Chapter 1

METHODS OF RESEARCH AND

PROCEDURES

Prepared by:

Josefina T. Parreño, R.N.

Joahne P. Tipay, R.N.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS AND APPROACHES

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

• "a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are utilized to obtain information about the world"

(Burns and Grove cited by Cormack 1991 p 140)

Quantitative/Qualitative Quantitative/Qualitative DifferencesDifferences

• The aim is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

• Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is looking for.

• All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.

• Researcher questionnaires or equipment to collect numerical data.

• Data is numerical in nature. • Objective – seeks measurement &

analysis of target concepts.• Quantitative data is more efficient,

able to test hypotheses.• Researcher tends to remain separated

from the subject matter.

• The aim is a detailed description.• Researcher may only know

roughly in advance what he/she is looking for.

• The design emerges as the study unfolds.

• Researcher is the data gathering instrument.

• Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects.

• Subjective - individuals’ interpretation of events is important

• Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming, and not generalizable.

• Researcher tends to become subjectively immersed in the subject matter.


• Both designs, quantitative and qualitative are said to be systematic. In fact having a system or following a process is a defining principle of research.

• Broadly speaking, quantitative research is thought to be objective whereas qualitative research often involves a subjective element.


• It is thought that in gaining, analyzing and interpreting quantitative data, the researcher can remain detached and objective.

• Often this is not possible with qualitative research where the researcher may actually be involved in the situation of the research.


• Quantitative research is inclined to be deductive.

• In other words it tests theory.

• This is in contrast to most qualitative research which tends to be inductive.

• In other words it generates theory.


• Quantitative designs of research tend to produce results that can be generalized.

• However, qualitative studies tend to produce results that are less easy to generalize. This has to do with the problem of the sample used at the time.


• The most obvious difference between quantitative research and qualitative research is that quantitative research uses data that are structured in the form of numbers or that can be immediately transported into numbers.

• If the data can not be structured in the form of numbers, they are considered qualitative. (Note that qualitative data can sometimes be handled in such a way as to produce quantitative data.


• Therefore, objectivity, deductiveness, generalisability and numbers are features often associated with quantitative research.

• When a researcher selects their approach to a study it should be a reflection of which approach is most suitable for the topic under consideration. However it is also reasonable to suggest that it also reflects the bias of the researcher.


• The majority of medical research is quantitative (and considered to produce "hard", generalisable results) whilst much of nursing research is qualitative (and considered to produce "soft" results).


Major types of Quantitative Research

Types of quantitative research include:

Descriptive

Quasi-experimental

Experimental


• Basically, experimental and quasi-experimental studies are designed to examine cause and effect. These studies are usually conducted to examine the differences in dependent variables thought to be caused by independent variables (treatments).

• Descriptive and correlational studies examine variables in their natural environments and do not include researcher imposed treatments.


EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN• The paradigm for scientific method in research is

the true experiment or randomized control trial (RCT). Typical examples of RCT's include drug trials.

• Experimental designs are set up to allow the greatest amount of control possible so that causality may be examined closely.


EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The three essential elements of experimental design are:

• Manipulation : The researcher does something to at least some of the participants in the research

• Control : The experimenter introduces one or more controls over the experimental situation.

• Randomization : The experimenter assigns participants to different groups on a random basis.


EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN• The classic example is the before-after design or

pre-test post-test design.• This is perhaps the most commonly used

experimental design. • Comparison of pre-test scores allows the

researcher to evaluate how effective the randomization of the sample is in providing equivalent groups.


EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN• The treatment is fully under control of the

researcher. The dependent variable is measured twice during the study (before and after the manipulation of the independent variable).


EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

• In some studies the dependent variable cannot be measured before the treatment. For example we cannot effectively measure the response to interventions designed to control nausea from chemotherapy prior to the beginning of treatment.

• Here we would us an approach known as the post-test only design.


EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN• We may also wish to use this approach where

pre-test sensitization may occur. Subject’s post-test response may be partly due to learning from, or as a reaction to, the pre-test. In these instances the pre-test phase can be eliminated, however doing so removes the possibility of applying some very powerful statistical analyses.


EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN• A development of the pre-test post-test design is

known as the Solomon 4-group design. Although somewhat cumbersome this design effectively measures the influence pre-testing has on post-test scores. It is a stronger tool than the pre-test post-test design but requires more complicated statistical analysis of the data obtained.


EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN


EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN• A development of the pre-test post-test design is

known as the Solomon 4-group design. Although somewhat cumbersome this design effectively measures the influence pre-testing has on post-test scores. It is a stronger tool than the pre-test post-test design but requires more complicated statistical analysis of the data obtained.

Chapter 1

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