Chap 5.Process

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    OVERVIEW

    5.0 Introduction

    5.1 The curriculumdevelopment process

    5.2 Models of curriculumdevelopment5.2.1 Tyler‟s model

    5.2.2 Taba‟s model 5.2.3 Alexander & Taylor‟s

    model5.3 Goals of Education

    5.4 Levels of goals5.4.1 Educational philosophy5.4.2 Education goals5.4.3 Curriculum goals5.4.4 Curriculum objectives

    5.4.5 Instructional goals

    5.4.6 Instructional objectives5.5 Instructional objectives or

    learning outcomes5.6 Classifying instructional

    objectives or learning

    outcomes5.6.1 Cognitive domain5.6.2 Affective domain5.6.3 Psychomotor domain

    Discussion Questions

    Readings

    LEARNING OUTCOMES

    When you complete this module you will be able to:

      Describe Tyler‟s model of curriculum development 

      Explain the features of Taba‟s curriculum development model 

      Describe the Saylor and Alexander model

      Compare the Tyler, Taba and the Saylor & Alexander models

      Differentiate between the levels of educational goals

      Compare the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains

      Formulate objectives using the different taxonomies.

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    [Source: adaptation of www.freeclipart.com]

    In Module 2, 3 and 4, we discussed how philosophy, psychology, society and history

    events influence curriculum. In Modules 5, 6, 7 and 8, we will examine the different

     phases of the curriculum development process. The first phase is curriculum planning

    followed by curriculum design, curriculum

    implementation and curriculum evaluation. In

    this chapter we examine in general the

    curriculum development process by referringto three well-known curriculum development

    model; namely, the Tyler model, the Taba

    model and the Saylor & Alexander model. In

    the second part of the chapter, we focus on the

    first phase of the process namely, curriculum

     planning which involves establishing the goals

    and objectives of a curriculum based on the

    agreed educational philosophy.

    [Source: www.iconandclipart.com]

    5.0 Introduction

    Drug prevention, road safety

    education

    National unity, racial

    tolerance, citizenship

    education

    Science and technology,

    Environmental education

    Globalisation,

    knowledge

    economy

    Language &

    quantitative

    literacy

    Ethics, moral

    education, religious education

    How can we help children make sense of these?

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    Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process whether it is a

    school, college, university or training organisation. The textbooks used, how teachers

    are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of students, preparation of

    guides for both students and teachers, and setting of standards, are all based on the

    curriculum. Thus without a curriculum no educational institution can function

    efficiently. Given such importance to curriculum a number of questions are raised.

    How is it developed? How is it organised? Who develops it? What are the principlesin developing a curriculum? How do we know whether the curriculum is successful?

    Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning

    experiences that students encounter in an educational institution. The process of

     providing the plan and keeping it running smoothly is known as curriculum

    development. Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which

    includes planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation and

    evaluation. Since curriculum development implies change and betterment, curriculum

    improvement   is often used synonymously with curriculum development, though in

    some cases improvement is viewed as the result of development (Oliva, 1982).

    Curriculum development is a process that continuously strives to find newer, better

    and more efficient means to accomplish the task of educating the next generation.

    What is a model? A model consist of interacting parts that serves as a guide or

     procedures for action. Some models are simple while others are very complex. In

    many instances, models are more similar that different and are often refinements or

    revisions of earlier models. There are many models of curriculum development, but in

    this chapter, we will discuss three well-known models: the Tyler Model, the Taba

    Model and the Saylor & Alexander Model. Each of these models is named after theiroriginator.

    5.2.1 The Tyler Model

    One of the best known curriculum models is The Tyler Model introduced in

    1949 by Ralph Tyler in his classic book  Basic Principles of Curriculum and

     Instruction in which he asked 4 questions:

    1.  What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

    2.  What educational experiences  can be provided that are likely to attain

    these purposes?

    3.  How can these educational experiences be effectively organised ?

    4. 

    How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained ?

    5.1 The Curriculum Development Process

    5.2 Models of Curriculum Development

    ACTIVITY 5.11.  What is the message of the cartoon?

    2.  How far is this characteristic of your education system?

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    In essence, Tyler‟s questions represent the four -step sequence of (1)

    identifying purposes or objectives, (2) selecting the means for the attainment or

    achievement of these objectives i.e. what educational or teaching-learning experiences

    have to be provided for students, (3) organising these educational or teaching-learning

    experiences, and (4) evaluating the outcomes or what have students attained or

    achieved. By “purposes”, Tyler was referring to “objectives” and when developingcurriculum objectives data should be gathered from three sources, namely; the subject

    area (eg. science, mathematics, geography, history), the learners (eg. economically

    disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) and society (eg. ethics, patriotism,

    national unity, environmental awareness, employment, market needs). Figure 5.1

     presents Tyler‟s model of curriculum development.

    After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes), the

    curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy screen

    and the psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional objectives 

    which state the kind of outcomes that are observable are measurable. The next step is

    the selection of educational experiences which enable the attainment of the stipulated

    objectives. The learning experiences have to take into account the previousexperiences learners bring to a situation. The learning experiences will have to be

    selected based on what is known about human learning and human development.

     Next, Tyler talked about the organisation  and sequencing of these learning

    experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised so as

    to enhance learning and suggested that ideas, concept, values and skills be used as

    organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would serve as

    organisers linking content within a particular subject (eg. history, economics, science)

    and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of content. [We will discuss

    curriculum design in more detail in module 6 ].

    Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation  should be an important part of the

    curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know whether the

    selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For example, if the

    objective is to develop critical thinking among students, did the learning experiences

    selected achieve this objective. Through evaluation it will be possible to determine

    whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective. [We will discuss curriculum

    evaluation in more detail in Module 8].

    There is no denying that Tyler‟s thinking has greatly influenced the field of

    curriculum, especially curriculum development. The four questions that he raised had

    and still have great appeal because it is very reasonable and workable. Despite much

    criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause and effect, there is no denyingthat his thinking continues to be popular (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998).

    SELF-TEST 5.1 1)  What is the role of objectives in Tyler‟s model? 

    2)  Why do objectives have to be screened by philosophy and

     psychology?

    3)  Give 3 specific examples of „learning experiences‟

    according to the Tyler Model,

    4)  What are elements? Give specific examples

    5) 

    What is the purpose of evaluation?

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    Curriculum Planning

    Curriculum Design Curriculum 

    Evaluation

    Figure 5.1 Tyler’s Curriculum Development Model 

    [Source: adapted from Allan C. Ornstein & Francis P. Hunkins, Curriculum: Foundations, Principles and Issues, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998), p.198.]

    5.2.2 The Taba ModelAnother approach to curriculum development was proposed by Hilda Taba in

    her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice  published in 1962. She

    argued that there was a definite order in creating a curriculum. She believed that

    teachers, who teach the curriculum, should participate in developing it which led to

    the model being called the  grass-roots approach. She noted 7 major steps to her

    grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input (see Figure 5.2). She was

    of the opinion that the Tyler model was more of an administrative model. The Tyler

    model involved too much top-down decision making, The greater portion of

    curriculum decisions were made by administrators in the Central Office or the

    Ministry of Education.

    Taba felt that a curriculum should be designed by the users of the programme.

    Teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for

    their students. She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum

    development. This meant starting with the specifics and building toward a general

    Society

    Learner

    Subject

    matter SOURCES Objectives Screens Instructional

    Objectives

    Selection of

    Learning

    Experiences

    Organisation of

    Learning

    Experiences

    Psychology

    Philosophy

    Evaluation

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    design This was just the opposite to the more traditional deductive approach which

    starts with the general design and than working toward the specifics.

    Teacher Input

    Teacher

    Input

    Teacher Input

    Figure 5.2 Taba’s Curriculum Development Model 

    Taba proposed 7 major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have

    major input throughout the curriculum development process:

    1.   Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the

     process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is

     planned. For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically.

    2. 

     Formulation of objectives: After the teacher has identified needs that requireattention, he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.  

    Diagnosis of

    Needs

    Formulation

    of Objectives

    Selection of

    Content

    Organisation

    of Content

    Organisation

    of Learning

    Activities

    Evaluation

    Selection of

    Learning

    Activities

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    3.  Selection of content: The objectives selected or created suggest the subject

    matter or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content

    match, but also the validity and significance of the content chosen needs to be

    determined. i.e. the relevancy and significance of content. 

    4. 

    Organisation of content: A teacher cannot just select content, but must

    organise it in some type of sequence, taking into consideration the maturity of

    learners, their academic achievement, and their interests. [We will discuss

    curriculum design in more detail in Module 6 ]. 

    5.  Selection of learning experiences: Content must be presented to students and

    students must be engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher selects

    instructional methods that will involve the students with the content. 

    6. 

    Organisation of learning activities: Just as content must be sequenced andorganised, so must the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the learning

    activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to keep in mind

    the particular students whom he or she will be teaching. 

    7.   Evaluation and means of evaluation: The curriculum planner must determine

     just what objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to

     be designed to evaluate learning outcomes. [We will discuss curriculum

    evaluation in more detail in Module 8].

    Taba‟ model has much merit. However, some argue that teacher involvement

    throughout the process assumes that they have the expertise and, perhaps more

    importantly, the time to engage in such an extensive and intensive curricular activity.

    Teachers being involved in the early stages of curriculum development may not

    necessarily be an advantage as it will not necessarily guarantee an effective

    curriculum since it is a highly specialised process.

    However, it cannot be denied that curriculum development requires the

    involvement of many parties at various stages of the process. It involves individuals

    from the Central Office or the Ministry of Education, district education officers,

     principals, teachers, community leaders, subject matter experts, academics and even

    students. Usually, curriculum developers at the Central Office are given the task of

    directing those actions that bring together various participants in curriculumdevelopment. Teachers may only be involved in implementing the curriculum while

    the main part of the curriculum is determined by the Ministry of Education,

    academics, content specialists and employers.

    SELF-TEST 5.21)  Explain why Taba‟s model is called the grass-roots model

    2)  Do you think teachers should be the main decision makers

    in the development of a curriculum? Why?

    3)  To what extent are teachers involved in developing

    curriculum in your country?

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    5.2.3 The Saylor and Alexander ModelGalen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development

    as consisting of four steps (Figure 5.3). According to them, curriculum is “a plan for

     providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related

    specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school centre”(p.24).

    Bases (external variables)

    Feedback

    Figure 5.3 Saylor and Alexander’s Curriculum Development Model

    a)  Goals, Objectives and Domains: The model indicates that curriculum planners

     begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they

    wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain and they

    advocate 4 major goals or domains: personal development, human relations,

    continued learning skills and specialisation. The goals, objectives and domains

    are selected after careful consideration of several external variables such as

    findings from educational research, accreditation standards, views of

    community groups and others.

     b) 

    Curriculum Designing : Once the goals, objectives and domains have been

    established, planners move into the process of designing the curriculum. Here

    decision is made on the appropriate learning opportunities for each domain

    and how and when these opportunities will be provided. Will the curriculum

     be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according to student

    needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the questions that need

    to be answered at this stage of the development process [ We will discuss

    curriculum design in more detail in Module 6 ].

    c)  Curriculum Implementation: After the designs have been created the next step

    is implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of the

    curriculum plan teachers would specify instructional objectives and then selectrelevant teaching methods and strategies to achieve the desired learning

    Goals, objectives

    and domains

    Curriculum

    designing

    Curriculum

    implementation

    Curriculum

    evaluation

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    outcomes among students in the classroom [We will discuss curriculum

    implementation in more detail in Module 7 ].

    d)   Evaluation: Finally, curriculum planner and teachers engage in evaluation.

    The model proposed that evaluation should be comprehensive using a variety

    of evaluation techniques. Evaluation should involve the total educational

     programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness ofinstruction and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation process,

    curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or nor the goals of

    the school and the objectives of instruction have been met. [We will discuss

    curriculum evaluation in more detail in Module 8].

    The three models just discussed reveal both similarities and differences. All

    models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development.

    Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum

    development while the Tyler model focuses on the two screens objectives have to

     pass through. However, you should keep in mind that models often are incomplete;

    they do not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the complicated curriculum

     process. To depict every aspect in detail of the curriculum development process

    would require an exceedingly complex and intricate model.

    In looking at the three models we cannot say that any one model is superior to

    another model. Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with

    considerable success. But this does not mean that the Tyler model represents the

    ultimate in models for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied with

    it.

    The cartoon at the beginning of this chapter shows the kinds of decisions that

    curriculum workers have to make in some education system somewhere in the world.

    Some decisions are relatively simple such as adding a course, deleting a course or

    making some minor changes to content. Other decisions are sweeping and far-

    reaching such as changing the levels of schooling from 6-3-2-2 (six years of primary

    or elementary school, three years of lower secondary, two years of upper secondary

    and two years pre-university or matriculation) to 6-4-2 (six years of primary or

    elementary school, four years of secondary and two years of pre-university or

    matriculation). How does one decide? All the three models of curriculum

    development emphasised the need from the onset to plan statements of purpose of the

    education system. What do you want students to be able to do after completing primary school or after completing secondary school?

    5.3 Goals of Education

    SELF-CHECK 5.31)  What is meant by „domains‟ in the Saylor and Alexander

    model?

    2) 

    What must teachers do to implement a curriculum?3)  What is the role of evaluation in the Saylor and Alexander

    model?

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    In Chapter 2, we discussed the views of various Western and Eastern

     philosophers on what they thought the school should be and aim to achieve. In

    Chapter 3, we discussed various psychological explanations of human learning which

     provide guidelines as to what students will be able to achieve and how they should be

    taught. In Chapter 4, we examined what society demands of its education system

     providing some insight into what schools should aspire. Based on these sources, thecurriculum planner will have to decide on an education philosophy from which the

    goals of education may be derived.

    Goals can be written at several levels of generality involving many curriculum

    workers such as teachers, subject specialists, academics, principals, teacher trainers,

    administrators and others who may be engaged in curriculum efforts on several levels

    at the same time (see Figure 5.4). The model flows from a broad and wide educational

     philosophy to the more specific instructional objectives implemented at the classroomlevel.

    5.4.1 Educational philosophyThe initial task of curriculum planners is identification of an educational

    vision or philosophy which will form the basis of planning. It reflects the desires of

    the nation and the major theme paving the way for the future. The vision statement or

     philosophy provides guidelines for curriculum developers in organising and

    incorporating programmes and activities into the curriculum. The philosophic vision

    is usually derived through discussions with various persons in the country and also

    from reading the literature. Then it is reformulated in the light of realities to enable

    the vision to be achieved through a process of learning in schools rather remaining an

    ideal that is unachievable.

    The educational philosophy of an educational system is a reflection of

    national policies. For example, use of one language of instruction to unite the

    different communities; free primary education to reduce drop-outs and a common

    national curriculum to reduce varying interpretations. The educational philosophy will

    also reflect national priorities such as the development aspects of the nation, socio-

    cultural needs of the people and levels of achievement of the children at different

    cycles. Development needs have to be identified in relation to the priorities. For

    example does the country want more graduates or should the emphasis be on basic

    education.In relation to socio-cultural needs, the culture of peace, conflict resolutions

    etc. could emerge as important aspects that should be highlighted in the school

    curriculum. The needs of disabled persons and adults who have lost opportunities for

    learning have to be incorporated too. Opportunities for vocational and career

    education have to be provided in the curriculum. Therefore, vocational interests of

    students have to be assessed.

    In addition, curriculum planners should not only study current best practices,

    customs, and beliefs about education in the local schools but should compare these to

    the educational research literature on best practices in teaching, learning, and

    curriculum design. Levels of achievements relate to understanding of concepts at

    different grades by children to enable them to complete the skills needed to move on

    5.4. Levels of Goals

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    to higher grades. These have to be identified in order to bring quality to learning and

    avoid wastage in the learning programmes.

    CASE STUDY : The Vision of South Africa’s Curriculum Framework 2005 

    [Source:  CURRICULUM 2005 Lifelong Learning for the 21st  Century: A User's Guide. 

    http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/curr2005.html?rebookmark=1#Principles]

    ACTIVITY 5.2

    Read the Case Study and answer the following questions:

    1. 

    Why do you think that in the vision it is emphasised that

    South Africa should be free of violence, discrimination and

     prejudice?

    2.  What are the goals of the curriculum framework of South

    Africa?

    3. 

    How are these educational goals similar or different fromthose of your country?

    The curriculum framework is a set of principles and guidelines which provides both a philosophical base and an organisational structure for curriculum

    development initiatives at all levels, be they nationally, provincially, community or

    school-based. The vision for South Africa encompasses a prosperous, truly united,

    democratic and internationally competitive country with literate, creative and

    critical citizens, leading productive, self-fulfilled lives in a country free of

    violence, discrimination and prejudice. The realisation of this vision requires

    appropriate, lifelong education, training and development to empower people to

     participate effectively in all the processes of a democratic society and to excel in

    fields like human and natural resource development, human and natural sciences,

    the arts and technology.

    The primary task of educational policy makers is the establishment of a just

    and equitable education and training system which is relevant, of high quality and

    is accessible to all learners, irrespective of race, colour, gender, age, religion,

    ability or language. A priority for both national and provincial education

    departments is, therefore, the creation of a transformative, democratic, open

    learning system, fostering in all its users, a strong commitment to lifelong learning

    and development.

    The curriculum framework serves as a strategic intervention designed to

    facilitate and guide the development of a transformed education and training

    system in a practicable and sustainable way. It takes as point of departure, that

    successful modern economies and societies require citizens with a strongfoundation of general education, the desire and ability to continue to learn to adapt

    to, and develop new knowledge, skills and technologies, to move flexibly between

    occupations, to take responsibility for personal performance, to set and achieve

    high standards, and to work cooperatively.

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    National Policies &

    Priorities

    Educational

    Philosophy

    Research and Best

    Practices

    Curriculum

    Goals

    Curriculum

    Objectives 

    Instructional

    Goals 

    Instructional

    Objectives 

    Educational

    Goals 

    Curriculum Phase

    Instructional Phase

    Figure 5.4 Levels of Curriculum Planning 

    5.4.2 Education GoalsEducational goals are outcomes to be achieved by students at the end of a

     particular period of time in school. While certain goals are universal and run

    throughout the period some are specific to particular levels and times. This means that

    a child will be facing different goals at different levels. The goals are the basic

    elements in curriculum planning and should be clear and well articulated without

    ambiguities. All these relate to human behaviour. In a country recovering from a civil

    war, its key educational goals might be peace, developing self-confidence,

    cooperation, responsible citizenship needed to overcome the existing conflicts.

    Actually, there could be a plethora of goals such as developing creativity, mental

    health, coping with change, informed participation, basic skills and so forth, ending

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    on the vision and cultural needs of the society. Connecting development needs to

    education is an important strategy to achieve greater impact of education on society.

      .

    5.4.3 Curriculum Goals A curriculum goal is a purpose or desired end stated in general terms. No time

     period is specified when the goals must be reached. Neither is mention of the criteriafor achievement or mastery. Curriculum planners expect students to accomplish it as

    a result of exposure to segments or all of a programme in a particular educational

    institution. Goals provide direction for the curriculum.

    For example:

      “Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning   as

    good citizens in their own school and community”.

      “Schools should seek to promote the physical and emotional health ofstudents” 

    5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives

    Curriculum objectives are derived from the curriculum goal. A curriculumobjective is a purpose or end stated in specific, measurable terms. It is a refinement of

    ACTIVITY 5.3

    In 1990, the President of the United States and state governors issueda list of six goals for the nation‟s schools which stated that by the year2000:

      all children in America will start school ready to learn

      the high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90%

      American students will leave grades 4, 8 and 12 havingdemonstrated competency in challenging subject mater(English, mathematics, science , history and geography)

      U.S students will be first in the world in science and

    mathematics achievement  Every adult American will be literate and will possess the

    knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a globaleconomy and exercise the right and responsibilities ofcitizenship

      Every school in America will be free of drugs and violenceandwill offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning

    [Source: National Goals for Education, 1990. Washington D.C].

    1. 

    What seems to be the emphasis in these goals? What is

    lacking?

    2.  Compare these goals with the goals of your education

    system.

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    the curriculum goals. They specify the performance standards for the students for

    whom the curriculum is designed. From the curriculum goal; “Students shall acquire

    knowledge and skills necessary for functioning on a daily basis, as good citizens in

    their own school and community setting”; the following curriculum objectives can be

    derived:

     

    “The majority of students will obey the rules and regulations of the school”   “More than 80% of students will be involved in at least one voluntary activity” 

     Note how the curriculum objective refines the curriculum goal. Many curriculum

    objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal.

    ACTIVITY 5.4Malaysian Primary School Science Curriculum

    Curriculum Goal or AimPrimary Science education aims to develop knowledgeable, skilful, thinking,

    caring, dynamic and progressive individuals able to contribute towards the creation

    of a society that practices science and technology culture, responsible towards the

    environment and appreciative of nature and God‟s creations. 

    Sample Curriculum Objectives

    The Primary School Science Curriculum will enable students to:

      Acquire an understanding of science concepts and principles in anintegrated manner and able to relate them with natural phenomena and

    everyday experiences,

      Apply science knowledge and skills creatively and intelligently in problem

    solving and decision making

     

    Develop further the intrinsic values of science such as inquisitiveness,open-mindedness, intellectual honesty and perseverance,

      Develop scientific and manipulative skills through the discovery-inquiry

    approach

      Develop skills in conducting scientific investigations and research

    Sample Instructional Goals for Year 4A) Understand that breathing is a general characteristic of living things

    B) Know that light can be dispersed

    Sample Instructional Objectives

    A1) Explain how breathing takes place in humans

    A2) State the three methods of breathing in animals

    B1) State that sunlight consists of seven coloursB2) Explain the formation of a rainbow

    1.  How is the goal  of the Malaysian primary school curriculum

    different from the stated curriculum objectives?2.  Which curriculum objectives focus on the knowledge, skills and

    attitudes/values to be acquired by students?3.  How is „Instructional Goal A‟ implemented in the classroom?

    [Source: Curriculum Specifications for Smart Schools, CurriculumDevelopment Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia, July, 1997] 

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    5.4.5 Instructional GoalsAt the instructional phase, curriculum objectives are translated initially into

    instructional goals. An instructional goal is a statement of performance expected of

    each student in a class stated in general terms. It is the general intentions of a courseof instruction without criteria of achievement. For example, „Students will show an

    understanding about the tropical rainforest‟. It indicates the performance expected; i.e.

    “understand”, but the performance level or criteria is not stated. So it is not easily

    measured. Instructional goals points the way to instructional objectives.

    5.4.6 Instructional ObjectivesAn instructional objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by

    each student in a class. It is stated in a form that is measurable and observable. Other

    names given for instructional objectives are specific instructional objectives, specific

    learning outcomes, behavioural objectives performance objectives, and competencies.

    An example of an instructional objective is: „At the end of the lesson students should be able to describe five characteristics of the tropical rainforest‟. It is important that

    you state clearly the instructional objectives you intend to achieve at the end of a

     period of instruction. It determines the selection of content (textbook, the internet,

    reference books), the teaching learning methods (lectures, practical sessions, group

    discussions, self study, field visits) to be adopted, learning resources (audio-visual

    aids, equipment, kits) you will utilise and how you intend to evaluate whether the

    desired learning outcomes have been achieved. Let us examine in detail about

    instructional objectives.

    Instructional objectives are the learning outcomes desired and are of primary

    importance in developing a curriculum. Objectives point to the appropriate content to

     be selected, how teaching and learning is to be conducted and ways of assessing

     performance in the subject. In the past the traditional description of a course simply

    referred to content; i.e. what it was that the teacher would cover. There has, however,

     been a shift in thinking about teaching and learning with learning and the learner now

    seen to be of primary importance. Teaching then becomes the means of facilitating

    learning in the learner.

    In the teacher-centred approach, teaching is generally seen to be about the

    transmission of knowledge. Focus is on what the teacher did, and goals of the subjectarea were expressed in terms of the content which the teacher would transmit. In the

    learner-centred approach, however, the focus is on what the learner does, and the

    intentions of a subject area are usually expressed in terms of how the learner will be

    changed as a result of learning that content. The statements describing the change in

    student behaviour which should result from taking the course are known as "intended

    learning objectives" or "intended learning outcomes"; "objectives" or "outcomes" for

    short. Teaching then becomes a series of strategies which are devised in order to help

    students achieve these objectives / outcomes. [You will notice that at the beginning of

    each chapter in this course there is a list of learning outcomes or objectives ].

    In stating a instructional objective or learning outcome, active verbs are used

    to indicate what it is that students must do in order to demonstrate learning. It is not

    5.5. Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes

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    enough to say "yes, I understand that". But how do I know that you understand unless

    you can demonstrate that you do. Here are some example of learning outcomes:

    On completion of this 45 minute lesson on the tropical rainforest you should

     be able to:

       Define the terms: evergreen, humidity, buttress roots, canopy

     

     Locate the distribution of the rainforest on a world map   Explain why there is little undergrowth in a rainforest

    The classification of learning objectives or outcomes was developed by a team

    led by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. Three domains were addressed and for each

    taxonomy of abilities, emotions and skills were developed. A taxonomy is a system

    for classifying something, and in this case; the classifying of learning objectives or

    learning outcomes. Taxonomies of learning objectives or learning outcomes are used

    to categorise goals for student learning. Taxonomies are based on the assumption that

    different types of objectives are learned through different mental processes. The three

    taxonomies are:

    5.6. Classifying Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes

    ACTIVITY 5.5

    Proponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that it:

      forces the teachers to be precise about what is to be accomplished

     

    enables the teacher to tell students what they must achieve  makes evaluation easier because it is measurable

      makes it easier for the selection of instructional objectives

      makes accountability easier

    Opponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that it:

      restricts creativity

      lead to trivial or unimportant competencies

      is dehumanising

      downplays affective outcomes

    1) 

    How do behavioural objectives restrict creativity among

    students?

    2)  Do you agree with the opponents of behavioural objectives?

    3)  State ONE other reason each supporting the proponents and

    opponents of behavioural objectives.

    [Source: adapted from Peter Oliva (1982). Developing the curriculum.Boston: Little Brown

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      The Cognitive Domain which is concerned with mental or intellectual skills

    and abilities

      The Affective Domain which is concerned with feelings, values and attitudes

      The Psychomotor Domain which is concerned with physical skills

    The three taxonomies remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about whata body of content require students to do, and for thinking about how students should

     be able to demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is valuable because it

    draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity of intellectual tasks which

    a subject might require to perform.

    Cognitive

    Levels

    Description Examples of Verbs for Stating

    Objectives or Outcomes

    Knowledge Remembering previously learned material.The skill may involve recall of a wide

    range of material, from specific facts to

    complete theories, but all that is requiredis the bringing to mind of the appropriate

    information.

    Define, describe, identify, label,

    list, match, name, select, state,

    outline, recite

    Comprehension The ability to grasp meaning of material.This skill may be shown by translating

    material from one form to another, by

    interpreting material (explaining or

    summarising), and by estimating future

    trends (predicting consequences or

    effects).

    Change, decode, defend,distinguish, estimate, explain,

    generalise, infer, give example,

    illustrate, paraphrase, predict,

    rewrite, restate, summarise, solve

    Application The ability to use learned material in newand concrete situations. This may includethe application of such things as rules,

    methods, concepts, principles, laws and

    theories.

    Apply, compute, demonstrate,develop, employ, manipulate,

    modify, organise, produce, relate,

    transfer, discover

    Synthesis The ability to put parts together to form anew whole. This may involve the

     production of a unique communication

    (theme or speech), a plan of operations

    (research proposal), or a set of abstract

    relations (scheme for classifying

    information)

    Categorise, combine, compile,

    compose, construct, create, design,devise, formulate, invent, generate,

     propose, rearrange, reconstruct,

    revise, rewrite, set up.

    Evaluation The ability to judge the value of material(statement, novel, poem, research report)for a given purpose. The judgements are

    to be based on definite criteria. These may

     be internal criteria (organisation) or

    external criteria (relevance to the purpose)

    and the student may determine the criteriaor be given them.

    Appraise, choose, compare,

    conclude, contrast, criticise,decide, defend, discriminate,

     justify, resolve, support, validate,

    write a review.

    [Source: Benjamin Bloom (1956) Handbook of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives]

    Table 5.1 The Cognitive Taxonomy

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    5.6.1 Cognitive DomainBloom‟s taxonomy of the cognitive domain is perhaps the best known and

    most widely used. It was published in 1956. It lists a person‟s observable and

    unobservable intellectual abilities such as comprehending information, organising

    ideas, and evaluating information and actions. It categorises the types of cognitive

    learning outcomes that are featured at all levels of the curriculum. Bloom and hisassociated classified cognitive learnings in 6 major categories: knowledge,

    comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (see Table 5.1).

    Cognitive Levels Description Examples of Verbs for Stating

    Objectives or Outcomes

    Receiving Willingness to receive or to attend to particular information or activity

    (textbook, classroom activity). Receiving

    involves the willingness to receive oraccept and focussing attention

    Attend, be aware, listen, reply,

    show, alert, use, watch, select,

    tolerate, follow, ask.

    Responding Refers to active participation by thestudent. The student is actively attending

     by responding in the class and is

    involved in the teaching-learning setting.He or she gains satisfaction from

    engaging in activities.

    Agree, answer, communicate,

    comply, consent, contribute,

    cooperate, help, inquire, obey,

     participate, question, request,report, respond, seek, volunteer

    Valuing The students sees worth or value in whatis being learned or the activity being

    done. The student does not merely obey

    or complies but does so because he or

    she is intrinsically motivated.

    Accept, adopt, approve, complete,

    commit, desire, display, exhibit,

    express, initiate, invite, prefer,

    share, study, work.

    Organisation The student brings together manydifferent values and attempt to resolve

    the conflicts between the value. Through

    this process he or she builds a value

    system. He or she sees how new values

    are related to existing values and tries to

    establish a balance.

    Adapt, alter, arrange, classify,

    compare, defend, establish,

    generalise, integrate, modify,

    order, rank, synthesise.

    Characterisation The student internalises the values. Inother words, he or she adopts the valuesas his or her own. The values

    internalised determines the behaviour of

    the student. The behaviour is consistent

    and predictable.

    Act, behave, conform, devote,display, endure, exemplify,

    function, maintain, practice,

     perform, uphold, use, influence.

    [Source: Benjamin Bloom and D. Krathwohl (1964) Handbook of Taxonomyof Educational Objectives]

    Table 5.2 The Affective Taxonomy

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    5.6.2 Affective Domain

    After the appearance of the cognitive taxonomy, David R. Krathwohl and

    others, including Benjamin Bloom, developed a taxonomy of objectives in the

    affective domain in 1964 (see Table 5.2). The affective domain relates to the manner

    in which we deal with things involving our emotions; such as our feelings, our values,how we appreciate something, our enthusiasm for something, what motivates us to do

    something and our attitudes towards something.

    5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain

    The psychomotor domain is less known compared to the other two

    taxonomies. There are several interpretations of the domain and one of them was

    developed by R. Dave in 1970 (see Table 5.3). The psychomotor domain involves

     physical movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of

    these skills require practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,

     procedures, or techniques in execution.

    Cognitive

    Levels

    Description Examples of Verbs for Stating

    Objectives or Outcomes

    Imitation The student indicates a readiness to learna certain complex skill. Imitation includesrepeating an act that has been

    demonstrated or explained. It includes

    trial and error until an appropriate

    response is achieved.

    Assemble, carryout, copy,

    construct, repeat, duplicate, practice, reproduce, start, try,

    volunteer, sketch, follow.

    Manipulation The student continues to practice the skilluntil it becomes habitual and can be

     performed with some confidence. The

    response is more complex but he or she is

    still not sure of himself or herself.

    [all the verbs for Imitation plus the

    following]: acquire, conduct, do,execute, operate, perform,

     produce, progress, use, operate.

    Precision The student attains the skill and proficiency is indicated by a quick,

    smooth and accurate performance. The

    response is complex and performed

    without hesitation.

    [all the verbs for Imitation and

    Manipulation plus the following]:

    achieve, automatise, exceed, excel,

    master, reach, refine, surpass,

    accomplish.

    Articulation The student is involved at an even higherlevel of precision. The skill is well

    developed. The student can adapt the skill

    according to different requirements.

    Adapt, change, alter, reorganise,rearrange, revise.

    Naturalisation The skill is automatic and the student isable to experiment and create new ways of

    using the skill.

    Arrange, compose, refine, create,

    design, originate, transcend.

    [Source: R. Dave. Psychomotor Domain, 1974]

    Table 5.3 The Psychomotor Taxonomy

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    The three taxonomies provide guidelines for developing instructional

    objectives and learning outcomes in a curriculum plan. The taxonomies serve as a

    guide to encourage teachers to move their learners from the lower outcomes to higher

    levels of learning in each domain.

    READINGS

      Henchey, N. (1999). The new curriculum reform: what does it really mean? McGill Journal of Education. Vol. 34. (3). p. 227. [available at ProQuest ].

      Reimer, B. (1989). A comprehensive arts curriculum model. Design for Arts in Education. vol. 90(6). pp. 39-43. [available at ProQuest ]

      Ornstein, A. and Hunkins, F. Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues.

    (1998). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 9: Aims, goals and objectives.

      Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle

    River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 4: Studies of subject matter. 

    DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

    1. If you heading a project on developing a curriculum for a particular course or

    subject, which of these 3 models of curriculum development would you adopt

    to guide you? Why?

    2. Have a look at any course or programme.

    a) 

    Is there a clear statement of curriculum objectives and instructional

    objectives to be achieved?

     b) Would you say that students would be clear about what they are expected

    to do in the course, or do the objectives simply delineate the content areas

    that the course will cover? 

    c) Is there an explicit relationship between the objectives and the teaching-

    learning methods employed in the subject?

    d) Is summative assessment carried out by anything other than class tests and

    examinations?e) Is there any mention in them of the affective side to learning in the subject?

    f) If not, what do you think would be appropriate affective objectives for the

    subject?