Changes in Saltwater Angling Methodsand Gear in California

SUSAN E. SMITH

Introduction

In California, as in most othercoastal states, saltwater recreationalfishing has increased rapidly over theyears, and is likely to continue toincrease. Recreational fish stocks,however, only have the capacity toyield a limited sustained catch.

To manage a recreational fish stockrationally, its relative abundance mustbe monitored over a period of time.One method widely used in assessingrelative abundance is the collection andanalysis of catch per unit of effort data(i.e., catch per angler hour, catch perangler day). Researchers recognize,however, that there are other factors toconsider when assessing abundance bythis technique. One such factor is thechange in efficiency of fishing gear andmethods over a period of time. Actualreduction of fish stocks, if measured bycatch-per-effort alone, may be maskedby increased efficiency in gear and / ormethods, so that there would appear tobe little, if any, decline in the stock(Gulland, 1968).

One of the first steps in approachingand understanding this problem is todocument important changes in an­gling techniques and tackle, and theapproximate times these changes havetaken place. Descriptions of commer­cial fishing gear and methods havebeen documented by Scofield (1929,1947, 1948, 1951a, 1951b, 1956), Fry

Susan E. Smith is with the Tiburon Laboratory,Southwest Fisheries Center, National MarineFisheries Service, NOAA, 3150 Paradise Drive,Tiburon, CA 94920.

32

(1931), Whitehead (1931), Croker(1938a), and others. Information oncommercial gear and techniques hasalso been gathered by the State ofCalifornia since 1916. This type ofinformation is not available forCalifornia's marine recreational fisher­ies, except in scattered reports in thescientific literature and in populararticles.

This report traces developments insaltwater angling equipment from justbefore the turn of the century to thepresent. It also presents some examplesof California fisheries that have beenaffected by developments in sportfish­ing methods and equipment, anddocuments current methods and tackleused in these fisheries.

General Developments

California saltwater recreationalfishing had its beginnings during thelast decades of the 19th century. In theearly days of the sport, it appears thatmost offshore fishing was conductedwith handlines, except for a selectgroup of big game anglers who fishedfor bluefin tuna off Catalina Island anda few salmon trollers in Monterey Bay(Collins, 1892; Holder, 1914; French,1916). No doubt some people used fly­fishing and freshwater baitcastingtackle for some of the smaller inshoreand anadromous species around rivermouths and in creeks and bays, butthere is little specific information of thetype of tackle used in these areas.

Hexagonal split bamboo rods hadbeen introduced in the United Statesaround 1870 (Marden, 1965), and rodsmade of plain bamboo (Calcutta type)were also available before the turn of

the century, as were a variety of hard­wood rods made of Cuban lancewood,hickory, South American greenheart,and bethabera. Multiplying baitcastingreels I were in use, but only a few weredesigned for saltwater fishing. Be­cause these early multipliers did nothave an internal drag or free-spoolmechanism, the reel handles wouldspin wildly when casting or when afish ran with the line. For this reasonthey were coined "knucklebusters."Pressure was applied to the outgoingline by a leather thumb brake.

Fishing line was usually tarredcotton or twisted linen. The last,called "cuttyhunk," became the mostpopular for saltwater use and consist­ed of strands of Irish linen. Eachstrand or ply of the most commontype (25-lea2) had a breaking strengthof a bout 3 pounds per strand dry, and5 pounds wet; a more specialized line(50-lea) tested at 2 pounds per strandwhen dry and 3 pounds when wet (A.W. Agnew, Sunset Line and Twine,Petaluma, Calif., pers. commun.).Cuttyhunk became the standard inocean angling until supplanted bynylon and Dacron3 after the secondWorld War. Linen line was combinedwith a variety of leader materials,usually gut or wire.

'M ultiplying reels. as opposed to single-actiontypes, are geared to give Increased retrIevingspeed, the spool revolving several times witheach turn of the handle.2A unit of measurement (300 yards per pound)indicating the degree of fineness of the yarnfrom which the threads of the lIne were made.1Reference to trade names or commercial firmsdoes not imply endorsement by the NationalMarine Fisheries Service. NOAA.

Marine Fisheries Review

Figure 2.-Pierfishing for mackerel at Monterey, Calif., in 1931. Note longbamboo poles (no reels) and thick lines. Mass-produced, low-cost star-dragreels came on the market about 4 years after this photo was taken. (Photocourtesy of California Department of Fish and Game.)

Figure I.-Yom Hofe & Company's "Universal Star," forerunner of today'sstar-drag reel design. as it appeared in a 19 19 catalog (E =removable leatherthumb pad. F=free-spool lever. G =star drag). Taken from Creal Fishing TackleCalalogs edited by Samuel Meiner and Hermann Kessler. Commentary bySparse Grey Hackle. © 1972 by Samuel Meiner and Hermann Kessler.Introduction and commentary © 1972 by Alfred W. Miller. Used by permissionof Crown Publishers, Inc.

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41n this report the term "sport fishing boat" hasbeen substituted for. and is synonymous with."partyboat." Use of the latter term has beendiscouraged by members of the recreationalfishing industry.

During the mid-1890's, gasolineboat engines were developed (Sco­field, 1956), which would have a pro­found effect on the expansion ofocean sport fishing on the west coast.After the turn of the century asteadily increasing number of boatsbegan to shift from sail and oar powerto gasoline engine power.

One of the most important devel­opments in ocean fishing tackle wasthe invention of the star-drag reel.The first reel (Fig. I) of this type withslipping clutch (internal drag) andirreversible handle was patented byEdward Yom Hofe and Co. in 1902for big game fishing off Catalina(Major, 1948; MeIner and Kessler,1972). After about 1913, the YomHofe star drag and other similar reelsbegan to replace the early knuckle­busters (Major, 1948; Reiger, 1973),but apparently they were mostly usedby big game fish anglers and still quiteexpensive. In a 1919 catalogue, pricesfor the Universal Star (Yom Hofe) insizes 2/0 to 9/0 ranged from $57.50 to$75.50 each (MeIner and Kessler,1972).

The 1920's marked a turning pointin ocean fishing with the introductionof public sportfishing boats andfishing barges in southern California(Major, 1948; Yan Deventer, 1926;Sadler, 1928). In general, a sportfish­ing boat or party boat4 providesfishing space to the public for a feeand operates on a scheduled basis asopposed to charters and rentalswhere the boat itself is hired for theexclusive use of one or more anglers.Barges are essentially immobilesportfishing boats reached by shuttlelaunches from shore. With these newfacilities, open ocean fishing becameavailable to the general public.

In the 1930's, live-bait fishing andpublic sportfishing (Fig. 2) becameestablished in southern California,while ocean pleasure fishing was justbeginning or already underway in

Seplember 1979 33

northern California (Croker, 1938b;Davis, 1949). Starting in 1935, Cali­fornia boat operators who carriedanglers for hire were required by law tokeep daily records of their catch.

During the mid-1930's, Americanreel manufacturers introduced moder­ately priced, mass-produced, highquality, revolving spool reels (star-dragtype) to middle and low income people,and these reels soon came into wide­spread use (H. Henze, Penn Reels,Philadelphia, Pa., pers. comun.). Al­though the first spinning (fixed spool)reel was introduced from France in[935, by the time a market wasdeveloped in 1939, the supply was cutoff because of the war (McClane,1974). Braided nylon fishing line madeits appearance around [939 (sampleswere exhibited at the San FranciscoWorld's Fair), and it later came intolimited use during the war years (A. W.Agnew, Sunset Line and Twine,Petaluma, Calif., pers. commun.). Thisearly nylon line stretched badly, and atthe time, no one knew how to eliminateor reduce the stretch factor. In general.,bamboo was the most popular rodmaterial, although in 1936, tubularmetal rods made of beryllium coppercame on the market. These berylliumrods resisted saltwater corrosion betterthan other metal rods already on themarket for freshwater use (Moss,1976), although corrosion was stilla problem.

When the United States enteredWorld War II in December 1941, theU.S. Navy closed all ports to sport­fishing. Later a few boats with specialpermits were allowed to operate fromcertain ports, but under strict regula­tions (Young, 1969).

By the end of the war, most anglerswere still using cane rods, star-dragreels, and twisted linen line with gut orwire leaders, but important develop­ments in tackle were already underway.Many reels were now equipped withlightweight plastic spools which madeit much easier to cast light lures and livebait using cuttyhunk line. Also, by thistime, the gear-in-mesh feature wasavailable on most reels. Prior to thisinvention it was very easy to strip thegears of a reel if the angler threw it intogear while a fish was running with theline.

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An important new product, mono­filament nylon line, was introduced in1946. Although the first monofilamentline was waterproof (did not rot) andwas lighter than braided nylon or linenline, it was stiff and difficult to use as amain line. It also stretched badly andplayed havoc with plastic spool reels,bursting them under pressure. Later,many improvements were made thatcut down on the stretch, and castinglines were made softer and limper. Softmonofilament was finally introducedto the west coast in the early 1950's, butit did not begin to outsell braidedlinen line until the early 1960's whenspin fishing became popular in saltwater. Spinning reels had been reintro­duced about the same time as mono­filament line (circa 1946), but thesewere mainly designed for freshwaterfishing. The early spinning reels weretrouble-prone and did not work wellwith braided line which was stillpopular for ocean fishing in the 1940's.

An important advance in rod build­ing occurred in 1948, when fiberglassrods were introduced, and solid,hollow, and wooden core modelsbecame available (Major, 1948). Theadvantage of fiberglass was that it wasflexible and tough, excellent forcasting, and did not take a permanentbend or "set" after prolonged use as didbamboo or hardwood rods, or rust likemetal rods.

Also, in the late 1940's, the first fiber­glass boats were made available to thepublic. Fiberglass enabled boat build­ers to mass produce one-piece hullswith a minimum of skilled labor, and infollowing years this material wouldbecome a standard in the pleasure boatfield (Whittier, 1976). Advancementsin welded and riveted aluminum hullsalso helped to make aluminum a popu­lar boat-building material. These newmaterials made fishing skiffs strong yetlight and portable, and relativelymaintenance free.

Another postwar development wasthe introduction of outboard engineswith forward-neutral-reverse gearshifts.These soon replaced the old directdrive outboards, making small boatsmore manageable, safer, and simpler tooperate. Soon afterward manufactur­ers offered cable-operated remote­control steering so one could operate

the motor from up forward, giving theboat better stability and the skipperbetter forward visibility (Whittier,1976). These developments, as well asthe many other improvements in boatand engine designs that followed afterthe war, including the introduction ofelectric starters, radio-telephones,fathometers, radar, and other electron­ic equipment, had a great influence onthe expansion of the recreational boatfishery in California.

In 1950, soft monofilament fishingline was introduced on the west coast.Soon most leader materials werediscarded in favor of tying the hookdirectly to the monofilament line. Thismade casting small baits and lureseasier and caused a boom in the lurebusiness (Agnew, Sunset Line andTwine Co., Petaluma, Calif., pers.commun.; Cannon, 1964). Also, duringthis time, fiberglass rods were quicklyreplacing the old cane rods. Moderatelypriced, quality spinning reels wereintroduced in 1953, and these reelssoon became popular in freshwaterfishing, and later (the 1960's) in salt­water fishing. The spinning reel, orfixed-spool design, eliminated themain cause of line backlashes, permit­ted the use of very light lures and baits,and perhaps most important, made theart of casting relatively easy to masterfor novice anglers.

In the late 1950's, the Coast Guardenfarced stringent regulations forpassenger boats (Frey, 1971), and thefollowing years would see a markeddecrease, followed by a leveling off, inthe number of active sportfishing boats(Young, 1969), and a trend, especiallyin southern California, toward larger,faster, and more comfortable boatsdesigned for offshore and long-rangefishing trips. Many of the largersouthern California sport boats werebuilt and launched during this period(Young, 1969).

In the 1960's, the combination ofspinning reels, fiberglass rods, andmonofilament nylon line becameestablished in saltwater fishing inCalifornia. On the west coast, mono­filament line came into widespread use,outselling braided line (Agnew, SunsetLine and Twine, Petaluma, Calif., pers.commun.). By the mid- [960's, fiber­glass had dominated the rod market.

Marine Fisheries Review

Figure 3.-The downrigger allows an angler to fish a baitor lure at accurately controlled depths using light tackle.When a fish strikes, the angler's line is released from thedownrigger sinker and line.

Today, nylon monofilament line isstill the most popular line, and is usedon both spinning and revolving spoolreels. Spinning gear is especiallypopular for the many smaIJ-to-medium­sized game fishes found in California'sinshore waters. Revolving spool reelsare enjoying renewed popularitylargely due to refinements in reeldesigns. Some of the newer reels ha vean internal centrifugal brake system aswell as an external spool tensioncontrol that allows the angler to castlures and baits with monofilament linewithout line backlashes-the maindrawback of old revolving-spool reels.Spinning tackle is now common onsouthern California live-bait sportfish­ing boats, although the combination ofconventional (revolving-spool) reelsand monofilament line is widely used,and is also preferred for ocean salmontrolling and sturgeon fishing in north­ern California, and jigging for some ofthe larger game fish in southernCalifornia.

Braided lines (nylon and Dacron)are generally reserved for big-gametrolling and offshore bottom fishingwhere heavy duty conventional reelsand rods are used. A new type of smalldiameter braided Dacron line hasrecently been introd uced and is gainingin popularity in southern California. Ithas good abrasion resistance and lowstretch (7-8 percent as compared withnylon line with 20-25 percent stretch).

The tubular fiberglass rod is still thestandard in California sport fishing;however, a new type of rod made fromgraphite was introduced around 1973.Graphite rods are extremely light andultrasensitive, yet very strong, thoughapproximately one-third smaller indiameter than comparable fiberglassrods. At this time, however, graphiterods are still quite expensive.

Finally, the downrigger (Fig. 3),used for deep-water trolling, is showingup on an increasing number of privatesportfishing boats in California. Thisdevice allows the angler to fish at a baitat accurately controlled depths withlight or medium tackle and land a fishwithout the hindrance or loss of thesinker. The downrigger is clamped tothe side or stern of the boat andconsists of a short rod and hand-

September /979

cranked or electrically operated metaldrum loaded with stainless steel wireweighted at the end with a heavycannonball or diving sinker. Theangler's unweighted line is attached tothe weighted downrigger line by ametal sinker release or release clip, thenlowered to the desired depth. When afish strikes the bait, the angler's line isreleased, allowing him to fight and landhis fish on the free line.

Fishing Techniqueand Tackle Changes

The following are just a few exam­ples of specific marine recreationalfisheries in California that have beenaffected by developments in sportfish­ing tackle and fishing methods. 0

doubt other fisheries have been affect­ed as well. These examples are alsoused to document present methods andtackle.

San Francisco AreaStriped Bass Fishery

Up until the mid-1950's, striped bass,Marone saxatilis, fishing methods inSan Francisco Bay had remainedessentially the same for about half acentury-still-fishing with bait andnear-surface trolling with artificiallures. But in the summer of 1957, acollapse of the ocean salmon fisherybrought salmon sport fishing boatsinto the bay to fish for strired bass indeep water using the new technique ofdeep-line trolling with 3-pound (1.4­kg) sinkers and sinker releases (Chad­wick, 1962). Many bass were caught,that year off Alcatraz Island, and sub­sequently in other areas in upper SanFrancisco Bay. From 1957 to 1959,most fish caught in the upper bay weretaken by deep-line trolling. Further­more, a winter fishery developedaround 1958 when anglers discovered

35

A

Figure 4.-0ver a span of about 8years, striped bass sport fishingboat methods have changed from(A) near-surface trolling and (8)bottom fishing, to (C) deep trollingand then (D) deep drifting with livebait.

Sturgeon Fishing inSan Francisco Bay

Sturgeon fishing, prohibited by lawin 1917, was opened to sportfishing in1954; the fishery centered in the SanFrancisco Bay estuary system. Themost common species, the white stur­geon, Acipenser transmontanus.reaches a length of 20 feet (610 cm) anda weight of 1,800 pounds (816.5 kg)(Squire and Smith, 1977). A size limitof 40 inches (102 cm) was establishedwith a one-fish bag limit. Initially,snagging by trollers seemed to be theonly effective method, but trolling forsturgeon was prohibited by law in 1956(Miller, 1972). Relatively few fishwere taken until 1964 when it was dis­covered that bay shrimp, Crangon sp.,was a very effective bait (McKechnieand Fenner, 1971). With this discov­ery, yearly sport fishing boat catchesjumped from 3 sturgeon in 1963 to2,400 in 1967-a striking example ofthe effect of a new fishing technique on

are used as bait. During the summer,anglers will sometimes troll artificiallures.

Private boat and rental skiff anglersthroughout the bay system conductboth surface and deep-line trolling forbass as well as plug casting and baitfishing. Shore anglers cast baits andartificial lures from piers, jetties, banks,and beaches. Some fly-fishing is donein the relatively shallow, quiet watersof the bay.

Boat rods and revolving spool reelsare generally used for deep trolling anddeep drifting with live bait, while bothspinning and conventional tackle areused for surface trolling and casting.Fi berglass surf-casting rods range upto 12 feet (3.7 m) long. Line strengthsvary with fishing method, usually any­where from 12 to 20 pound test mono­filament for casting, to 40 pound test orheavier for deep-line trolling wherecannonball sinkers (1/2- to I-pound or0.2- to 0.5-kg) are used. In deep-linetrolling, some sportfishing boats useheavy duty monel wire for the mainline, where 2- to 3-pound (0.9 to 1.4­kg) sinkers are needed to carry the long(up to 12 m) monofilament leader tothe desired depth.

jigs). Among the advantages of live baitfishing on passenger boats, as opposedto deep-line trolling (still a veryeffective method), are that many linescan be fished at a time, and moreanglers can be accommodated per trip.The method is also relatively simple forthe novice angler (c. Anfrinson,Captain, fishing vessel Bass Tub 11/,pers. commun.).

In San Pablo Bay and adjacentbays, rivers, and sloughs and up intothe Delta, bait fishing remains themost widely used method in fall andwinter. Staghorn sculpin Leptocottusarmatus, mudsuckers Gillichthysmirabilis. and bay shrimp Crangon sp.,

o

B

that striped bass could be taken duringthe herring spawning runs. They usedboth the new deep-line trolling tech­nique and the standard surface trollingmethod. Chadwick (1962) concludedthat because fishing techniques inupper San Francisco Bay had changedso radically (Fig. 4), the commercialsport fishing boat catch could not beused to measure changes in abundanceof striped bass.

From the early to mid-1960's,another major change occurred instriped bass methods with the intro­duction of live bait drifting withanchovies, Engraulis mordax. Onlyone live-bait sportfishing boat oper­ated in 1962 and 1963, but by 1965,live-bait fishing for striped bass wasfirmly established (McKechnie andFenner, 1971; Chadwick and Albrecht,1965).

Ocean surf-casting methods alsochanged in the mid-1960's when it wasdiscovered that striped bass gathered infeeding schools at certain areas offocean beaches, at which time theywould readily take artificial lures castfrom shore (Miller, 1974). Until then,practically all surf-caught bass weretaken with bait, usually clams. Accord­ing to Frey (1971), by 1966 nearly allstriped bass surf anglers had switchedto metal and plastic artificial lures. Thischangeover also affected the catchalong ocean beaches of redtail surfperchAmphistichus rhodoterus, which pre­viously had been taken incidentally onhooks baited for striped bass. Whenanglers switched to lures cast out andquickly retrieved, red tail surfperch(which are seldom taken by thismethod) occurred much less frequent­ly in the catch (Frey, 1971).

Today in San Francisco Bay, live­bait fishing is the primary method usedby striped bass sportfishing boats at theheight of the summer and fall seasons.Anchovies and shiner perch Cymato­gaster aggregata, are used as bait.Boats repeatedly drift over areas wherean abrupt change in depth occurs andwhen the current is running swiftest. Inearly spring, however, some will trolldeep, using either single lines riggedwith plastic skirt lures ("hoochies") ortandem spreader rigs baited withartificial lures (spoons, plugs, bug-eye

36 Marine Fisheries Review

I

Figure 6.-Landing a white sturgeon in San Francisco Bay. In recent years, Bayanglers have developed effective methods for catching sturgeon on the herrringspawning grounds near the Golden Gate Bridge.

Figure 5.-Discovery in the early 1960's of bay shrimp,Crangon sp., for bait revolutionized the sturgeon fisheryin San Francisco Bay. The terminal end of a typical rig isshown (one hook left unbaited to show hook type).

weight is attached to a short length oflighter line which is tied to a swivelabout 60 cm above the hook.

Recently, snagging again became aproblem, especially during times whensturgeon would congregate to feed onherring spawn. Reportedly, someanglers were casting out heavy luresand snagging fish on the retrieve. In1978, this type of snagging becameillegal, and anglers are now required to

sturgeon In these areas and thetechniques to catch them (L. Green,San Bruno, Calif., pers. commun.).The fish are caught bottom fishingclose to shore, often during swift-run­ning incoming tides. Instead of thestandard grass shrimp, herring fillets orwads of herring roe are used for bait. Inthe herring spawning areas, the slidingsinker rig is used over sand or mudbottom, while over rocky bottom the

a fishery. There seems little doubt thatangler efficiency increased over thisperiod.

In succeeding years, bottom fishingfor sturgeon beca me increasi nglypopular in the San Francisco Bay area,with most angling taking place fromsportfishing boats and skiffs (privateand rented) in San Pablo and SuisunBays from fall through early spring. Inthese areas the standard equipment is a7- to 8-foot (2.1- to 2.4-m) boat rodwith a flexible tip, and conventionalstar-drag reel loaded with about 300yards (274 m) of 40- to 50-pound testmonofilament line. Most anglers useone of the commercially available stur­geon rigs that include a wire or heavysleeve, and hooks. The bait is usuallylive or freshly-dead bay shrimp (Fig.5), although mudsucker, GiLlichthysmirabilis, and ghost shrimp, Upogebiapugettensis and Callianassa califor­niensis, have also been used in recentyears. In fact, the use of callianassidbait has increased dramatically sinceabout 1976, and it is possible that ghostshrimp, particularly C. californiensis,may be an even more effective bait forsturgeon than bay shrimp.

Sinker weights vary with the strengthof the current. The method is to locatea known or suspected sturgeon ground,then anchor. After dropping a baitedhook over the side, line is payed outand the rod tip watched closely. Afterthe first light tap, a few more feet of lineis payed out. Usually when the secondtap is felt, the angler sets the hook. Amodest fishery takes place in south SanFrancisco Bay, where anglers usemethods and tackle similar to those inSan Pablo and Suisun Bays.

A separate fishery also exists inupper San Francisco Bay during theherring (C1upea harengus) spawningruns that occur from about January toMarch. At this time, sturgeon areknown to feed on herring eggs aroundthe Sausalito and Tiburon Peninsulas,where, during the height of the runs,sturgeon are caught by shore and boatanglers (Fig. 6). This fishery developedover the past 8 years, growing froma handful of anglers in 1970, andincreasing rapidly since 1974 as moreanglers learned of the availability of

September /979 37

return to the water all sturgeon nothooked in the mouth.

Ocean Salmon Fishing

Ocean fishing for salmon was startedby recreational anglers in MontereyBay in the early 1880's. According toScofield (1956), they trolled for salmonfrom small sailboats using two handrods and a line over each side equippedwith a hook and leader. Some lineswere provided with two leaders andhooks. The leader was about 30 feet (9m) long and carried a lead sinkermidway between the main line andlure. Up until this time, salmon hadbeen taken only in rivers and bays bycommercial netters and in rivers andstreams by anglers using fly-fishing orfreshwater baitcasting tackle.

By 1893, the troll-line sport fisheryhad become well established in theMonterey Bay area. Anglers fishedfrom sailboats or rowboats using"stout lines and hooks attached toflyrods or simply fished by hand ... "(Smith, 1895). Sardine was the princi­pal bait. In 1893, a writer for Forestand Stream (predecessor to today'sField and Stream magazine) reportedfishing for salmon in Monterey Baywith a trolling rod, multiplying reel,and linen line (cited by Smith, 1895).

By 1902, anglers were trolling forsalmon in the ocean just north of SanFrancisco. According to old newspaperreports, they trolled from launches,fishing the area between Tennessee Coveand Bolinas Bay, Marin County, someusing artificial lures (Neal, 1977).Around the same time in MontereyBay, anglers apparently were stillrelying on sardines, Sardinops sagax,for bait, and spoons were only rarelyused (Jordan and Evermann, 1902).They would use a 30-ply line and a 3- to5-pound (1.4- to 2.3-kg) sinker attach­ed to a lighter 24-ply line, 6 m above thehook. About 150 feet (46 m) of linewould be let out and the bait fished 6­15 m below the surface, trolled at about4 miles per hour (Jordan and Ever­mann, 1902).

By 1908, ocean salmon anglers incentral California were beginning touse lighter, more sporting tackle forsalmon. That year, large catches ofsalmon were reported in Monterey

38

Bay, landed by anglers using light rods,9-thread line, and size 7/0 hooks baitedwith smelt, anchovy, or sardine (Hol­der, 1908). In 1908, a writer forForest and Stream reported that while"most professional salmon fishermen[off San Francisco] use sardines and aheavy sinker on thick line, the ama­teurs use a new trolling spoon on a lightline, and secure many more strikes"(A.P.B., 1908).

According to Croker (1938b), verylittle salmon angling took place in theocean north of Bodega Bay until afterWorld War II, although sometimesnorth coast commercial trollers wouldallow anglers on their boats. Thetechnique of "mooching" for salmonwas introduced to California at Hum­boldt Bay in the late 1930's or early1940's, when there was a great influx ofanchovies into the Bay (D. Gotshall,Calif. Dep. Fish Game, Monterey,Calif., pers. commun.). This methodapparently originated in the Seattle,Wash., area, developed by Elliot Bayanglers around the turn of the century(Haw et aI., 1967).

Humboldt Bay mooching involvesdrifting a bait (usually anchovy) closeto the bottom on an incoming tide,repeatedly lifting the bait up at anangle, then letting it drop back again.The action is also imparted by varyingthe boat speed (motor or oar power), tohelp the drift when the current isrunning swiftly. Mooching rods areusually longer, lighter, and morelimber than conventional rods used inocean trolling for salmon, and arecombined with revolving spool reels.The line (after about 1950, nylonmonofilament) is usually weightedwith a light, crescent-shaped sinker.

In the San Francisco area in the1930's, metal sinker releases (thespring-loaded type similar to that usedtoday) had already come into use. It isnot known exactly when this devicewas introduced in California, butapparently it was first used withwindow sash weights, then cannonballsinkers. It soon became part ofstandard trolling tackle. During the1930's, San Francisco salmon trollerswould use spoons in spring, then laterin the season switch to bait (anchovies,sometimes sardines). They used primi-

tive long-shank commercial salmonhooks with no eye, and these were tieddirectly to the cuttyhunk line, whichanglers would often mark with paint ornailpolish to better gauge the fishingdepth (A. W. Agnew, Sunset Line andTwine, Petaluma, Calif., pers. com­mun.). After the war before monofila­ment nylon came into use, piano wirewas used as leader material (E. Neal,San Francisco Examiner, pers. com­mun.)

During the 1950's, ocean salmonfishing increased phenomenally, andno doubt the development of morepowerful and dependable boat enginesand improvements in boat design hadmuch to do with the expansion of thesport (Wendler, 1960). Anglers couldreach fishing grounds that werepreviously unsafe or out of reach.Availability of moderately priced,quality fishing tackle-fiberglass rods,monofilament line, and trouble-freefishing reels-also played a part in theexpansion of ocean salmon fishing.

Today, sport fishing for salmon isconducted all along the central andnorthern California coast from AvilaBeach to Crescent City. Most fishingnorth of Fort Bragg is conducted fromskiffs, although commercial sportfishing boats are available seasonally atEureka, Trinidad, and Crescent City.The majority of salmon sport boats op­erate out of the San Francisco Bay area.Both chinook, Oncorhynchustshawytscha, and coho, O. kisutch,salmon are taken, with chinooksdominating the catch south of FortBragg and cohos entering the catchmore frequently to the north. Althoughthe tackle has changed considerablyover the years, the method of fishing isbasically the same used back in 1902 atMonterey Bay-trolling whole fishbaits from 6 to 18 m below the water'ssurface, depending on where the fishare feeding.

Offshore of the Golden Gate Bridge,where the most consistent salmon runsoccur, the standard tackle consists of aconventional fiberglass boat rod (7-8feet or 2.1-2.4 m) combined with amedium-sized star-drag reel loadedwith about 200-250 yards (183 to 229m) of 20 to 30 pound test nylon mono­filament or Dacron line. Many anglers

Marine Fisheries Re\'ie\\'

use a metal sinker release and cannon­ball weights of 1-3 pounds (0.5-1.4 kg).Plastic diving planes are sometimesused but a~ yet are not as common asthe sinker release rig. An increasingnumber of boats are equipped withdownriggers to carry the bait to thedesired depth. Standard bait is fresh­frozen anchovy, though herring is alsoused. The bait is usually threaded onone of the commercially available baitholders (crowbars, easy-baiters). Asliding two-hook rig is used along thenorth coast, as are mooching rigs andthe combination of a #2/0 hook andcrescent or torpedo-shaped sinker.Some anglers attach a spinning "Oash­er" or wobbling "herring dodger" (bothshiny metal attractors) between thesinker and bait (Fig. 7). Most northcoast sport fishing boats use the Oasheror dodger rig; it is not as common onSan Francisco boats. Artificial lures(particularly spoons) are in use,especially from Monterey south toAvila Beach, but in general these run adistant second to fish bait.

Boats troll over a known fishingground at about 2 to 5 miles per hourwith lines fished at slightly differentdepths to avoid tangles. Coho salmonare taken nearer the surface thanchinooks, with baits fished usually nodeeper than 6 or 9 m below the surface.

Figure 7.-Salmon trolling rig showing cannonball sinker and release, metalattractor, and rigged anchovy.

Figure 8.-Sport boat seining for sardines outside Long Beach Harbor, 1928. Inthe early days of southern California live-bait fishing, sport boats netted theirown bait before picking up passengers (long bamboo poles rest against cabin).(Photo courtesy of California Department of Fish and Game.)

Figure 9.-Live-bait fishing off Rocky Point. southern California, 1938. (Photocourtesy of California Department of Fish and Game.)

Southern CaliforniaLive Bait Fishing

As mentioned earlier, live-baitfishing from public sport fishing vesselswas introduced in southern Californiain the 1920's. Initially, trolling was theprincipal method, but as early as 1925some boats were using live bait. Theseearly "live-bait boats" would go out ona scheduled basis every day, but wereprimitive and offered anglers little inthe way of comfort (Davis, 1949). Baitwas kept in barrels which had to bereplenished every few minutes withbuckets of fresh seawater (Hull, 1973).Sardines, the principal live bait, werenetted prior to the fishing trip (Fig. 8).

In the 1930's, the use of live bait forboth bait and chum became established(Fig. 9). By the mid-1930's, a few boatsbegan to specialize in catching and

Seplemher /979

supplying live bait to others, and thelive bait industry was born (Hull,1974). Also, new live bait tanks were

developed that circulated a continuousflow of pumped water to keep the baitin good condition. Standard tackle was

39

Figure 10.-Deck hand gaffs a bluefin tuna on a 1937 fishing trip off CatalinaIsland. In the late 1930's, southern California live-bait anglers fished with heftycane rods, star-drag reels, and linen line using sardine for bait and chum. (Photocourtesy of California Department of Fish and Game.)

Figure II.-Live-bait fishing off southern California in the 1970's. Modernsport boats such as this one are faster, safer. and more comfortable than those ofprior decades, and are outfitted with sophisticated electronic fish-finding,radio, and navigational equipment to more efficiently locate concentrations offish.

through 4/0, depending on target fishsize. Sinkers (most often the torpedo­type), were used for California halibut,Para/ichlh.l's ca/i(urnicus, and otherbottomfishes. Many anglers were nowusing plastic spools on their reels tomake it easier to cast live baits. Leadermaterial was either gut or piano wire.Hea vy stainless steel wire was oftenused for jigging, and some anglers,rucknamed "feather merchants," wouldbring lighter tackle and fish withfeather jigs. By the late 1940's, ancho­vies had pretty much replaced thehardier sardine as live bait, as the latterwere getting too difficult to obtain.Sometimes queenfish, Seriphus pu/i­IUS, was used as live bait for kelp bass,Paralabrax clathratus, and Californiahalibut.

During the 1950's, soft monofila­ment nylon line began showing up onsportfishing boats, and fiberglass rodswere replacing the old cane rods. Newhigh-speed retrieve reels (star-dragtype) were introduced in 1959, andbecame popular for yellowtail, Seriu/adorsalis, jigging (H. Heerse, PennReels, Philadelphia, Pa., pers. com­mun.).

In the 1960's and 1970's, fiberglassrods and nylon monofilament linecame into widespread use on sportfish­ing boats (Fig. J I). Today, live baitanglers usually use light to mediumaction fiberglass rods, generally from6V;. to 7 V;. feet (2.0 to 2.3 m) long andwith a fast taper. These live-bait rodsare designed to be strong yet light,with tips nexible enough to cast asmall live anchovy on an unweightedline. The choice of medium or lighttackle depends on the species sought,and often how crowded the boat is. Ifmany anglers are fishing at closequarters, light tackle is usuallydiscouraged. Open faced spinning orconventional star-drag reels are used,loaded with about 250-300 yards(229-274 m) of 15- to 20-pound testmonofilament line. Today, live-baithooks are much smaller than thoseused throughout the postwar years andare of the short-shank O'Shaughnessytype with point bent toward the shank(Garrison and Rice, 1972). Generally,hook sizes range from I through 6, andthe hook is tied directly to the end of

fishing boat anglers were still usingmedium star-drag reels, Calcuttabamboo poles, twisted linen (and sometwisted nylon) line (27- to 30-poundtest), and live bait hooks in sizes I/O

a bamboo rod, star-drag reel, twistedlinen line (cuttyhunk), and a gut or wireleader (Fig. 10).

In the years that immediatelyfollowed World War II, most sport

40 Marine Fisheries Review

the line. If the fish are not near thesurface, a lightweight rubber-coredsinker is attached to the line about 3feet (91 cm) above the bait (Fig. 12).Live bait is still predominantly an­chovy, which is hooked upwardsthrough the gill collar or through thesnout. Larger baits and larger hooks(sizes I/O to 4/0) are used for biggergame such as large white seabass,Cynoscion nobilis, yellowtail, andlarge kelp bass. Live squid (Loligospp.), hooked through the tip of themantle, is prime bait for the abovespecies. Pacific mackerel, Scomberjaponicus, usually hooked through thesnout, is also used as live bait for theselarger fish. Queenfish, hooked underthe breastbone, is still popular for largekelp bass.

A sport boat will arrive at a knownfishing spot, such as the seaward side ofa kelp bed, and begin to chum slowlywith live anchovies, while making acircle about 46 m in diameter. If fishbegin to break the surface within thecircle, the captain will anchor the boatand continue chumming (Fig. 13).Anglers then cast or ease their baitedhooks over the side, set their reels infree spool or open bail, and allow thebait to move relatively free in the water.When a game fish takes the bait, it ispermitted to run a short distancebefore the reel is put in gear and theangler sets the hook.

Offshore Bottomfishing inorthern California

catch (Pinkas, 1977). Rockfish are im­portant in both northern and southernCalifornia, and are particularly valu­able in areas where other game fishesshow up less predictably or only sea­sonally.

Offshore bottomfishing for sport hasbeen conducted in California sincebefore the turn of this century. Accord­ing to early newspaper reports, in thelate 1870's and 1880's there were sport­fishing excursions during summer outof Humboldt Bay to bottom fishinggrounds off False Cape and Cape Men­docino (Wainwright, 1965). Twosteam tugs, each accommodating about30 passengers, operated out of theEureka area; and tickets for a fishingtrip were sold to anglers for $2.00 each(Wainwright, 1965). Rockfish com­posed the bulk of the catch, thoughPacific halibut Hippoglossusstenolepis, and true cod (Gadus mac­rocephalus) also were taken. The re­ports do not go into detail about tackle,but the anglers apparently used hand­lines, the primary method used forocean bottomfish in California forabout 50 years thereafter.

By the 1930's, rod and reel wasbeginning to appear in the oceanbottomfishery, although most fishingwas still done with handlines. In 1933,a pleasure fishing trip out of Princetonwas described by Buchanan (cited byYoung, 1969). According to his report,

14 anglers boarded a 30-foot (9.2-m)long fishing launch and went out one­half to three-quarters of a mile off­shore before dropping lines. Only twoanglers used poles, the rest used hand­lines with three hooks baited withsardine, the whole rig weighted with a2-pound (0.9-kg) sinker. Black rock

Figure 12.-Southern Californialive-bait rig. Rubber-cored sinker(above bait) is used if fish are notfeeding near the surface.

For many years, offshore bottom­fish have been an important staple ofCalifornia marine recreational fishing.Rockfish (Sebastes spp.) are theprincipal species in the bottomfishcatch, although others, such as lingcod,Ophiodon elongatus, cabezon, Scor­paenichthys marmoratus, and flat­fishes, also are landed. Approximately55 species of rockfish occur in Cali­fornia waters, and 29 of these areknown to occur in the northern Cali­fornia sport boat catch (Miller andGotshall, 1965). Since the early 1960's,rockfish have ranked first in numbersof fish taken by sport boat anglers, andbetween 1972 and 1975 they composedover one-half of the annual statewide

September 1979

Figure 13.-Live-bait fishing from a southern California sport fishing boat.

41

Figure l4.-Northern California bottomfish tackle (1970's): (A) Boat pole withstar-drag reel, deck plate, multijig rig, and cannonball sinker; (B-D) variationsin rockfish jig designs; (E) chrome "hex" jig used for lingcod and large rockfish.

fish (assume S. melanops) dominatedthe catch, although flatfishes and otherspecies of rockfish were also taken.

In Monterey Bay, offshore bottom­fishing up until the early 1940's wasdone almost exclusively with cottonhandlines, which were supplied toanglers at the onset of the trip (F.Arcoleo, retired sport boat captain,Monterey, Calif., pers. commun.).Each handline was about 91 m long,rigged with two dropper lines and 5/0hooks baited with salted sardine, andweighted with an old railroad spike.Around 1941, Monterey sport boatanglers began using bamboo poles,star-drag reels, and twisted linen(cuttyhunk) line. The standard methodwas baitfishing with sardine, althoughsome anglers (usually the more exper­ienced ones) used chrome hexagonaljigs for blue, olive, and yellowtailrockfish. These 24-ounce (0.68-kg)"hex" jigs were, and still are, veryeffective but it takes skill to avoidsnagging and losing them on thebottom.

In the late 1940's, fiberglass rodsbegan showing up on the sport boats

colored yarn, synthetic fibers, or plasticskirts (Fig. 14). According to sportboat captains in Monterey Bay, whenthese rigs were introduced in theMonterey area around 1957, the boatthat first used them consistently caughtmore fish than other boats fishing inthe same area at the same time. Soonafterward, other sport boat operatorsin the Monterey Bay area began to usethe new multijig rigs. According toMiller (Calif. Dep. Fish and Game,Monterey, Calif., pers. commun.),rockfish landings increased during thisperiod, especially catches of schoolingpelagic types such as blue, yellowtail,widow, and olive rockfishes. In thisinstance, the new type of terminaltackle may not only have affectedcatch-per-unit-of-effort, but speciescomposition of the catch as well. Also,in the late 1960's and early 1970'sspinning gear became a vailable on theMonterey boats so that anglers couldfish with feather jigs in case a surfacefeeding school of blue or yellowtailrockfish was found.

The multijig rockfish lures are nowcommonly used throughout most ofnorthern California, along with thestandard combination of fiberglassboat rods, heavy duty star-drag reels,and nylon monofilament and braidedDacron lines testing at 40-60 pounds.The multijig rigs are fished success­fully with or without bait (squid or cutanchovy). Sinker weights vary from 8ounces to 2 pounds (from 0.2 to 0.9 kg)or more. The hexagonal chrome jigs, inuse before World War II, are still com­monly used, especially for lingcod,which are also taken with single hookrigs baited with small live rockfish andlive squid when available. Recently,other types of jigs, some very similar tothe "candy bar" types used on southernCalifornia sport boats, have beenintroduced to central California bot­tomfishi ng.

Even if it is assumed that the fishingpower of the terminal tackle itself hasnot changed, ongoing improvements inelectronic equipment and boat andengine design since the 1940's haveobviously enabled boats to fish indeeper water and travel to new bottom­fish grounds farther from port. Ultra­sensitive fathometers have helped to

r

E

A

5cm

3cm

25cm

and squid was rapidly replacingsardine as bait. The first fathometersalso came into use in the late 1940's, butthey were generally not accepted untilafter 1955 when more sensitive modelsbecame available. The new monofila­ment nylon line also took a while to beaccepted because even though it waslighter and drifted less than linen line, itstretched badly and damaged plasticreel spools that were used in bottom­fishing at the time. About a decadelater, when metal spools were used, andline manufacturers were able to cutdown on line stretch, nylon monofila­ment replaced linen line in the Mon­terey fishery.

Around the time nylon monofila­ment line was being accepted, animportant change in terminal tackleoccurred with the introduction of themultiple jig rig for rockfish. These rigs,which vary in design from port to portand are variously called "cod flies,""shrimp flies," "wonderlures," etc.,consist of a 5-foot (152-cm) nylonmonofilament leader with from threeto five hooks on short dropper loops­the hooks decorated with brightly

A

B-O

ED

c

B

42 Marine Fisheries Reviey,

locate new reef areas and concentra­tions of fish with less search time andgreater accuracy. The switch fromhandlines to rod and reel and lighterline also made it easier to fish in deeperwater. Today boats are able to fish inwater to 183 m deep, whereas handlinedepth averaged about 37 to 46 m, andearly rod and reel depth about 73 to 92m.

When handlines were used, boatscould only fish in shallow water be­cause the heavy lines drifted badly inthe current an even with relativelyshort lengths of line, there was aconstant problem with on-deck linetangles between pulls, which cut downon actual fishing time. On some boats,large wooden reels that clamped to thedeck rail were used to haul up line, butnot all anglers used them, and theywere cumbersome and offered little inthe way of sport. With rod and reelcame lighter line (first linen and theneven lighter nylon monofilament andbraided Dacron), and soon line driftwas no longer much of a problem.Since excess line was retrieved on thereel spool, the major cause of on-deckline tangles was eliminated. Otherdevelopments over the past J0 years,such as deck plates~ and reel handleextensions, have also made it easier tocrank up fish and heavy sinkers fromthe depths.

Discussion

It is often said that most of the fishare caught by a small minority ofanglers-the ones with the most exper­ience and skill. Although these twofactors are obviously important, forevery expert there are thousands ofaverage anglers and growing numbersof novice anglers. It is likely that thedevelopment of efficient, well-made,yet moderately priced tackle that issimple to operate and maintain hastilted the odds in the average anglers'favor over the years, and will prob­ably continue to do so as new, even

SA plastic or metal plate clamped on the lowerpart of the rod shaft and rested on the boatrailing for better leverage when reeling in.

Sepfemher /979

more advanced fishing equipment isdeveloped.

Although there are few quantitativedata on the relative efficiency of oldversus new gear, it is obvious thatsaltwater fishing equipment has defin­itely changed, with the most dramaticdevelopments occurring after WorldWar II. The postwar years were also atime of rapid and tremendous growthin California. Between 1940 and 1970,the State's population tripled and sodid the per capita income of its people.More spendable income and moreleisure time undoubtedly contributedto the saltwater angling boom in Cali­fornia, and to an increased demand forangling products and services andbetter dissemination of angling infor­mation.

Changes in fishing methods, as wellas tackle, also have been observed insaltwater sport fishing in California(Fig. 15). In just 8 years (1957-65),striped bass sportfishing boat methodsin San Francisco Bay changed frombait fishing to deep-line trolling to Iive­bait drifting. Within only a few years,ocean surf casters, who had for yearsstill-fished with bait for striped bass,switched to casting artificial lures. Thesturgeon fishery received a tremendousboost when, in the 1960's, grass shrimpwas discovered as an effective bait. Inthe 1970's, the development of success­ful methods to catch sturgeon on theherring spawning grounds essentiallyopened up a new fishing area for thisspecies in San Francisco Bay. Multijigterminal tackle has largely replaced thestandard bait rig in offshore bottom­fishing in northern California. Devel­opment of lightweight synthetic fishinglines, dependable fishing reels androds, and improvements in boat designand equipment have all changed thestyle of marine sport fishing in Cali­fornia. No doubt many other Californ­ia recreational fisheries not mentionedin this report have been similarly affect­ed by changing methods as well as bynew kinds of tackle.

Because angler efficiency may alsobe altered when such changes occur,these factors should be consideredwhen biologists assess relative abun­dance using catch-per-unit-of-effortdata. Changes in methods or tackle

may not only affect the catch of targetspecies, but also that of incidentallycaught speices.

Ideally, information on relativeefficiency should be obtained when afishery undergoes significant changesin gear or methods, but if this is notpossible, these changes should at leastbe monitored as closely as possible andtaken into account when estimating,through effort units, relative abun­dance of marine game fish populations.

Acknowledgments

Without the cooperation and adviceof those I interviewed-veteran anglers,members of the tackle industry, sportboat skippers and others connectedwith the marine recreational fishingindustry-this chronology would nothave been possible. I am also gratefulto Norm Abramson, Arthur Agnew,Charles Davis, Jr., Roger Green,Daniel Miller, Ed Neal, and GeorgeReiger for reviewing the manuscriptand offering many helpful suggestions.Joe Lesh and Dan Gotshall helped byproviding needed information onnorth coast salmon fishing.

Literature Cited

A. P. B. 1908. Fishing in California. Forest andStream, October 10, 1908, p. 581.

Cannon, R. 1964. How to fish the PacificCoast. Lane Publ. Co., Menlo Park, Calif.,337 p.

Chadwick, H. K. 1962. Catch records from thestriped bass sport-fishery in California.Calif. Fish Game 48: 153-177.

____ , and A. B. Albrecht. 1965. Thesummer and fall striped bass fishery during1960 and 1961. Calif. Dep. Fish Game,Inland Fish. Branch, Admin. Rep. 65-11,27 p.

Collins, J. W. 1892. Report on the fisheriesof the Pacific Coast of the United States.Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish Fish. 1888(Part 11):3­269.

Croker, R. S. 1938a. Historical account of theLos Angeles mackerel fishery. Calif. Dep.Fish Game, Fish Bull. 52, 62 p.

____ . 1938b. Let's go fishing. Calif.Fish Game 24:280-287.

Davis, J. C, II. 1949. California salt waterfishing. A.S. Barnes & Co., .Y . 271 p.

French, D. G. 1916. Fishing at Santa CatalinaIsland -its development and methods. Calif.Fish Game 2:14-19.

Frey, H. W. (editor). 1971. California's livingmarine resources and their utilization. Calif.Dep. Fish Game, Sacramento, 148 p.

Fry, D. H., Jr. 1931. The ring net, half ringnet, or purse lampara in the fisheries of Cali­forma. Calif. Dep. Fish Game, Fish Bull. 27,65 p.

Garrison. c., and B. Rice. 1972. Saltwater fish­ing: Beginner to expert. Fenwick/ Seven­strand. Westminster. Calif., 80 p.

4J

II II

Bamboo and hardwood

Sturgeon

Line

FisheriesStripedbass

1970I

1979 Tackle

s:~~efg~~a~~ile RodsSpinning and slar drag Reels

Nylon monofilament, alsobraided nylon a.;;nd.;;D~ac~ro~n__---J

Fibef{llass

19601940

Bail casting along ocean beaches

Prohibited

19301920

'Knucklebusters', some star drag

19101900

NorthernCaliforniabottomfishing

SouthernCalifornialive baitfishing

Muiti-lig luresbecome widely

accepted

Downrlggersbecome popular

Fast-taper fiberglass rods andmonofilament line adopted

Both spmnmg and star dragreels in use

Fiberglass rods replace bamboo

Fathometers come mto general use

Monofilamenllinecomes mto use

Mul1i-Jlgluresmtroduced

AnchOvy used tor bait

Advances In boat design and eqUipmenthelp to expand fishing range Fiberglass rods, st.ar drag reels and

nylon monofilament line

'Mooching' Introduced 10 Humboldt Bay CIrca 1940 SalmonTackle much lighter than that used In ocean [roiling

Fishery establishedBamboo poles and rods

linen line, gut and wire leaders.star drag reels

sardine used lor ball

Bamboo and hardwood rods, Imen line, wire leaders,early multiplying reels. then sIal drag types

Handline flshmg

Ocean trolling centered In Monterey Bay andall San FranCISCO

Figure 15 .-Chronology of some changes in saltwater angling methods and gear inCalifornia. (Demarcation lines for changes are approximate.)

Gulland, J. A. 1968. Appraisal of a fishery. InW. E. Ricker (editor), Methods for assess­ment of fish production in fresh waters. IBPHandb. No.3, p. 236-245. Blackwell Sci.Publ., Oxford, Engl.

Haw, F., H. O. Wendler, and G. DeChamps.1967. Development of Washington Statesalmon sport fishery through 1964. Wash.Dep. Fish., Res. Bull. 7, 192 p.

Holder, C. F. 1908. Sport fishing in Californiaand Florida, Bull. Bur. Fish. 28(Part 1):201­210.

1914. Attempts to protect the seafisheries of southern California. Calif. FishGame 1:9-19.

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____ .1974. California-back when. SaltWater Sportsman 35(2):32-33, 53-55.

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McClane, A. J. 1974. SpinnIng. In A. J.McClane (editor), McClane's new standardfishing encyclopedia, p. 922-937. Holt,Rinehart and Winston, N. Y.

McKechnie, R. J., and R. B. Fenner. 1971.Food habits of white sturgeon, AcipenserIranSmOnlanus, in San Pablo and SuisunBays, California. Calif. Fish Game 57:209­212.

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Miller, D. 1974. Fishing the surf. OutdoorCalif. 35(5):10-12.

Miller, D. J., and D. Gotshall. 1965. Oceansportfish catch and effort from Oregon toPoint Arguello, California, July I, 1957­June 30, 1961. Calif. Dep. Fish. Game, FishBull. 130, 135 p.

Miller, L. W. 1972. White sturgeon populationcharacteristics in the Sacramento-SanJoaquin estuary as measured by tagging.Calif. Fish Game 58:94-10 I.

Moss, F. J. 1976. Modern saltwater fishingtackle. International Marine Publishing Co.,Camden, Maine, 322 p.

Neal, E. 1977. Spooning for salmon. SanFrancisco Examiner, Tues. Feb. 22, 1977,p. 43.

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Scofield, W. L. 1929. Sardine fishing methodsat Monterey, California. Calif. Dep. FishGame, Fish Bull. 19,61 p.

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1951a. Purse seines and otherround haul nets in California. Calif. Dep.

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fishing gear. Calif. Fish Game 37:361-370._-,-----,-,-_=_. 1956. Trolling gear in California.

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44 Marine Fisheries Review