadi river systems. The Peninsular Rivers flow
through shallow valleys. A large number of them are seasonal as their flow is dependent
on rainfall. The intensity of erosional activities is also comparatively low because of
the gentler slope. The hard rock bed and lack of silt and sand does not allow any
4
significant meandering. Many rivers therefore have straight and linear courses. These
rivers provide huge opportunities for hydro-electric power. The other important rivers
are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. Rivers in mythology are Ganga, Yamuna,
Narmada and Kavery.
Figure 1.1 River map of Indian rivers
Indian subcontinent is one of the wettest places in the world with an average rainfall
of 110cm and a total river flow of 1830km3, 7 hectares of various types of lakes, ponds,
5
reservoirs and a potential renewable groundwater source of about 430km3. Almost
3480km3 of this water drains into the Bay of Bengal which constitutes about 90% of
the South Asian region and 680km3 of water into the Arabian Sea.
Table1.2. Seasonwise distribution of rainfall of India
Rainfall Season Duration Approximate % of
annual rainfall
South West Monsoon June- September 73.7
Post- Monsoon October- December 13.3
North East Monsoon January- February 2.6
Pre- Monsoon March- May 10.4
Table 1.3 Major rivers of India and their length,
basin area and average annual water discharge
River Length (km) Basin area (km2) Discharge (mcm)
Ganga 2525 861404 493400
Indus 1270 321290 41955
Godavari 1465 312812 105000
Krishna 1400 258948 67675
Brahmaputra 720 187110 510450
Mahanadi 857 141600 66640
Narmada 857 98796 40705
Kavery 800 87900 20950
Tapti 724 65145 17982
Pennar 597 55213 3238
Brahmani 800 39033 18310
Mahi 533 34842 8500
Subarmati 300 21674 3200
Source: Central pollution control board.
India is endowed with a great many rivers and river basins of great importance.
The major (over 20000 km2) and medium (2000- 20000 km2) rivers are 12 and 16
respectively accounting for 90% of the total run off. Innumerable number of minor
rivers (less than 2000 km2) takes care of about 8% of the balance run off. The rivers
carry 30% of the flow during monsoon months. The utilizable water from dams is
estimated as 690 b cm by central water commission in 1981.
6
1.3 Kerala Rivers
Kerala is blessed with abundant water resources in the backwaters and rivers that
exist in the state. The main water bodies consist of 44 rivers (figure 1.2), 5 major lakes
and a number of small and medium lakes and back waters.
Figure 1.2 River map of Kerala rivers
Among the 44 rivers, 41 are west flowing and drain in to Arabian Sea and the rest
are east flowing and drain through the neighbouring states of Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu to reach the Bay of Bengal. But all of them originate from Western Ghats. The
rivers of Kerala and their length and basin area are given in table 1.4.
7
Table 1.4. Important rivers of Kerala
Name of rivers Length
(Km)
Basin Area
(Sq.Km)
District Location
Manjeswar 16 90 Kasargod
Uppala 50 250 Kasargod
Shiriya 67 287 Kasargod
Mogral 34 132 Kasargod
Chandragini 105 1406 Kasargod
Chittari 25 145 Kasargod
Nileswar 46 190 Kasargod
Kariangode 64 561 Kannur
Kavvayi 31 143 Kannur
Peruvampa 51 300 Kannur
Ramapuram 19 52 Kannur
Kuppam 82 539 Kannur
Valapattanam 110 1867 Kannur
Anjarakkandi 48 412 Kannur
Thallasserry 28 132 Kannur
Mahe 54 394 Kannur
Kuttayadi 74 583 Kozhikodu
Korapuzha 40 624 Kozhikodu
Kallai 22 96 Kozhikodu
Chaliyar 196 2535 Kozhikodu, Malappuram
and Wayanad
Kadalundi 130 1122 Malppuram and
Palaghat
Tirur 48 117 Malappuram
Bharathapuzha 209 4400 Palaghet and
Malappuram
8
Keecheri 51 401 Thrissur
Puzhakkal 51 401 Thrissur
Keecheri 51 401 Thrissur
Puzhakkal 29 234 Thrissur
Karuvannur 48 1054 Thrissur
Chalakkudy 130 1404 Thrissur, Palaghat
and Ernakulam
Periyar 244 5398 Idukki and
Ernakulam
Muvattupuzha 121 1554 Ernakulam and
Kottayam
Meenachil 78 1272 Kottayam
Manimala 90 847 Kottayam and
Pathanamthitta
Pamba 176 2235 Pathanamthitta
Achencovil 128 148 Pathanamthitta,
Alapuzha and Kollam
Pallikkal 42 220 Kollam and
Pattahanamthitta
Kallada 121 1699 Kollam
Ithikkara 56 642 Kollam
Ayroor 17 66 Kollam
Vamanapuram 88 687 Thiruvananthapuram
and Kollam
Mamom 27 114 Thiruvananthapuram
and Kollam
Karamana 68 702 Thiruvananthapuram
Neyyar 56 497 Thiruvananthapuram
Kabani* 56.6 1920 Wayanad and
Malappuram
Bhavani* 37.5 565 Palghat
Pambar* 25 384 Idukki
Source- CWRDM 2001;*East flowing Rivers. All the others are West flowing
9
The major rivers in the state are Chaliyar, Bharatapuzha, Chalakkudy, Pamba,
Muvattupuzha, Kallada and Achencoil. The eight rivers carry nearby 4056 thousand
million cubic meters of water per year out of which 23.1 thousand million cubic meters
of water is utilized for yield. The other rivers carry only 23.7 thousand million cubic
meters available as utilizable yield.
1.4 Review on Water and Water Quality
Parameters
The National Water policy of India recognizes the importance of water for human life
and sustenance. Accordingly, the water allocation has been placed as follows: Drinking
water, irrigation, hydro power, ecology, agro and non agricultural industries, navigation
and other uses, despite high priority being attached to providing drinking water to all
rural areas, a large part of India.
Since the UN Earth Summit 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, people have started
thinking seriously about environmental pollution, exploitation and limitation of natural
resources all over the world. The intake capacity and over loading of the natural
environment with emissions and waste are reaching a critical point strengthened by
rapid urbanization, fast population growth and migration in to urban centers. The
effects are manifold, but the most affected are the poorest in society. Especially women
and children in developing countries suffer most from water related diseases and the
damaged environment (WHO /UNICEF, 2003)6.
In 1992, a report entitled Safe Drinking Water, was published by a group com-
prised of representatives from the Associated Boards of Health of British Columbia,
The British Columbia Medical Association, The British Columbia Public Health As-
sociation, The Canadian Bar Association and the Canadian Institute of Public Health
Inspectors, reported that in 1989 the incidents of water borne diseases in this provinces
was 50% higher than the Canadian average for that year and concluded that there is a
lack of integrated planning and management of the province’s drinking water resources.
A review of Belize Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment by Antony
Flower7 explained the importance of water and sanitation sector. Annual Drinking
Water Quality Report of Ceve Rock/ Skyland Water System8 are meant to increase
public awareness of drinking water issues and to serve as a means for customers to
make informed decisions regarding their drinking water. If water quality restricts
10
agricultural productivity and as long as water can be provided sustainable, irrigation
water is another key factor for poverty reduction. With better irrigation measures
growth impulse can be triggered. This can lead to poverty reduction by increasing the
productivity and income of the poor. Samples of water of Finnish rivers were analysed
for physico-chemical parameters by Neimi, et al9, and suggested routine monitoring
and treatment of water for improving the quality of water in the rivers. Neimi et
al10 analysed Finnish rivers for faecal pollution and recommended treatment of river
water for domestic and recreational purposes. Inland waters of Finland were studied
by Ekhom and Mittika11 and found that in some stations the river was polluted. Some
lakes were analysed for organic pollutants and nutrients and reported that the lake
water has rich nutrient content. Mittikka and Ekhom12 investigated the lakes in the
Finnish Eurowaternet. Idris et al13, reviewed water quality standards and practices
in Malaysia and observed inconsistency between the procedures to calculate water
quality index and the effluent standards of the Environmental Quality Act. Altun et
al14, evaluated the seasonal changes of water quality of the Degiremendere and Galyan
rivers in Turkey. The results indicated that both rivers can be used for producing
of potable water during all seasons but only with an advanced treatment. Raika,et
al15 analysed nutrient concentration trends in 23 rivers and 173 lakes in Finland. A
long term analysis showed that municipal and industrial waste water purification can
effectively decrease nutrient emissions.
Wang et al16, estimated the relationship of rapid growth of economic system in
China with widespread water pollution and emerging health issues. The cause of
increase in incidences of water borne epidemics are related to population explosion,
changes in life style and climate which release heavy load of contaminants to water17.
Kwang Guk An et al18 studied the influence of hydrological fluctuation on water quality
of an artificial lentic eco system. They suggest that monsoon seasonality is the main
regulating factor regulation over all functions and processes of the water body and
these characteristics has an important implication to eutrophication of the system.
Nairobi River was analysed by Shem Owandiga et al19 and reported that it has
high levels of agriculturally related pollutants from fertilizer and pesticide use. Dunn
et al20 analysed Coombabah Creek system, Australia, and observed elevated nutrient
concentration. Oshunkaya stream in Nigeria was studied by Osibangoo21 and reported
that the river was slightly polluted. Tasik Chini’s feeder- rivers were studied by G.
Muhammed et al22 and the results revealed that illegal logging and agricultural activ-
ities have caused environmental degradation. The results of analysis of Chillan River
11
in Chile indicated a good water quality in the upper and middle parts of the water-
shed. But in the downstream the water quality conditions were critical during the dry
season. The study of Tinto river, Spain by Lopez et al23 revealed that it has low pH
and high concentration of heavy metals. Ngwedi, Mutale, Tshinane, Mutshindudi and
Mudaswali rivers of S. Africa were analysed by Obi et al24. The results revealed that
all physico-chemical variables of the water sources analysed were within normal recom-
mended limits for safety of drinking water except for turbidity. River Mati and Ishmi
of Albania were analysed by Cullaj et al25 and the results revealed severe deoxygena-
tion. Rim Ruketh et al26 studied water quality of Orogodo River and reported high
level of pollution. This can be attributed to high level of farming activities. Seasonal
changes in physico-chemical parameters and nutrient load of Ibadan river sediments in
Nigeria was analysed by Adeyemo et al27. The results suggested that the water quality
of Ibadan river system is adversely affected by the discharge of domestic, agricultural
and industrial waste. Kosi river was analysed by Narendra Singh Bahndari and Kapil
Nayal28 and reported that all the physical and chemical parameters are with in the
highest desirable limits of maximum permissible limits set by WHO except turbidity
and BOD which recorded a high value. Malir river of Karachi was analysed by Bano
Farida29 and values of all the parameters were in the range of permissible values except
TDS, alkalinity, Na, Mn, Pb and Cr. Tinishu Aaki river of Ethiopia was evaluated us-
ing physico-chemical parameters by Melaku et al30 and reported that the BOD, Nitrite,
Ammonia and phosphate level are high and DO is low due to domestic and industrial
activities. River Nile,Orange, Zambezi and Saire were analysed by Olasumbo Martin
et al31 and found that all the rivers except Zaire were polluted with organic materi-
als showing high value for Particulate Organic Carbon (POC) and Dissolved Organic
Carbon (DOC).
Srinivasa Rao et al32 assessed the drinking water quality of various aquatic sys-
tems and developed a useful procedure for quick screening of BOD level. Kumar and
Sharma33 analysed the lentic water bodies in Madura and reported that the values of
BOD and COD are above the permissible limit. Usha et al34 recorded the increased
BOD levels in May to September in the Perumal lake Kudallor and visualized that
the increase may be due to community activities. High BOD might be due to high
rate of organic decomposition and the entry of organic waste has been suggested by
Sachidanandamurthi and Yajurvedi35 and reported that this is due to the decrease in
microbial activity and the algal bloom.
Two fresh water bodies of Karnataka state have been studied by Angadi et al36 and
12
reported that the temperature varied seasonally with lowest in winter and highest in
summer. Similar findings were reported by Shastri and Pande37 in the hydrobiological
study of Dahikunda reservoir, Nasik. Agarkar and Garoda38 reported lowest pH value
for the water of Vyazadi reservoir in winter and opined that this was due to heavy
rainfall and dilution effect. Raghavendra and Hosmani39 studied the hydrobiological
parameters of Mandakally Lake, in Mysore and reported highest concentration of chlo-
ride during summer. Nagaratna and Hosmani40 analysed the factors influencing the
algal bloom of Nitzschia Lake and found heavy nutrient content in the lake. Similar
observations were found by Das41 during the study of the reservoirs in Andhra Pradesh.
He also recorded an increase of Ca and lowest Mg concentration during monsoon and
highest during summer, in the reservoirs of Andra Pradesh. Sachidanandamurthy and
Yajurvedi35 studied the monthly variations in water quality parameters of a perennial
lake in Mysore and other water bodies in Karnataka state and reported minimum or-
ganic content in summer and the maximum during the winter. The qualitative analysis
of various physico-chemical factors by Eshwaralal and Angadi42 reported seasonal vari-
ation of temperature and pH. Angadi et al43 reported that an optimum agricultural
production depends on soil and water quality. Minimum BOD was noticed during
winter. There are close links in the ecological and technical fields. Industrial effluents
are posing toxicological hazards to the environment .The water of the ponds, lakes
and river are polluted mainly due to discharged waste water from residential areas,
sewage outlets, solid wastes, detergents, automobile oil wastes, fishing facilities and
agricultural pesticides from farmlands44. Today due to various anthropogenic activi-
ties the river wastes usually receives untreated sewage, domestic waste, industrial and
agricultural effluents that results in pollution of several rivers in India and abroad. As-
sessment of water quality has been done by various workers in India. Das and Sinha45
analysed the water quality of Ganga river and found that the river was polluted with
respect to some chemical parameters like COD, pH etc. River Yamuna was studied by
Sharma and Agarwal46 and they found that the river water has very high COD and
BOD values and low DO value. Mahantha and Patra47 determined the water quality
index of Sanamachakandana river in Orissa and found that the potability of water
is much below the permissible limit. Baruah and Baruah48 determined the biological
and chemical parameters of the water of Subansiri River in Assam and found that the
river was not much polluted chemically or biologically. Rajaram et al49 determined the
seasonal variations of physico-chemical parameters in Uppanar estuary, Cuddalore and
reported that the seasons have much influence on the pollution. The transparency of
13
river water depends on suspended soil particles50. Decomposition of organic matter in
soils, leeching soluble chemical fertilizers human and animal excreta, untreated efflu-
ents and sewage disposal are potential sources of contamination of water. Gupta and
Desapande51 studied and reported that the water resources in our country including
Ganga is highly contaminated and people can be infected with various diseases by using
this water.
Sreevastava and Dadhich52 studied the parametric variation in water quality of
Parbati River in Chambal area. Important physical and chemical parameters were
analysed and various observed parameters have been compared to assess the parametric
variation in quality of Parbati river after installation of sub-surface drainage. They
found that the quality of water got improved in parameters like DO, nutrients and
chloride content. Das et al53 conducted a study on wet lands of Guahatti city. The
study reported extremely polluted water quality of Bharalu river,which was indicated
by very low level of DO, high level of BOD, COD phosphates and nitrogen, all making
the river unsuitable for aquatic life. They concluded that the water supply from this
source was not fit for industrial and domestic purposes because of low DO and high
chloride and fluoride content. Moti et al54 made an attempt to study the water quality
of Kunah –Khad stream in Hamirpur district of Himachal Pradesh and their studies
revealed that the water in the stream was polluted during monsoons. BOD and nitrogen
content are beyond the permissible limits during monsoon.
Gangetic river system of Utterkhand, was studied in detail for quality of water by
Anchal Sood et al55, and found that the lower regions of Gangetic river system is facing
severe anthropological activities. Singh et al56 observed the BOD and COD of certain
polluted stretch of river Ganga. They reported high values for both the parameters.
The water quality of Pachin River was studied by Hussain et al57. They reported
that the parameters such as pH, temperature, conductivity, DO, COD, phosphates,
total hardness etc are varied for different flow periods. Variability in physico-chemical
parameters of Pachin River was studied by them. The study revealed that the vari-
ability in the physico-chemical parameters for different flow periods might be assigned
to dilution of river water by direct run off, human activities and organic load.
Gupta et al58 conducted study on the water quality of drinking water in the indus-
trial area of Auriya district (UP) covering total hydrological cycle. The study revealed
that, TDS, alkalinity and concentration of sodium are slightly high, but within the
limits of WHO, ICMR and IS. Neera et al59 studied the physico-chemical characteris-
tics of water bodies around Jaipur. They reported high pH, hardness and low DO for
14
different lakes.
Patil et al60 studied the physico-chemical parameters of water samples from dug
wells in Dhule region and reported that the different parameters show variable values in
different seasons. Sunkand et al61 studied the water quality of Fort Lake of Belgaum,
Karnataka in 2004. Their studies revealed that Fort Lake water is inferior and not
suitable for drinking purposes. Analysis of the physico-chemical variables of river
Mahanadi was studied by Unni and Pawar62. They reported that BOD is negatively
correlated with DO concentration.
The dissolved nutrients such as phosphorous and nitrate in Isapur Dam across Pen-
ganga river in Isapur village were studied by Pulle et al63, and reported that the water
is highly productive. In 2001 Gupta et al64 studied the hydro chemical character of
lakes around Udaipur city and revealed that Udaisagar Lake is most polluted and ex-
hibited eutrophic character along with the lakes Swaroopsagar and Pichola. Kausik et
al65 studied water quality index and suitability assessment of urban ground water of
Hisas and Panipat in Haryana. Impact of urbanization on Bellandur Lake has exten-
sively been studied by Chandrasekhar et al66. The DO ranged from 3.8 - 6.3 mg/l and
COD values are above the permissible limit. The physico-chemical characters of the
samples of Lake Vellayani in Thiruvananthapuram district from 10 stations were stud-
ied by Radhika et al in67. Although all the parameters examined here remained within
the permissible levels, the higher concentration for most of the factors found at near
shore station. Mukundan and Thomas68 studied the characteristics of Kodungallur
backwaters. They noticed a wide range of fluctuations in water quality characteris-
tics between pre monsoon and monsoon periods. In 2005 Harikumar and Madhavan69
studied the water quality and associated environmental issues in relation to Kerala in
land waterways. They reported the domestic sewage, market waste and excessive weed
growth leads to the pollution of central water bodies of Kerala. Bajpayee and Varma70
analysed the water quality of major south west rivers of Kerala. Their results revealed
that rivers of Kerala contribute significantly to the transport of terrestrial materials to
the oceans and most of the solute load in the rivers is due to weathering. Lakshmi71
studied environmental status of Kol wetland system of Thrissur district with special
reference to water sediment quality. The study revealed that the water quality param-
eters were higher. Majority of the water samples were found to be microbiologically
contaminated.
Dhanapakiam et al72 studied the water quality of River Kavery and the result
showed that the water supply was not fit for industrial and domestic purposes and
15
can not serve as an alternative of drinking water in summer. The severe pollution
in Periyar river of Kerala due to out let from urban and industrial areas resulted in
the death of the river itself73. Nair74 conducted the studies on the effluent discharge
from Grasim industry of Mavoor to Chaliyar river and found the presence of toxic
substances and carcinogen in water. The NUS report 200575 describes that the moni-
toring of the impact of coco cola bottler in the Plachimada in Kerala on ground water
quality revealed that the water become totally unfit for drinking and domestic uses
and irrigations considering the changes in various chemical parameters.
Effect of waste disposal on water quality in parts of Cochin, Kerala, was studied
by Khurshid et al76 and found that it deteriorates the water quality. Studies of river
pollution in South Kerala and its relation to physiography and land use were studied
by Soman et al77. Biological water quality assessment of an industrially polluted his-
torical central Indian river Kshipra was studied by Augustine78 and reported that the
biological parameters are not within the permissible limit. An assessment of the envi-
ronmental status of Chalakkudi river with special reference to water quality was studied
by Nirmala and Shobha79. The pollution of Chaliyar river was studied by Joshil80. The
study was to compare change in physico-chemical parameters of river before and af-
ter the closure of a factory and found that after the closure of the factory the river
showed much improvement in its water quality. Mukundan and Thomas68 studied the
characteristic of Kodungallur back waters. They noticed a wide range of fluctuations
in water quality characteristics between pre monsoon and monsoon periods.
physico-chemical characteristics of water sampled from ten stations along Karamana
river were analysed by Jayaraman et al81. Vellayani lake supposed to be one of the fresh
water lakes of Kerala started to show signs of particulate pollution namely turbidity,
iron and fecal matter. Krishnakumar and Shobha82 had studied the solute variation in
some of the minor water sheds in Kerala. Sewage pollution is one of the major problems
faced by the canals that flow through the urban areas. The works of Prakasham and
Johnson83 on Quilon canal and that of Prashanthan and Nair84 in Parvathiputhen
are some of the notable ones. Pollution is also a problem for canals flowing near fish
processing centres and these polluted waters have crept into the ground water sources
near the canal. Babu et al85 have reported that the monsoon plays an important role
in determining the water quality of Bharatapuzha. Unnikrishnan86 studied the water
quality and pollution status of Parvathiputhan Aar. The cause of pollution ranges from
point sources such as pipes or sewages. Nutrient flux of Periyar and Chalakkudy river
of Kerala were studied by Maya et al87. They reported that except for nitrogen and
16
phosphorus all other chemical constituents exhibit high value during the non monsoon
season.
The results of the physiological monitoring of river Ganga at Haridwar revealed
that the discharge of untreated industrial effluents and sewage have contributed con-
siderable pollution to river Ganga. Sharma and Verma88 analysed the water samples
collected from natural springs in Harmirpur area of Himachal Pradesh and found that
the physico-chemical parameters were within the maximum permissible limits of drink-
ing water standards.
The effluents have caused drastic change in river Ganga at Kanpur resulting in
severe decline in oxygen and sudden increase in chemical parameters. Freedagnana
Rani et al89 studied the drinking water quality of five rural places in and around Thit-
tagudi, Thamilnadu with five river samples and five ground water samples. Some
samples exceed the standard value for the parameters. Rajurkar et al90 studied the
physico-chemical and biological investigations of river Umshyrpi at Shillong, Megha-
laya. The study revealed that physico-chemical parameters are within the permissible
limits whereas the biological parameters are found to exceed the permissible limits
which indicate unpotability of water to drinking purposes.
Bhadra Bhasker et al91 studied a few physico-chemical and bacteriological param-
eters on certain locations of river Torsa. Marked seasonal variations of the parameters
were observed. Water quality of Kunah – Khad stream in Hamirpur district of Hi-
machal Pradesh in outer Himalayan region was monitored by Sharma and Gupta92.
The study revealed that the water in the stream is polluted during the monsoons.
Gupta and Shukla58conducted a physico-chemical and biological study of drinking wa-
ter in industrial area of Auriya district of Uttarpradesh. The results showed that the
water is fit for drinking purpose with respect to most of the parameters after biological
disinfections. Patil and Deore60 studied the physico-chemical analysis of water samples
from dug wells in Dhule region of Maharashtra revealed that the different parame-
ters show much variable values during different seasons. Akhilesh Jinwal and Savitha
Dixit93 analysed groundwater of Madhya Pradesh to estimate the potable water qual-
ity and found that better potable water quality was found in post-monsoon than in
pre-monsoon season.
Various groups of workers have carried out extensive studies on water pollution
and water quality. Jagdap et al94 have studied the water quality of different rivers in
industrial areas. Sreenivas et al95 and Jha and Verma96 have studied water quality in
Hyderabad and Bihar respectively and found that most of the parameters show high
17
pollution rate. Patnaik et al97 reported the influence of industrial pollution on river
water. Industrial waste water and pollution problem of ground water was correlated
by the studies of Singh and Chandel98.
Sundari et al99 reported the poor drinking water quality of densely populated pil-
grimage area at Chidambaram in Gudallur, Thamilnadu. The quality of water in 17
Himalayan rivers is found to be diminished due to traditional mass butchering activity
in these water bodies. The pilgrimage pressure during Ardhakumb on the neighbouring
aquatic realm was well observed by Singh100. Studies on Damodar river was carried
out by Ganguly et al101 and revealed that the DO levels remain satisfactory and all the
other parameters are above the acceptable limits. Mitra102 studied the impact of waste
water inflow on the water quality of river Brahmini one of the major Indian River.
Organic pollution content of the river was above the permissible limit. Kosi River of
central Himalaya was analyzed by physico-chemical analysis by Sati and Paliwal103.
They suggested that the river was under stress of anthropogenic activities. Many of
the water quality parameters namely pH, DO, BOD, COD and iron content exceed the
WHO norm of water quality.
Pollution of river Noyal was studied by Kirubavathy et al104 and reported pollution
with respect to biological parameters. Water and sediment of Saharavathi river was
studied by Kumar and Ramachandra105 noticed that at certain sites the extent of
pollution was within the permissible limit while at certain other sites, it was beyond
the permissible limit. The spacio temporal variations in nutrients in the Thalasseri
and Valapattanam rivers in Kannur district were carried out by Lakshmi and Unni106.
Rajkumar and Dharmaraj107 studied the algal pollution of Aliyar river and found
that the river water was rich in nitrogen and phosphate. Study of physico-chemical
parameters of drinking water of various villages or Taluks in Gujarath have been carried
out by various workers such as Bhoi DK et al108 and suggested treatment before use
for drinking purpose. River Mula, Mutha, and Pavane were analysed for biological
and chemical pollutants by Vinaya V. et al109.Gradual lowering of DO was reported
indicating increasing load of bio degradable matters and increasing values of BOD.
Patil et al110, Lahri et al111, Maity et al112 and Goel and Bosale113 have also carried out
studies on pollution of various rivers in India such as Tapi river, Ganga river, Jalangi
river and Panchaganga river and reported that these rivers were polluted because of
human impact. Regina et al114 analysed Bhavani river in Manipur for physical, chemical
and biological characteristics and reported chemical pollution.
Janaki Arunan et al115 studied the quality of drinking water at pilgrim centres
18
at Thiruchirappally and suggested that the water should be treated properly before
use. Rajurkar et al116 studied the physico-chemical and biological analysis of Uma lake
water and found that some of the water quality parameters are above the permissible
limits. Sharma et al117 studied the quality of water supplied by municipality in Darrang
district. Amathussalam et al118 carried out exhaustive study of ground water quality in
Thirucherapalli and found that the tannery industries influenced the quality of ground
water.
River Narmada of Madhya Pradesh was studied by Sraddha Sarma et al119 and the
results revealed that most of the parameters of the water samples were out of limit
according to WHO standard. Kumar and Sharma120 analysed the lentic water bodies
in Madurai and reported that the values of BOD, COD and nitrogen were above the
permissible limits. Usha et al121 recorded increased BOD levels from May to September
and visualised that the increase may be due to community activities, and there was
a marked variation in the total alkalinity from season to season with the tendency to
have maximum values during the winter and the lowest value in conformity with its low
pH. The possible reason for this may be the presence of carbonate and bicarbonates.
1.5 Properties of Sediments
The study of sediment along with the hydrography is equally important and also
essential in understanding the principles operating in an ecosystem. Sediment plays
an important role in the storage and release of nutrients in to water column, the
mineration of organic bottom deposits by various kinds of microbes also provides a
two dimensional substrate to sustain benthic life and not to mention its importance as
bed for growth of algal pasture in shallow area. In all soil characters either directly or
indirectly reflects the productivity of the system as a whole through parameters such
as texture, composition, pH and organic matter.
Wetlands are one of the most productive eco systems of the world and occupy about
6 % of the earth surface122. Soil is the indispensable part of the earth system where
life survives. Studies on the physico-chemical characteristics of soil were reported by
several workers viz Ahamad et al123, Baruah and Das124, Pandit et al125, Lenda and
Yeragi126 and Bhuyan and Sharma127. Sediments not only reflect the current quality of
water but also provide vital information on the transportation and fate of pollutants128.
19
1.6 Sediment Analysis
The natural process of soil erosion gives rise to sediments in water. Sediment is
not only a major component of any aquatic environment but also enriches the water
body with various nutrients required for biological production. Suspended particles and
dissolved salts undergo sedimentation and precipitation under altered physico-chemical
conditions. Bottom sediments are important sources of inorganic and organic matter
in streams, fresh waters, estuaries and oceans. Sediments play a very important role in
the chemical characteristics of river water. Rivers are the major means of transport of
water and sediments from the continents to the oceans. The chemical characterization
of the sediments in a river system helps to measure and assess the probable impact on
the environment.
Continental weathering, lead run off through vegetation and agricultural lands and
human activities contribute to the major part of nutrient input in to the riverine
environment. Analysis of organic matter contained in sediments is of great biological
importance. The determination of the quality and quantity of organic substances in
sediments provides information on the nutritional value of the sediments. Bottom
sediments regulate the freshwater ecosystem.
Sediments are indicators of the quality of water overlying them. Towns and cities
located on the banks of rivers tend to discharge their treated and untreated waste water
into rivers causing phenomenal increase in pollution of the rivers. Thus waterways
act as a cheap and effective sink for toxic effluents. Data on sediment quality such
as chemical composition and organic carbon content are important in assessing the
mobility of various toxicants associated with it. Variations in colour and texture of
sediment were brought by state of oxidation matter, changes in grain size which depend
on nature and volume of discharge. Hence analysis of sediment is an effective way to
assess the magnitude of pollution caused in the aquatic system.
Sediments are integral components of natural water bodies. Sediments are one of the
important carrier phases of geochemical signals, especially metals from land to ocean.
Geochemists have extensively studied the major rivers of the world in order to estimate
the influences of continental material supplied to the oceans129. The fate of heavy
metals in the environments is of extreme importance to their impact on ecosystem130.
Chemical analysis of river sediments is being carried out for exploration as well as
environmental monitoring and management. Metal concentrations in sediments are
reflected by differences in grain size and spacial variability131. Extensive work has
20
been done in India’s major rivers like Ganges, Brahmaputra and Damodar river by
investigators such as Singh and Hassan132.
The concentration of copper ions in the sediments of Yamuna river was estimated
by Jagedeesh et al133 and found that it was within the permissible limit. The con-
centration levels of trace metals and nutrients were investigated in the sediments of
Nagapattanam beach after 2004 tsunami by Sujatha et al134 and found that all the
trace metals were relatively high in the near shore. And the concentration was in the
order Cr>Ni>Zn>Pb>Cu.
The elemental concentrations of sediments not only depend on the anthropogenic
and lithogenic sources but also on the textural characteristics, organic matter content,
minerological compositions and depositional environment of sediments. Sediment anal-
ysis was done for soil samples collected from the limnate zone of Barnoo reservoir by
P. Ojhe and A.K. Mandoi135. Degradation of surface water quality by algal blooms is
of significant environmental and economic importance136. The geochemistry of sedi-
ments of Indian rivers have received wide attention to the recent past to understand
the elemental composition of sediments. According to Bordes and Bourg137, the sed-
iment acts as a carrier and a possible source of pollution because heavy metals are
not permanently fixed and can be released back to the water column by changes in
environmental conditions such as pH, redox potential and or the presence of organic
matter. Syvitski et al138 grouped the global river delta to different climatic zones, polar
temperate and tropical rivers having high sediment yields. However studies conducted
for a number of world rivers showed that the sediment yield decreases with basin area.
Similar findings were reported by Krishnamurthy et al139.
Sediments produced by erosion do represent the most extensive pollutants of sur-
face waters. During the sedimentation process suspended particulate matter acts as a
scavenger of dissolved elements resulting in the removal of discharged contaminants.
Many studies have been carried out so far on sediment nutrients from various esturies of
India, Rajasagar et al140 analysed the sediment of Barnoo reservoir. Many investigators
have reported that the sediments act as indicators of pollution.
Soil remediation and sediment reclamation procedure can be implemented in order
to counter act or reduce the toxic load posed by the industrial chemicals. Remedial
techniques like land fill sites should be used to isolate the contaminants by installing
barrier system, infiltration of surface water, counter current decantation, using chelat-
ing agents, steam injection stripping, soil flushing, vacuum extraction etc.
21
1.7 The Meenachil River
Physiographically Kerala state is divided in to three natural zones– the low land,
the midland and the high land. The total area of Kerala state is 38863 Km2 and
extends between 80 17′– 120 27
′north longitude and 740 51
′– 770 24
′east latitude.
Eastern Kerala lies immediately west of the Western Ghats rain shadow. It consists of
high mountain ranges and deep cut valleys. Kerala’s 41 west flowing rivers and three
of its east flowing rivers originate in this region.
Meenachil River which is the subject of the present study flows through Kottayam
District of Kerala state. Meenachil water shed lies between 90 25′north latitude and
760 55′
east longitude. It has a total area of 1208.11 km2. Menachil river is formed
by several streams originating from the Western Ghats. The general elevation ranges
from 77 m to 1156 m in the upper region, 8 to 66 m in the middle region and less than
2 m in the lower region. The broad land forms include high and medium hills and
isolated hill rocks at the upper region, narrow valley’s laterite mounds and midland
laterites at the middle region and swamps, marshes, reclaimed lands at the lower
region of the water shed. Meenachil river has a length of 78 km. Before reaching
Erattupetta the major tributaries of the river are Kurisumalai Aar, Thrikkovil Aar,
Chathapuzha, Kadapuzha, Kalathukkadavu Aar and Poonjar. Erattupetta is selected
as first site. A site from Kalathukadavu Aar 50 mts ahead of joining with Poonjar
is selected as site 1A and a site from Poonjar 50 mts ahead of joining is taken as
1B and 50 mts after joining is site 1C. Then it flow 5 kms in westward direction
through Erattupetta and Bharananganam Panchayats and confluence with Chittar at
Randattumunni. This joining spot is taken as second site. A site from the Meenachil
river 50 mts ahead of joining with Chittar is site 2A, and a site from Chittar 50 mts
ahead of joining is 2B and a spot 50 mts after joining with Meenachil river is 2C.
Then it flow about 10 kms to the Pala municipal area where Lalam thodu joins it at
Pala. This joining place is taken as the third site. A site from the Meenachil river
50 mts ahead of joining with Lalam thodu is site 3A, and a site from Lalam thodu
50 mts ahead of joining is 3B and a spot 50 mts after joining with Meenachil river
is 3C. Then it flows 5 kms where the river receives the waste water from the Indiar
rubber factory at Mutholy. This site is selected as site 4. A site from Meenachil river
50 mts ahead of its joining with the Indiar rubber factory drainage is site 4A and the
place where the factory drainage joins with Meenachil river is site 4B and 50mts after
its joining in Meenachil river is site 4C. It again flows to the westerly direction for
22
20 kms and bifurcates at Cherunarakathin Bridge. One branch flow towards northern
direction through Neelimangalam and ultimately joins Vembanadu lake. The other
branch, flows westwards through the boundary of Kottayam municipal area where the
Meenadom Ar joins. It again flows westerly and empties in to the Vembanadu lake
through several distributaries.
1.8 Meenachil River Basin
Meenachil river basin has an area of 1272 sq.kms falling with in 57 panchayats.
The main municipalities like Kottayam and Pala and panchayats like Erattupetta,
Bharananganam, Meenachil, Mutholy, Kidangoor, Ayarkunnam, Kumaranallor and
Ettumanoor are located in the banks of this river. The entire river basin is situated in
the district of Kottayam.
The upper region of the watershed of Meenachil consists of agricultural land and
waste land. About 85 % of the area is under mixed crop cultivation/horticulture. The
waste land is composed of barren rocky surfaces which is uncultivable. Grass lands
occupy 5 % of the area. Mid land region is almost fully occupied by agricultural land
of which 85 % is rubber plantation and mixed crops and remaining 15 % is double
cropped paddy fields and low land with water logged area and water bodies. Water
logged areas and water bodies together occupy almost 10 % of the area.
23
Figure 1.3 Meenachil river basin
The problem of waste disposal and lack of drainage facilities are acute in Erat-
tupetta and Pala. Hospital waste also is a great problem. In the study area alone
there are seven hospitals. None of the hospitals have facilities for scientific disposal of
medicinal waste. Waste materials are often dumped or occasionally burned in open
places. Hotels and wedding halls also are accused of depositing vegetable and animal
waste in public places posing a serious health hazard for the residents. The dumping
of garbage on road side is another major problem. During rainy season the waste find
their way through the surface run off.
The south west and north west monsoons influence the hydrographical condition of
the river. Water flowing through the river is minimum during the summer season. Un-
controlled deforestation taking place in the Western Ghats and large scale sand mining
from the river bed has adversely affected the river. The river in the down stream loca-
tions has become polluted by the drainage of large quantities of municipal industrial
and agricultural waste. Increasing incidents of water borne diseases such as cholera,
typhoid, jaundice and gastroenteritis have been reported. Correlation analysis mea-
sures the closeness of the relationship between independent and dependent variables.
24
Inter relation between correlation coefficients give an idea of water quality monitoring
methods.
1.9 Objectives of the Work
With industrialization and rapid growth in world population, man has manipu-
lated the natural hydrological cycle both quantitatively and qualitatively.The study of
water quality involves a description of occurrence of various constituents in water and
relation of these constituents to water use, Rajukar et al141. The growing awareness
that physico-chemical constituents are an integral part of hydrologic system has led to
greater emphasis on determining relationship between dissolved pollutants and other
hydrologic parameters. One particular aspect of popular interest is to study the water
and its use for different purposes.
Water is going to be one of the major issues confronting humanity in the coming
decade142. Safe drinking water is a vital requirement to human being and its availabil-
ity is so important in contributing the overall socio-economic development of a nation.
Apart from carrying infectious organisms water can also carry a number of inorganic
toxicants that pose considerable risk to the consumer’s health. In such cases assess-
ment of physico-chemical properties helps in predicting the quality of water. Assessing
water for these quality parameters routinely will help in rectifying the shortcomings
in the water storage processing and distribution systems so as to keep consumers safe.
Although the quality of water can not be judged just based on the physical properties
but it reflect the gross abnormalities that call for the immediate rejection of water for
drinking purposes143. According to Ravichandran et al144 water may be contaminated
by various means chemically and biologically and may become unfit for drinking and
other uses. In India 70% of the water is seriously polluted and 75% of illness and 80%
of child mortality are attributed to water pollution. Various physico-chemical and bi-
ological factors are the variables that govern the quality of drinking water Dutta. One
of the major goals of surface water quality data collection may be the estimation n of
magnitude of changes in the various constituents145.
The world’s water resources are under pressure and must be managed for human
survival. It is therefore necessary to have most relevant information for arriving at
rational discussions that will result in the maximum benefit to most people. Accurate
and reliable information on the water resource system can therefore be a vital aid
25
to strategic management of the resources146. Water is a scarce and precious natural
resource to be planned, developed and conserved and managed on an integrated and
environmentally sound basis.
Indian fresh water resources comprise the river system, ground water and wet lands.
Each of these has a unique role and characteristic linkage to other environmental
entities147. It is now well recognized that haphazard urban development without ade-
quate attention to sewage and waste disposal, rapid industrialization without proper
treatment and disposal of waste products and dumping of solid waste near aquifiers,
excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture etc pose serious problem of
water pollution148. A majority of rural population is yet dependant on various unpro-
tected sources of water (namely, wells, rivers, ponds, springs, lakes etc.) for meeting
daily domestic water requirement in our country. Consequently a majority of such
population is on the risk of different water borne diseases. Therefore, water quality
monitoring of various sources is very essential to know the status of water quality and
to create awareness in the public regarding safety measures. According to national
water policy149, “both surface water and ground water should be regularly monitored
and a phased programme should be undertaken for improvements in water quality”.
As of 1995 more than 40% of the world’s population lived in conditions of water
scarcity or water stress. This percentage will increase to 50% by 2025150.
The analysis of the most common industrial solvent namely water, is extremely
important, as it contains large number of impurities or pollutants which are necessary
to be checked before it is used for any specific purpose. In its due course river water gets
polluted by pesticides and fertilizers through agricultural run off, human and animal
waste, sewage and industrial wastes. Water pollution is a state of deviation from the
pure conditions where by its normal function and properties are affected. So the quality
of water is very important and fluctuations in normal water quality affect man directly.
Meenachil River is the main source for the drinking water supply to Erattupetta,
Bharananganam, Mutholy, Kidangoor and Ayarkunnam Panchayat and Pala municipal
area. Both sides of the river bank are highly inhabited. The whole Meenachil river
basin is rubber cultivated and as a result much rubber related industries are active in
this area. The sewage outfall from Erattupetta and Pala town can alarmingly increase
the pollution of Meenachil river. So it becomes essential to assess the quality of the river
periodically. People depend solely on the river water for drinking and other purposes
especially in the summer season, ie in the post monsoon period. So the samples were
analysed seasonally and compared with WHO standards. This is the first time that
26
the Meenachil river system is subjected to a systematic scientific analysis. The main
goal of the present research is to test the impact of human activities in the quality of
river water.
The main objectives are:
1. Physico-chemical analysis of water samples from selected sites of Mennachil river
for a specified period.
2. Physico-chemical analysis of sediment samples from selected sites of Meenachil
river.
3. To assess the trends in the quality of water and sediments in different seasons
during the sampling periods, with reference to important water quality parameters.
4. To assess the trends in the water quality of the river in consecutive years
5. To explore the reasons for water pollution in the densely inhabited area.
The four sites selected are also of geographical importance. After its origin, on
reaching Erattupetta, one of the major tributaries, Poonjar joins the Kalathukkadavu
aar to form the Meenachil river at site 1. After receiving all the anthropogenic con-
tributions from Erattupetta and Bharananganam panchayats, the river flows 5 kms
and confluence with Chittar at Kondoor, site 2. Then it flows 10 Kms through Pala
municipal area where Lalamthodu confluences with the river at Pala, site 3. The site
4 Mutholy is 5 kms from Pala. So the study of these sites help to assess the pollution
contributions by the tributaries, Poonjar, Chittar and Lalamthodu and Indiar rubber
factory drainage to the Meenachil river and how it affects the quality of the main river.
The important parameters which help to assess the quality of water are pH, DO,
BOD, COD, nutrients, nitrate, chloride, and fluoride of water and sediment. Texture
analysis of sediments also helps to assess the river water quality.
27
1.10 References
1. Nwanko, D., ‘The micro algae, our indispensable allies to aquatic monitoring and
biodiversity sustainability’, University of Lagos Press, Inaugural lecture series, Pp
44, 2004.
2. Godi,S.D., Barbudhe, S.B., Hazel, D and Dolly, C., Physico-chemical character-
istics of drinking water at Velsao (Goa),J. Ecotoxicity and Environmental Moni-
toring, 2003.
3. Ravinder, G., Ravinder, C.H. and Vijaya Rao, K., Ground water pollution due to
dumping of municipal solid waste at Warangal, Indian J. Environ. Prot., 25(6),
Pp 523-526, 2005.
4. Rao, S.M. and Mamatha, P.,Water Quality in Sustainable Water Management,
Current Science, 87, Pp 942-947, 2004.
5. Krishnan, R.R., Dharmaraj, K. and Ranjitha Kumari, B.D., A comparative study
on the physico-chemical and bacterial analysis of drinking bore well and sewage
water in three different places of Sivakasi, J. Environ. Biol, 28, Pp 105-108,
2007.
6. WHO/ UNICEF., Joint Monitoring Programme for water supply and sanitation,
Coverage Estimates, 1980-2000, WHO and UNICEF, 2003.
7. Anthony Flower and Rony Maza, ‘Belize drinking water supply and sanitation
assessment’,Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 60, 2000
8. Annual report, Ministry of Rural Development, New Delhi, 2000.
9. Neimi, J.S., Heitto, L., Neimi,R.M., Antilla-Huhtitinen, M.and Malin,V., Bacte-
riological purification of the Finnish River Kymi, Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment, 46, Pp 241-253, 1997.
10. Niemi, R.M. and Niemi, J.S., Monitoring of faecal pollution in Finnish surface
waters: A hydrological and limological aspects of lake monitoring, (Eds.) John
Wiley and Sons Ltd., Pp 143-156, 2000.
11. Ekholm, P. and Mitikka, S., Agricultural lakes in Finland: Current water quality
and trends, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 116, Pp 111-135, 2006.
28
12. Mitikka, S. and Ekholm, P., Lakes in the Finish Euro-Water net, status and
trends, The science of the total Environment, 310, Pp 37-45, 2003.
13. Idris, A.B., Mamun, A. A., Muhammed Soom and Azmin, Review of water qual-
ity standards and practices in Malaysia, Poll. Research, 22(2), Pp 145-155,
2003.
14. Altun, L., Yilmaz, M., Acar, C., Turna, I., Baskent, E.Z. and Bilgali, E., Eval-
uating the seasonal changes of water quality of the Degirmendere and Galyan
Rivers (Turkey), Journal of Environmental Biology, 24(4), Pp 415-422, 2003.
15. Rika, A., Pietilinen, O.P., Redolainen,S., Kauppila, P., Pitknen, H., Niemi, J.A.,
Raateland and Vuorenmaa, J., Trends of phosphorous, nitrogen and chlorophyll
a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975-2000, Sci. Total Envir., 310,
Pp 47-59, 2003.
16. Wang, R., Hwang, D.M., Cukerman, E. and Liew, C.C., Identification of genes
encoding zinc finger motifs in the cardiovascular system, J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol.,
29, Pp 281-287, 1997.
17. Brookes,J.D., Antenucci, J., Hipsey, M., Burch, M.D., Ashobolt, N.J. and Fegu-
son, C., Fate and transport of pathogens in lakes and reservoirs, Environmental
international, 30, Pp 741-759, 2004.
18. Kwang Guk Ahn, Seok Soon Park, Kyu-Hong Ahn and Christopher G. Urchin,
Dynamics of nitrogen, phosphorous, Algal biomass and suspended solids in an
artificial lendic ecosystem and significant implications of regional hydrology on
trophic status, J of Environmental Biology, 24(1), Pp 29-38, 2003.
19. Shem O. Wandiga, Karluki, D.K., Odour, F.D., Wafula, G., Okongo, O., Madadi,
V.O., Abongo, D.A., Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 6(6), Pp 657-659, 2007.
20. Dunn, R.J.K., Ali,A., Lemckert, C.J., Teasdale, P.R. and Welsh, D.T., Short-
term variability of physico-chemical parameters and the estimated transport of
filterable nutrients and chlorophyll-a in the urbanised Coombabah Lake and
Coombabah Creek system, southern Moreton Bay, Australia, Journal of Coastal
Research, SI 50 (Proceedings of the 9th International Coastal Symposium), Pp
1062 – 1068, 2007.
29
21. Osibanjoo and Adie., Pollution status of Oshunkaya stream, African Journal of
Biotechnology, Pp 1810, 2007.
22. Muhammed-Barzani, G., Ismail, B.S., Sahibin Abd. Rahim Sujaul Islam Mir and
Tan, C.C., Hydrology and water quality assessment of the Tasik Chini’s feeder
Rivers, Pahang, Malaysia, American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Enviro. Sci., 2(1),
Pp 39-47, 2007.
23. Lopez Archilla, A.I., Martin, R. and Amils,Assessment of Tinto river, Spain,
Journal of Microbial Ecology, Springer Verlag. New York, 41, Pp 20-35, 2001.
24. Obi,C.L., Bessong, P.O., Momba, M.N.B., Potgieter, N., Samie, A. and Igum-
bor, E.O., Profiles of antibiotic susceptibilities of bacterial isolates and physico-
chemical quality of water supply in rural Venda communities, South Africa, Jour-
nal of Applied Sciences Research, 2(5), Pp 256-259, 2006.
25. Cullaj, A., Miho, A. and Lazo, P., Environmental Assessment of Water Quality
of Albanian Rivers, Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology, (JEPE)
Special Issue, Sofia, Bulgaria, 2003.
26. Rim-Rukeh, Akpofure Ikhifa, Grace, O., and Okokoyo A. Peter, Effects of Agri-
cultural Activities on the Water Quality of Orogodo River, Agbor Nigeria,Global
NEST Journal, 10(3), Pp 326-336, 2008.
27. Adeyemo, O.K., Adedokun, O.A., Yusuf, R.K. and Adeleye, E.A., Seasonal
changes in physico-chemical parameters and nutrient load of river sediments in
Ibadan City, Nigeria, E-Journal of Chemistry, 2008.
28. Narendra Singh Bhandari and Kapil Nayal, Correlation Study on Physico-Chemical
Parameters and Quality Assessment of Kosi River Water, Uttarakhand, E-Journal
of chemistry, 2007.
29. Bano Farida, A studies of physical and major chemical constituents of Malir River
within Karachi to determine the extent of pollution, Ph.D thesis, University of
Karachi, 1999.
30. Melaku Samuel, Wondimu Taddese, Dams Richard, Moens Lue, Bulletin of the
Chemical Society of Ethiopia,21(1), Pp 13-20, 2007.
30
31. Olasumbo Martins, Jean Lue Probst, Centre of De Geochimic Dela surface,
CNRS, Strasbourg, France, E-Journal of chemistry, 1990.
32. Sreenivasa Rao, Ramamohana Rao, A. P. and Someswara Rao, Quality of drink-
ing water from ponds in villages of Kolleru Lake region, Indian J. Environ. Hlth.,
43(1), Pp 45-52, 2001.
33. Kumar Praveen, and Sharma, H.B., physico-chemical characteristics of lentic
water of Radha Kunda district, Mathura, Indian J. Environ. Sci., 9, Pp 21-22,
2005.
34. Usha, R., Ramalingam, K. and Bharathi Rajan, U. D., Fresh water lakes a
potential source for aquaculture activities for model study on Perumal lake (T.N.
Cuddalore). J. Environ. Biol., 27, Pp 713-722, 2006.
35. Sachidanandamurthy, K.L and Yajurvedi, H.N., Monthly variations in water
quality parameters (physico-chemical) of a Perenniallake in Mysore city, Indian
Hydrobiol., 7, Pp 217-228, 2004.
36. Angandi, S.B., Lingannaiah, B. and Eshwarlal, S., ‘Limnological studies of Jagat
tank, Gulbarga, Freshwater ecosystem of India’ Daya pub., New Delhi, Pp 113-
159, 1999.
37. Shastri Yogesh and Pande, D.C., Hydrobiologial study of Dahikhuta reservoir,
J. Environ Bio., 22(1), Pp 67-70, 2001.
38. Agarkar, S.V. and Garode, A.M., Evaluation of physico-chemical and microbi-
ological parameters of Vyazadi reservoir water, Indian. Hydrobiol., 3, Pp 3-5,
2000.
39. Raghavendra and Hosmani, S.P., Hydobiological study of Mandakally lake, A
polluted waterbody at Mysore, Nature Eniron. Pollut. Tech., 1, Pp 291-293,
2002.
40. Nagarathna and Hosmani, S.P., Factors influencing the bloom of Nitzschia obtuse
in a polluted lake, Indian J. Environ. Ecoplan, 6, Pp 223-227, 2002.
41. Das, A.K., Limnochemistry of some Andhra Pradesh reservoirs, J. Inland fish.
Soc. India., 32(2), Pp 37-44, 2000.
31
42. Eshwaralal, S., and Angadi, S.B., Primary productivity of two freshwater bodies
of Gulbarga India, Nat. Environ. Pollut. Tech., 1, Pp 151-157, 2002.
43. Angandi, S.B., Shiddamallayya, N. and Patil, P.C., Limnological studies of Pap-
nash pond, Bidar (Karnataka), J. Environ Biol., 26, Pp 213-216, 2005.
44. Hassan, G.O., Paul, P., Mathisen and Don Pellegrino, Distribution of heavy met-
als in vegetation surrounding the Black stone river USA- consideration regarding
sediment contamination and long term metal transport in fresh water riverine
eco-systems, Journal Envir.Biol., 28, Pp 492-517, 2007.
45. Das, N.K. and Sinha, R.K., Assessment of water quality of Ganga river, Patna,
India, Environ. Ecol., 11, Pp 829-832, 1993.
46. Sharma, B.S. and Agarwal, A., Assessment of water quality of river Yamuna at
Agra, Pollut. Res., 18, Pp 109-110, 1999.
47. Mahanta, P.K. and Patra, A.K., Studies on the water quality index of river
Sanamacha Kandanak Orissa, Pollut. Res. , 19, Pp 371-385, 2000.
48. Baruah, B.K. and Baruah, D., Study on water quality of Subansiri river in Assam-
An EIA approach for a proposed hydroelectric power project, Ind. J. Environ.
Ecoplan., 7, Pp 381-384, 2003.
49. Rajaram, R., Shrinivasam, M. and Rajasegar, M., Seasonal distribution of physico-
chemical parameters in effluent discharge area of Uppanar estuary, Cuddalore,
south-east coast of India, J. Environ. Biol., 26, Pp 291-297, 2005.
50. Radha Krishnan R., Dhamaraj, K. and Ranjitha Kumari, B.D., Effect of heavy
metals (Hg and Zn) on the growth and phosphate solublising activity in halophilic
phosphor bacteria isolated from Manakudi mangrove, J. Eunviron. Biol., 28, Pp
105-108, 2007.
51. Gupta, S. K. and Deshpande, R. D., Water for India in 2050: first-order assess-
ment of available options, Current Science, 86(9), 10 May 2004, Pp 1216-1224,
2004.
52. Strivastava, N. and Dadhich, L.K., Parametric variations in water quality of
Parbati River after installation of subsurface drainage, Pollut. Res.,22(2), Pp
227-230, 2003.
32
53. Das, P., Study on water quality of river Brahmani. India, Indian Journal Envi-
ron. Hlth., 38(4), Pp 257-264, 2003.
54. Moti, R., Sharma and Gupta, A.B., Water quality profile of Khunh-Khad stream
in outer Himalayas, India, Pollut. Res., 23(1), Pp 33-36, 2003.
55. Anchal Sood, Kamal Deep Singh, Piyush Pandey and Sivesh Sharma, Assessment
of Bacterial Indicators and physico- chemical parameters to investigate pollu-
tion status of Gangetic River System of Utterkhand (India), American- Eurasian
J.Agric. Environ. Sci., 2(1), Pp 39-47, 2007.
56. Singh, T.N. and Singh, S.N., Impact of River Varuna on Ganga river water quality
at Varanasi, Indian J. Env. Health, 37(4), Pp 272-277, 1999.
57. Hussain, M. F. and Ahmad, I., Variability in Psycho- chemical parameters of
Pachin river, Indian Journal Environ. Hlth., 44(4), Pp 329- 336, 2002.
58. Gupta, G. K. and Shukla, R., Physico- chemical and bacteriological quality
in various sources of drinking water from Auriya district (UP) industrial area,
Pollut. Res., 23(1), Pp 205-209, 2004.
59. Neera Srivastava, Meena Agarwal and Anupama Tyagi, Study of physico- chem-
ical characteristics of water bodies around Jaipur, J. of Environmental Biology,
24(2), Pp 177-180, 2003.
60. Patil, C.l. and Deore, H.O., physico-chemical analysis of water of Dhule region,
Maharashtra, Pollut. Res., 23(2), Pp 395-398, 2004.
61. Sunkand, B.N and Patil, H.S., Water quality assessment of Fort Lake of Belgaum
(Karnataka) with special reference to zooplankton, Journal of Environmental
Biology, 25(1), Pp 99-102, 2004.
62. Unni, K.S. and Pawar, S., The phytoplankton along a pollution gradient in the
river Mahanadi (M.P. State), India- A Multivariate approach., Hydrobiology, 420,
Pp 87-96, 2000.
63. Pulle, J.S. and Khan, A.M., Studies of dissolved nutrients of Isapor dam, India,
Pollut. Res., 22(3), Pp 393-396, 2003.
33
64. Gupta, P.K., Methods in Environmental Analysis Water, Soil and Air, AGRO-
BIOS (India), 2001
65. Kaushik,A., Kumar, K., Kanchan Taruna and Sharma, H.R., Water quality in-
dex and suitability assessment of urban ground water of Hisar and Panipat in
Haryana, Journal of Environmental Biology, 23(3), Pp 325-333, 2002.
66. Chandrasekhar, S.V.A., Suitability of water quality for irrigation, A case study of
Bellandurlake, Andhra Pradesh, Rec. Zool. Surv. India, 103 (1-2), Pp 165-169,
2004.
67. Radhika, C.G., Mini, I. and Gangadevi, T., Studies on abiotic parameters of a
tropical freshwater lake- Vellayani lake, Kerala, Pollut. Res., 23(1), Pp 49-63,
2004.
68. Mukundan, T.K. and Thomas, P.J., ‘Characteristics of Kodungallur backwater
of Kerala’ In: Proceedings of 3rd national seminar on inland water resources and
environment, Limnological Association of Kerala, Department of environmental
sciences, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Pp 60-62, 2004.
69. Harikumar, P.S. and Madhavan, K., Water quality and associated environmental
issues in relation to Kerala inland waters, Proceedings of Seminar on Relevance
of Inland waterways in Kerala, Pp 1-8, 2005.
70. Bajpayee, S.K. and Varma, A., Water studies of rivers of Kerala, South India, In:
proceedings of the international workshop on eco-hydrology, (Eds.) Subramanian,
V. and Ramanathen, A.C., UNESCO/ H.P. Series, Pp 305-316, 2003.
71. Lakshmi, K. and Unni, P. N., Distribution of Nutrients and Phytoplankton in
Thalassery and Valapattanam rivers, North Kerala, Proc. of the National Semi-
nar on River Conservation and Management, Thrissur, Pp 42-60, 2004.
72. Dhannapakiam, P., Sampoorani, V., and Kavitha, R., Assessment of water qual-
ity of the river Kavery, J. Environm. Biol., 20 , Pp 347-352, 1999.
73. Prathapan, B., Periyar under severe strain, The Hindu survey of the environment,
Pp 184-189, 1999.
74. Nair, G.H., Variation in quality of sub soil water in relation to monsoon season
in Delhi University area, Environ. Biol., Pp 367-375, 1999.
34
75. NUS Service Limited Report, Accusation of water shortages and negative envi-
ronmental impacts caused by nine bottling operations or factories used in the
manufacture of coca-cola products in India, 2005.
76. Khurshid, S., Basheer, A., Zaheeruddin and Shabeer, M.U., Effects of Waste
disposal on water quality in parts of Cochin, Kerala,Indian Journal Environ.
Hlth., 40(1), Pp 45-50, 1998.
77. Soman, K., Chattopadhyay, M., and Ouseph, P.P., Status of riverine pollution in
South Kerala and its relation to Physiography and Land use, Proc. of the ninth
Kerala Science Congress, Thiruvananthapuram, 1997.
78. Augustine, S., Biological water quality assessment of an industrially polluted
historical Central River, Proc.of the ninth Kerala Science Congress, Thiruvanan-
thapuram, Pp 50-55, 1997.
79. Nirmala, V. U. and Shoba, V., An assessment of the Environmental status of
Chalakkudy river with special reference to water quality and its Influencing fac-
tors, Proc. of the National Seminar on River Conservation and Management,
Thrissur, Pp 13-18, 2003.
80. Joshil, M., Studies on River Health, Proc. Of the National Seminar on River
Chaliyar Conservation and Management, Thrissur, Pp 111-113, 2003.
81. Jayaraman, P. R., Ganga Devi and Vasudevan, Water quality studies on Kara-
mana river, India, Pollut. Res., 22(1), Pp 89-1000, 2003.
82. Krishnakumar, A., Sohba, V. and Padmalal, D., Hydro geochemistry of Vellayani
Lake, Kerela with special reference to its drinking water potential in conserva-
tion and management of aquatic ecosystems, (Ed:) Unni, K.S., Daya Publishing
House, New Delhi, Pp 44-61, 2002.
83. Prakasham, V. K. and Johnson, P., Ecology of Quilon canal (T. S. canal) with
reference to Physico- chemical characteristics, Journal Environ. Biology, 13(3),
Pp 221-225, 1992.
84. Prashanthan, V. and Nair, T. V., Impact assessment- hydrological studies on
Parvathy Puthan Aar, Pollut. Res., 19(3), Pp 475-479, 2000.
35
85. Babu, K.L., Chandrasekar, J.S. and Sumasekher, R.K., Impact of urbanisation
on Bellandur Lake, Bangalore- A case study, Journal of Environmental Biology,
24(3), Pp 223-227, 2003.
86. Unnikrishnan, K., Water quality and pollution status of Parvathy Puthen Aar,
Thesis submitted to the Kerala University, for Ph.D in Environmental Science,
2004.
87. Maya, K., Babu, K.N., Padmalal , D. and Seralathen, P., Chemistry and Ecology,
Pp 118-120, 2007.
88. Sharma, M.R. and Verma, P.S., Water quality of springs in Hamirpur area of
outer Himalayas, Pollut. Res.,, 22(3), Pp 369-372, 2003.
89. Freedagnana Rani,D., Geetha, S. and Ebanazar, J., The drinking water quality
characteristics of five rural places in and around Thittagudi, Tamil Nadu, Pollut.
Res., 21(2), Pp 215-221, 2002.
90. Rajurkar, N. S., Nongbri, B. and Patwardhan, A.M., Physico-chemical and Bi-
ological investigation of River Umshyrpi at Shillong, Meghalaya, Indian Journal
Environ. Hlth.,45(1), Pp 83-92, 2003.
91. Bhadra Bhaskar, S., Mukherjee, R., Chakraborty and Nanda, A.K., physico-
chemical and bacteriological investigation on the River Torsa of north Bengal, J.
Environ. Biol., 24(2), Pp 125-133, 2003.
92. Sharma, Moti Ram and Gupta, A.B., Water quality profile of Kunah-Khad
stream in outer Himalayas, India, Journal of Environmental Research, 23(1),
Pp 33-36, 2004.
93. Akhilesh Jinwal and Savitha Dixit, Seasonal water quality of potable water in
Madhya Pradesh, Asian Journal of Environmental Science, 22(3), Pp 311-316,
2007.
94. Jagdap, J., Kachawe, B., Deshpande, L. and Kelkar, P., Water quality assessment
of the Purna river for irrigation purpose in Buldana district, Maharastra, Indian
J. Environ. Hlth., 44, Pp 329-336, 2005.
36
95. Srivinas, C. H., Ravi Shankar Tiska, Venkateshwar, C., Satyanarayan Rao, M.S.
and Reddy, R.R.,Studies on groundwater quality of Hyderabad, Pollut. Res.,
19(2), Pp 285-289, 2000.
96. Jha, A.N. and Verma, P.K., physico-chemical property of Drinking Water in
Town area of Godda District Under Santal Pargana, Bihar, Pollut. Res., 19(2),
Pp 245-247, 2000.
97. Patnaik,K.N., Satyanarayana, S.V. and Swoyam Poor Rout, Water pollution from
major industries in Pradip area- A case study, Indian J. Environ. Hlth., 44, Pp
203-211. 2002.
98. Singh Vijendra and Chandel Singh, C.P., Analysis of waste water of Jaipur city
for agricultural use, Research journal of Chemistry and Environment, 10(1), Pp
30-33, 2006.
99. Semwal, N. and Akolkar, P., Water quality assessment of sacred Himalayan rivers
of Uttaranchal, Current Science, 91(4), Pp 486-496, 2006.
100. Singh, K.M., Pilgrim’s regress at the Ardha Kumbh- Polluted water, Down to
Earth, 15( 98), Pp 38-40, 2007.
101. Ganguly, T., Kumar, B., Sen, A.K. and Bhunia, A.B., Assessment of water qual-
ity of river Damodar through comparative analysis of Bio indicators and Physico-
Chemical Determinants, Journal of Environ.and Pollution, 6(2), Pp189-196,
1999.
102. Mithra, A.K., Impact of wastewater inflow on water quality of river Brahmani,
India, Indian Journal Environ. Hlth., 38(4), Pp 257-264, 1999.
103. Sati, S.C. and Paliwal, P.C., Physico-chemical and bacteriological analysis of
Kosi River water in central Himalayas, Pollut. Res., 27(1), Pp 179-183, 2008.
104. Kirubavathy, K., Ninan , A. M. and Thirumalnesan, R., River Pollution:A case
study of River Noyyal, Tamil Nadu, Proc. of the National Seminar on River
Conservation and Management, Thrissur, Pp 91-98, 2003.
105. Kumar, R. and Ramachandra, T.A., Water, soil and sediment investigation to
explore status of aquatic ecosystem, Proc. of the national seminar on river con-
servation and management, Thrissur, Pp 91-98, 2003.
37
106. Lakshmi, K. and Unni, P. N., Distribution of nutrients and phytoplankton in
Thalassery and Valapattanam rivers, North Kerala, Proc. of the national seminar
on river concervation and management, Thrissur, Pp 42-60, 2003.
107. Rajkumar, N. and Dharmaraj, G., Biodiversity and qualitative analysis of algal
species at a polluted spot of a riverine ecosystem, Proc. of the national seminar
on river conservation and management, Thrissur, Pp 114-121, 2003.
108. Bhoi, D.K., Raj, D.S., Mehtra, Y.M., Chahun, M.B. and Machar, M.T., Physico-
chemical analysis of borewells- drinking water of nadiad territory, Asian J.of
Chem., 17(1), Pp 404-408, 2005.
109. Vinaya, V., Fadatare and Mane, T.T., Studies on water pollution of Mula,
Mutha and Paware Rivers in summer season of the Pune city region, J. Nature.
Environ. and Poll. Technology, 6(3), Pp 499-506, 2007.
110. Patil, P. R., Patil, S.K., Dhande, A.D. and Pawar, N.S., Water quality of River
Tapi at Bhusawal town, Indian Journal of Environment, Pp 620- 623, 2003.
111. Lahri, S.C., Pollution of River Ganga and Ganga Action Plan, Journal of Indian
Chemical Society, Pp 366-370, 2002.
112. Maity, P. B., Saha, T., Ghosh, P.B. and Bandopadhyay, T.S., Studies on pollution
status on Jalangi River around Krishnanagar city in West Bengal, Science and
Culture, Pp 191-195, 2004.
113. Goel, P. K., and Bosale, P.M., Studies on the River Panchganga at Kolhapur
with special reference to human impact on water quality, In: Current topics in
environmental sciences, (Eds.) Tripathy, G. and Pandey, G. C. , Pp 108-122,
2001.
114. Regina, B. and Nabi, B., physico-chemical spectrum of the Bhavani river water
collected from the Kalinga rayan dam, Tamil Nadu, Indian J. Environ. and Eco
Plan, 7(3), Pp 633-636, 2003.
115. Janaki Arunan, Study on quality of drinking water at pilgrim centers in Tiruchi-
rappalli, Indian J. Env. Prot., 24(3), Pp 193-198, 2004.
38
116. Rajurkar, N.S., Nongbri, B. and Patwardhan, A.M. physico-chemical and mi-
crobial analysis of Umian (Brapani) lake water, Ind. J. Env. Prot., 23(6), Pp
633-639, 2003.
117. Sharma, H.P. and Bhattacharyya, K.G., Quality of water tube wells a municipal
supply waters with respect to Na, Ca, Mg and Fe in the Darrang district, Indian
J. Env. Prot., 21(11), Pp 1006-1011, 2001.
118. Amathussalam, A. and Gnanaganesan, D., physico-chemical and bacteriological
studies of tannery effluent polluted ground water in Thiruchirappalli, Pollut.
Res., , 23(3) Pp 473-475, 2004.
119. Sraddha Sharma, Savitha Dixit, Praveen Jain, Shah, K.W. and Rakesh Viswakharma,
Physico-chemical analysis of river Narmada, Madhyapradesh, J. Environmental
monitoring and assessment, Pp 53-54, 2008.
120. Kumar Praveen and Sharma, H.B., Physico-chemical characteristics of lentic
water of Radha Kunda district, Madhura, Indian J. Environ. Sci., 9, Pp 21-22,
2005.
121. Usha, R., Ramalingam, K. and Bharathi Rajan, U. D., Fresh water lakes a po-
tential source for aquaculture activities for model study on Perumal lake (T.N.
Cuddalore), J. Environ. Biol., 27, Pp 713-722, 2006.
122. Harikumar, P.S. and Madhavan, K., Water quality and associated environmen-
tal issues in relation to Kerala inland water bodies, Proceedings of Seminar on
relevance of inland waterways in Kerala, Pp 1-8, 2005.
123. Ahmed, M.D., Sddiqui, E.N. and Khalid, S., Studies on certain physico-chemical
properties of soil of two freshwater ponds of Dharbhanga, J. Environ. Poll. 3(1),
Pp 31-39, 1996.
124. Baruah, B. K., Talukdar, S. and Das, C.R., Water quality of ponds in Chan-
drarampur area of Kamrup district Assam, Environ. Ecol., 16, Pp 254-256,
1998.
125. Pandit, B.R., Patel, D. and Pandya, U., The physico- chemical properties of
soils of Jessore Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Gujarat, Nature Environment and Pollution
Technology, 3(4), Pp 553-556, 2004.
39
126. Lende, R.S. and Yeragi, S.G., Preliminary analysis of soil samples of Phirange
Kharbav Lake in relation to their chemical parameters, Nature environment and
pollution Technology, 3(4), Pp 567-569, 2004.
127. Bhuyan, B. and Sharma, H.P., A study of soil pH in the tea gardens of Lakhimpur
district, Assam with special reference to environmental hazards,J. Ecology Env.
Cons.129(1), Pp 75-79, 2006.
128. Lam, M.H.W., Tjia, A.Y.W., Chan, C.C., Chan, W.P. and Lee, W.S., Speciation
study of chromium, copper and nickel in coastal esturine sediments polluted by
domestic and industrial effluents, Mar. Poll. Bull., 34, Pp 949-959, 1997.
129. Srivivasan, C. H., Ravi Shankar Tiska, Venkateshwar, C., Satyanarayan Rao,
M.S. and Reddy, R.R., Studies on groundwater quality of Hyderabad, Pollut.
Res., 19(2), Pp 285-289, 2002
130. Ruth Francis, Dissolved oxygen for Fish Production, Fact sheet FA-27, University
of Florida, 2005.
131. Zheng, X. and Rasmussen, T.C., Multivariate statistical characterization of water
quality in lake Lanier, Georgia, USA, J. Environ. Qual., 34, Pp 1980-1991, 2005.
132. Singh and Hassan, S., Environmental geochemistry of Damodar river basin, east
coast of India, Environ. Geol., 37, Pp 124-136, 1999.
133. Jagadeesh E.P., Azeez, P.A. and Banerjee, D.K., Science Review 2006 Ltd.
Chemical Speciation and Bio-availability, 18(2), Pp 61-69, 2006.
134. Sujatha, C.H., Anishkumar, N. and Ranjith, K.R., Concentration levels of heavy
metals in relation to those of the nutrients, Research Communications, Depart-
ment of Chemical Oceanography, Cochin University of Science and Technology,
Cochin, 2006.
135. Mandloi, A.K. and Praveen Ofha, Station paper on management of fisheries in
Barnoo reservoir NATP workshop, Barrackpore, Proceedings, Pp 13-32, 2003.
136. Webster, I.T., Parslow, J.S., Grayson, R.B., Molloy, R.P., Anderwawartha, Sakov,
J.P., Tan , K.S., Walker, S.J. and Wallace, B.B., Gippsland lakes environmen-
tal study- assessing options for improving water quality and ecological function,
Final report CSIRO, Glen Osmond, Australia, 2001.
40
137. Bordes, P. and Bourg, A., Effect of solid liquid ratio on the remobilisation of Cu,
Pb and Zn from polluted river sediment, Water, Air and Soil pollution, 128(3-4),
Pp 391-400, 2001.
138. Syvitski, J. P. M., Vorosmarty, C. J., Kettner, A. J. and Green, P., Impact of
humans on the flux of terrestrial sediment to the global coastal ocean. Current
Science, 308, Pp 376-380, 2005.
139. Krishnamurthy, V. and Shukla, J., Interseasonal and Interannual variability of
rainfall over India, J. Climate, 13, Pp 4366-4377, 2001.
140. Rajasegar, M., physico-chemical characteristics of the Vellar estuary in relation
to shrimp farming, J. Environmental Biology, 24(1), Pp 95-101, 2003.
141. Rajurkar, N.S., Nongbri, B. and Patwardhan, A.M., physico-chemical and mi-
crobial analysis of Umian (Brapani) lake water, Ind. J. Environ. Protec., 23(6),
Pp 633-639, 2003.
142. Rosegrant, M. W., Water resources in the 21st century. Increasing scarcity, de-
clining quality and implications for action- paper presented at the conference
on the sustainable future of the global system, Tokyo, organised by the United
Nations University and the National Institute for Environmental studies, Japan,
1995.
143. Park K., ‘Text Book of Preventive and Social Medicine’ 14th Edition, Banarasidas,
Jabalpur, India, 1995.
144. Ravichandran, C.,Drinking water quality assessment in a few selected pilgrim
centers and tourist spots in Tamilnadu, Indian J. Env. Prot., 22(2), Pp 129-
136, 2002.
145. Anand Chetna, Pratima Akolkar and Rina Chakrabarti, Bacteriological water
quality status of river Yamuna in Delhi, J. Environ. Biol., 27, Pp 97-101, 2006.
146. Gupta, S. K. and Deshpande, R. D., Water for India in 2050: first-order assess-
ment of available options, Current Science, 86(9), Pp 1216-1224, 2004.
147. MOEF, National Environment Policy Draft, Ministry of Environment and Forest,
GOI, New Delhi, 2004.
41
148. Puttaiah E.T., Harish Kumar, K., Manjappa, S., Kiran, B.R. and Ravindra
Kumar, K.P., Hydrochemistry of Sharavathi reservoir near Sagara, Karnataka,
Journ. Environ. Ecol. 23 (Spl-3), Pp 573-576, 2005.
149. MOWR, National Water Policy, Ministry of Water Resources, New Delhi, 2002.
150. Brunner, J., Kura, Y. and Thompson, K., Water scarcity, water resource manage-
ment and hydrological monitoring, Washington DC, World Resource Institute,
2005.
42