Challenges to UnionChallenges to Union

Ethnicity and National Identity in Ethnicity and National Identity in EuropeEurope

Key TermsKey Terms

StateState NationNation Ethnic GroupEthnic Group State-NationState-Nation Ethnic-NationEthnic-Nation

Nation

Ethnie

State

EthnonationalismEthnonationalism

Territorial ethnic movements seeking Territorial ethnic movements seeking autonomy or independenceautonomy or independence

peripheral to the unionperipheral to the union – OR – – OR – pro-Europepro-Europe 'Europe of the regions''Europe of the regions' No threat to EUNo threat to EU

'Europe of the nations''Europe of the nations'

Different type of ethnicity and nationalismDifferent type of ethnicity and nationalism Pose a challenge to the EUPose a challenge to the EU

1.1. Dominant NationhoodDominant Nationhood

2.2. Ethnic minorities/immigrant minoritiesEthnic minorities/immigrant minorities

3.3. Dominant ethnicityDominant ethnicity

The EU: A cosmopolitan projectThe EU: A cosmopolitan project

Long idea of establishing a realm of 'universal' law Long idea of establishing a realm of 'universal' law and governance in Europeand governance in Europe

Began with the 'European Idea' of reunifying the Began with the 'European Idea' of reunifying the continent under one church and one empirecontinent under one church and one empire

Collapse of Roman Empire and the rise of the Collapse of Roman Empire and the rise of the Reformation led to periodic attemptsReformation led to periodic attempts

Sully, Podiebrad – seek comity among nations and Sully, Podiebrad – seek comity among nations and return to Latin-Christendom idealreturn to Latin-Christendom ideal

Enlightenment EuropeanismEnlightenment Europeanism Penn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and othersPenn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and others Were cosmopolitan liberalsWere cosmopolitan liberals Europeanism and cosmopolitanism linkedEuropeanism and cosmopolitanism linked Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace, Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace,

prosperity and Enlightenment prosperity and Enlightenment St Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism as a St Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism as a

sentiment already took precedence over nationalismsentiment already took precedence over nationalism St Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor of EuropeSt Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor of Europe End to Papal and Roman dreams; harmony among End to Papal and Roman dreams; harmony among

peoples rather than rulerspeoples rather than rulers

The Evolution of the European The Evolution of the European IdeaIdea

Napoleon speaks of one European fatherlandNapoleon speaks of one European fatherland After Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideas influential After Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideas influential

and popular. Influenced and popular. Influenced Lemonnier's Lemonnier's Les Etats-Unis Les Etats-Unis d'Europe (1872)d'Europe (1872)

Revival of interest in St Simon after WWIRevival of interest in St Simon after WWI Most schemes were federal, though some post-WWI Most schemes were federal, though some post-WWI

radicals rejected the nation outrightradicals rejected the nation outright Paneuropa (1923) and other organisations lobbyPaneuropa (1923) and other organisations lobby Link between world unity and European unity, Link between world unity and European unity,

between peace organisations and paneuropean between peace organisations and paneuropean onesones

Diplomatic Pressure of Diplomatic Pressure of Paneuropean GroupsPaneuropean Groups

Count Richard Coudenhove-KalergiCount Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi writes writes Pan-EuropaPan-Europa (1923) (1923) manifesto. Links to French politicians like Herriot, Loucheur, manifesto. Links to French politicians like Herriot, Loucheur, Leger, BriandLeger, Briand

Edouard Herriot, 1925Edouard Herriot, 1925: : 'My greatest wish is to see one day the 'My greatest wish is to see one day the United States of Europe become a realityUnited States of Europe become a reality''

First Pan-European Congress, 1926. Sponsored by Chancellor First Pan-European Congress, 1926. Sponsored by Chancellor Seipel of AustriaSeipel of Austria

Many Paneuropeans also strongly supported the League of Many Paneuropeans also strongly supported the League of NationsNations

Briand's Memorandum on a Briand's Memorandum on a European Federal System European Federal System (1930) (1930) circulated to European statesmencirculated to European statesmen

EU structureEU structure Degree of centralisation varies by function:Degree of centralisation varies by function:

– A A Federation (i.e. 'State')Federation (i.e. 'State') in monetary affairs, in monetary affairs, agricultural, trade and environmental policy. agricultural, trade and environmental policy. Also in legal-social aspects and citizenshipAlso in legal-social aspects and citizenship

– A A ConfederationConfederation in social and economic policy, in social and economic policy, consumer protection, internal affairsconsumer protection, internal affairs

– An An International OrganisationInternational Organisation in foreign affairs in foreign affairs

Council of Europe's Cultural Council of Europe's Cultural CosmopolitanismCosmopolitanism

Developed European flag Developed European flag with 12 golden stars with 12 golden stars (1955)(1955)

Established 5 May 1949 as Established 5 May 1949 as Europe Day (1964)Europe Day (1964)

Anthem based on Anthem based on Beethoven's Beethoven's Ode to JoyOde to Joy (1972)(1972)

Has 46 members today: Has 46 members today: distinct from EU, but distinct from EU, but complementarycomplementary

Three Types - Three ChallengesThree Types - Three Challenges

Dominant Nationhood (civic nationalism) Dominant Nationhood (civic nationalism) Ethnic minorities or Immigrant MinoritiesEthnic minorities or Immigrant Minorities Dominant ethnicity (ethnic nationalism)Dominant ethnicity (ethnic nationalism)

Dominant NationhoodDominant Nationhood

(civic nationalism)(civic nationalism) Fears loss of sovereignty, Fears loss of sovereignty, loss of economic policyloss of economic policy Loss of political-legal efficacy and national Loss of political-legal efficacy and national

democracydemocracy Foreign policy identity depends on the Foreign policy identity depends on the

countrycountry

France: Gaullist pro-France: Gaullist pro-EuropeanismEuropeanism

Seeks to reclaim French cultural predominance of Seeks to reclaim French cultural predominance of 1818thth-19-19thth c c

Seeks to challenge Anglo-Saxon hegemony of Seeks to challenge Anglo-Saxon hegemony of 1919thth-20-20thth c c

Sees Anglo-Saxon west as ‘other’Sees Anglo-Saxon west as ‘other’ De Gaulle positions France at the heart of a De Gaulle positions France at the heart of a

Europe that includes Russia and is flanked by Europe that includes Russia and is flanked by Anglo-Saxon West and Chinese EastAnglo-Saxon West and Chinese East

1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which De 1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which De Gaulle seeks to block UK entryGaulle seeks to block UK entry

German pro-European IdealismGerman pro-European Idealism

Nazi period discredits nationalismNazi period discredits nationalism Cosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spiritCosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spirit Desire for influence and self-respect without Desire for influence and self-respect without

nationalismnationalism Less anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWII Less anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWII

(witness different attitudes toward English (witness different attitudes toward English as language)as language)

More truly cosmopolitan than French pro-More truly cosmopolitan than French pro-EuropeanismEuropeanism

Smaller Nations: BeneluxSmaller Nations: Benelux

History of neutrality and fear of larger nationsHistory of neutrality and fear of larger nations History of pooling sovereignty in alliancesHistory of pooling sovereignty in alliances Only chance of agency is through a larger unitOnly chance of agency is through a larger unit Identity is less significant in absence of larger Identity is less significant in absence of larger

blocksblocks Belgium and Luxembourg lack clear linguistic or Belgium and Luxembourg lack clear linguistic or

religious markers of nationhood unlike say religious markers of nationhood unlike say Germany or FranceGermany or France

Views of Unification (1995)Views of Unification (1995)

Growing Cosmopolitanism in Growing Cosmopolitanism in Europe?Europe?

'Very Proud' of Country, Eurobarometer (1983)

0%

20%

40%

60%

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Growing Cosmopolitanism in Growing Cosmopolitanism in Europe…Europe…

'Very Proud' of Country, 1970 and mid-80s

0%20%40%60%80%

100%

Luxe

mbo

urg

Italy

Franc

e

Nethe

rland

s

Belgium

Germ

any

1970

1981-85

Predictors of Lack of National Pride, 1982-2002

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

back EUmembrshp

year education level low or non-churchattender

z-sc

ore

Growing Cosmopolitanism in Growing Cosmopolitanism in Europe…Europe…

National Pride and Opinion of EU Membership, 1982-2002

70%

75%

80%

85%

90%

95%

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1988 1994 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002

Pride in Nation

Membership Good orBad EU

Do you feel national, Do you feel national, European or Both (2004)?European or Both (2004)?

Ethnic minorities/Ethnic minorities/immigrant minorities - immigrant minorities -

Religious beliefs may challenge Religious beliefs may challenge Enlightenment beliefsEnlightenment beliefs

EU identity diluted (i.e. 'from Tsar to EU identity diluted (i.e. 'from Tsar to Sultan')Sultan')

Strengthens dominant ethnicityStrengthens dominant ethnicity

Immigrant IntegrationImmigrant Integration

Different paths to integrationDifferent paths to integration In UK, second generation is doing much In UK, second generation is doing much

better (esp. Hindu, Chinese)better (esp. Hindu, Chinese) UK: Intermarriage more among Afro-Caribs UK: Intermarriage more among Afro-Caribs

than Indo-Pakistanithan Indo-Pakistani UK & Holland: Caribbean Christians & UK & Holland: Caribbean Christians &

'Indos' better integrated than Muslim ethnic 'Indos' better integrated than Muslim ethnic groupsgroups

Evidence of racial segregation in friendshipsEvidence of racial segregation in friendships

'Superdiversity'?: Inflow by 'Superdiversity'?: Inflow by region UK 2001region UK 2001

Eastern Europe

West Africa

Other Africa

North America

Southern Africa

East Africa

other Asia

West Asia

South-East Asia

South-Central AsiaCentral Americ

Caribbean

Middle Africa

North Africa

Other America

South America

North EuropeSouth Europe

West Europe

East Asia

Other Europe

Source: Home Office

Newham (London) by country of birth, 2001Newham (London) by country of birth, 2001

Iran Cy prus

United Kingdom

USA

Canada

Poland Non EU countries in Western Europe

EU Countries Republic of Ireland

Other Eastern Europe North Africa

Central and Western Africa

Nigeria

Other Central and Western Africa Keny a

South Africa Zimbabw e

Other South and Eastern Africa Other Middle East

China Hong Kong

Japan Malay sia

Singapore Other Far East

Bangladesh

India

Pakistan

Jamaica

Other Caribbean

South America Australia

New Zealand

Other

Other Oceania

Other South Asia

Religious Retention by Faith and Birthplace, UK, 2001-3 (Excludes nonidentifiers. 'Practice' is self-description)

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%

100%

2001 2003

Attend Worship* Retain Religious Practice*

UK BP Muslims

Foreign BP Muslims

UK Afro Christians

Foreign Afro Christians

UK White Christians

Foreign White Christians

Religious Retention among Second Generation Immigrant Stock in the UK

Dominance: Ethnic, National, or Dominance: Ethnic, National, or State?State?

A group can be BOTH A group can be BOTH ethnicethnic and and nationalnational (ie. Welsh in Wales) (ie. Welsh in Wales)

A group can be A group can be ethnicethnic, , nationalnational, and , and possess its own possess its own statestate (ie. Japanese) (ie. Japanese)

Dominant Ethnic groups can dominant Dominant Ethnic groups can dominant states or sub-state nations (ie. Ethnic states or sub-state nations (ie. Ethnic Germans in Germany, Scots-Protestants Germans in Germany, Scots-Protestants in Scotland, Jews in Israel)in Scotland, Jews in Israel)

Dominant Ethnic GroupDominant Ethnic Group Ethnic Community which possesses Ethnic Community which possesses

political power in a given statepolitical power in a given state 2 types:2 types:

� Elite MinorityElite Minority (Tutsi, ‘WASP’, Gulf Arab) (Tutsi, ‘WASP’, Gulf Arab)� Majority GroupMajority Group (English in England, (English in England,

Japanese in Japan)Japanese in Japan)

Most in Europe are dominant majoritiesMost in Europe are dominant majorities Omission in Current LiteratureOmission in Current Literature

Dominant EthnicityDominant Ethnicity

(mainly ethnic nationalism)(mainly ethnic nationalism) Fear of internal migrationFear of internal migration Possible cultural fears (language, religion)Possible cultural fears (language, religion) Ethno-national congruenceEthno-national congruence Friction with OSCE codes, multiculturalism Friction with OSCE codes, multiculturalism

and EU human rights conventionsand EU human rights conventions Expressed as rise of the far right & Expressed as rise of the far right &

accommodation by centre-right partiesaccommodation by centre-right parties

Dominant Ethno-Nationalism Dominant Ethno-Nationalism

Ethno-national Ethno-national congruencecongruence

Fear of immigrationFear of immigration Possible cultural fears Possible cultural fears

(language, religion)(language, religion) Friction with OSCE Friction with OSCE

codes, multiculturalism codes, multiculturalism and EU human rights and EU human rights conventionsconventions

Expressed as rise of the Expressed as rise of the far right & far right & accommodation by accommodation by centre-right partiescentre-right parties

A Rising Force?A Rising Force?

Far Right Share of Popular Vote, c. 2000

0%5%

10%15%20%25%30%

The Role of Education & Age, The Role of Education & Age, GermanyGermany

Support For Republikaner Party, by Age & Education, Bavaria 1989

0%2%4%6%8%

10%12%

18-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+

Low

Med

High

The Far Right as a Worker's The Far Right as a Worker's Party?Party?

Anti-elitist, anti-political Anti-elitist, anti-political classclass

Claim that elite Claim that elite consensus 'represses' consensus 'represses' debate on immigrationdebate on immigration

In virtually no European In virtually no European country does main left-country does main left-wing party retain wing party retain majority support among majority support among white male workerswhite male workers

Dominant Ethno-Nationalism: Dominant Ethno-Nationalism: TheoriesTheories

Instrumentalist - dominant ethno-nationalism Instrumentalist - dominant ethno-nationalism is driven by immigrant competition with is driven by immigrant competition with natives for jobsnatives for jobs

Ethno-symbolist - perceived violation of Ethno-symbolist - perceived violation of ‘sacred,’ historicised ethnie-nation link is the ‘sacred,’ historicised ethnie-nation link is the keykey

‘‘Constructivist’ (Psychological) - Rapid Constructivist’ (Psychological) - Rapid change brings disorientation and a quest for change brings disorientation and a quest for order among those affected by changeorder among those affected by change

MulticulturalismMulticulturalism Kymlicka'sKymlicka's Liberalism, Liberalism,

Community and CultureCommunity and Culture (1989), followed by a (1989), followed by a number of works in 1990snumber of works in 1990s

Taylor's Taylor's Multiculturalism and Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognitionthe Politics of Recognition (1994)(1994)

Inspired partly by Inspired partly by 'multicultural' movement of 'multicultural' movement of minorities for 'recognition' vis minorities for 'recognition' vis a vis majority culture in a vis majority culture in CanadaCanada

Canadian multiculturalism Canadian multiculturalism policy dates from 1971, policy dates from 1971, similar demands in US since similar demands in US since late 60slate 60s

Typology of MulticulturalismTypology of Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism

State PolicyDemographic

FactIdeology

Varieties of Multiculturalism

Polyethnicity Multinationality

Federalism (Yugoslavia, Switzerland)

Consociationalism (Lebanon, Bosnia)

Integration (UK, United States)

Cosmopolitan Multiculturalism

Communitarian Multiculturalism

Cultural Recognition Political Empowerment Socio-Economic Redistribution

Cosmopolitan-multiculturalist visionCosmopolitan-multiculturalist vision

Dominant ethnic groups lose identity and Dominant ethnic groups lose identity and members become cosmopolitan members become cosmopolitan individualistsindividualists

Ethnic minorities retain their identity and Ethnic minorities retain their identity and provide consumer choice and 'colour'provide consumer choice and 'colour'

Bourne, c. 1916: WASPs 'breathe a larger Bourne, c. 1916: WASPs 'breathe a larger air', Jews 'stick to their faith'air', Jews 'stick to their faith'

Contradiction: cosmopolitanism among Contradiction: cosmopolitanism among hosts, ethnicity among immigrantshosts, ethnicity among immigrants

The New Cultural CosmopolitanismThe New Cultural Cosmopolitanism

European idea was mainly one of political European idea was mainly one of political unity rather than cultural unityunity rather than cultural unity

American idea had a much earlier emphasis American idea had a much earlier emphasis on melting (i.e. Crevecoeur's 'strange on melting (i.e. Crevecoeur's 'strange mixture of races', c. 1782)mixture of races', c. 1782)

But Europe has now adopted the cultural But Europe has now adopted the cultural cosmopolitanism once found only in cosmopolitanism once found only in AmericaAmerica

The EU and Cultural The EU and Cultural CosmopolitanismCosmopolitanism

EU approach: Multiculturalism, Human EU approach: Multiculturalism, Human Rights, Border Control - in tension.Rights, Border Control - in tension.

Reflects tensions between cosmopolitan Reflects tensions between cosmopolitan and realpolitik/intergovernmental spheresand realpolitik/intergovernmental spheres

Multiculturalism and human rights reflects Multiculturalism and human rights reflects cosmopolitan sidecosmopolitan side

Cosmopolitanism for MajoritiesCosmopolitanism for Majorities

All become consumers and world citizensAll become consumers and world citizens Weak identities, apart from European Weak identities, apart from European

project, lifestyle and egalitarian-liberalismproject, lifestyle and egalitarian-liberalism Identity forged vs USA. Defined by liberal Identity forged vs USA. Defined by liberal

egalitarianism, i.e. 'European Dream' egalitarianism, i.e. 'European Dream' (Rifkin)(Rifkin)

Hope given by rise in university education, Hope given by rise in university education, generational replacementgenerational replacement

Effect shown in social surveysEffect shown in social surveys

The Reaction to MulticulturalismThe Reaction to Multiculturalism

Dominant ethnic nationalists resist all forms Dominant ethnic nationalists resist all forms of multiculturalismof multiculturalism

Surveys show that anti-immigration and anti-Surveys show that anti-immigration and anti-EU attitudes are linkedEU attitudes are linked

Even those who are willing to accept Even those who are willing to accept immigrants are afraid of threat to secular immigrants are afraid of threat to secular culture, language and civic-national identityculture, language and civic-national identity

A majority of most electoratesA majority of most electorates

90s Intellectual Opposition90s Intellectual Opposition Individualist Liberals (i.e. Brian Barry, Michael Individualist Liberals (i.e. Brian Barry, Michael

Ignatieff)Ignatieff) Civic Nationalists (David Miller, David Civic Nationalists (David Miller, David

Goodhart, New Labour, Francis Fukuyama, etc)Goodhart, New Labour, Francis Fukuyama, etc) 'Civic Nationalist' Critiques:'Civic Nationalist' Critiques:

– Hinders welfare stateHinders welfare state– Reduces civic trust and political participationReduces civic trust and political participation– Decline in common values and national identityDecline in common values and national identity– Increased ethnic conflictIncreased ethnic conflict

Ethnic Nationalists: threat to survival of Ethnic Nationalists: threat to survival of dominant ethnic groups, 'reverse discrimination'dominant ethnic groups, 'reverse discrimination'

Multiculturalism in RetreatMulticulturalism in Retreat Multiculturalism in retreat in the US and Multiculturalism in retreat in the US and

Australia in the 1990sAustralia in the 1990s Changes in France, Holland, and elsewhere in Changes in France, Holland, and elsewhere in

Europe (partly linked to challenge from far Europe (partly linked to challenge from far right) since 1990sright) since 1990s

Change in Britain (criticism of Parekh report; Change in Britain (criticism of Parekh report; Trevor Phillips of CRE) in 2000-2004 (linked to Trevor Phillips of CRE) in 2000-2004 (linked to 9/11)9/11)

The Return of AssimilationThe Return of Assimilation

An attempt to navigate between ethnic nationalism An attempt to navigate between ethnic nationalism and multiculturalismand multiculturalism

Ethnic conflict prompts increased call for national Ethnic conflict prompts increased call for national unity in the face of diversity (i.e. Germany, unity in the face of diversity (i.e. Germany, Holland, UK, France)Holland, UK, France)

Hopes are for integration into nations, reducing Hopes are for integration into nations, reducing inter-ethnic conflict inter-ethnic conflict

Shift from multiculturalism to integration. Even a Shift from multiculturalism to integration. Even a return of assimilation/republicanism and civic return of assimilation/republicanism and civic nationalismnationalism

Civic or Liberal NationalismCivic or Liberal Nationalism

From Kohn (1944) to Miller (1995) and Tamir From Kohn (1944) to Miller (1995) and Tamir (1993)(1993)

Civic nationalism will reinforce resistance to EU as Civic nationalism will reinforce resistance to EU as nations become more 'American'nations become more 'American'

Will not assuage anxieties of dominant groupWill not assuage anxieties of dominant group Minorities must organically come to feel Minorities must organically come to feel

attachment to the nation, cannot be cajoled out of attachment to the nation, cannot be cajoled out of old identitiesold identities

Civic identities must be universal and thin, difficult Civic identities must be universal and thin, difficult to compete with ethnic traditionsto compete with ethnic traditions

Dominant groups will not go away, Dominant groups will not go away, Minorities may not assimilateMinorities may not assimilate

Dominant groups may reject newcomers entirelyDominant groups may reject newcomers entirely Assimilation a long-term process. European and Assimilation a long-term process. European and

US examplesUS examples May not be fast enough to absorb immigrants or May not be fast enough to absorb immigrants or

respond to demographic crisisrespond to demographic crisis Real key is at the level of the dominant ethnic Real key is at the level of the dominant ethnic

group, and its ability to assimilategroup, and its ability to assimilate Ethnic groups should not be rigid, but retain their Ethnic groups should not be rigid, but retain their

cores and engage in assimilationcores and engage in assimilation

Liberal Ethnicity (Kaufmann 2000)Liberal Ethnicity (Kaufmann 2000)

Recognition of Recognition of bothboth minority and dominant minority and dominant ethnic groupsethnic groups

Devolves task of assimilation to ethnic Devolves task of assimilation to ethnic groupsgroups

Longer-term viewLonger-term view Ethnic cores remain relatively fixed, but Ethnic cores remain relatively fixed, but

boundaries can absorb newcomersboundaries can absorb newcomers No coercive state-nationalism from aboveNo coercive state-nationalism from above

A Europe of Liberal NationsA Europe of Liberal Nations

Need to consider better guarantees of Need to consider better guarantees of ontological security: including limits on ontological security: including limits on migration between member states migration between member states

EU as Europe of nations, pooling many EU as Europe of nations, pooling many functionsfunctions

Recognition of both dominant and minority Recognition of both dominant and minority ethnic groupsethnic groups

May in time lead to closer political May in time lead to closer political integrationintegration

SummarySummary

EU as cosmopolitan movementEU as cosmopolitan movement Three forms of ethnic and nationalist Three forms of ethnic and nationalist

resistance to EU resistance to EU Multiculturalism and 'Europe of the regions' Multiculturalism and 'Europe of the regions'

idea are inspired by cosmopolitanismidea are inspired by cosmopolitanism Will not succeed with electoratesWill not succeed with electorates Integration, liberal ethnicity and 'Europe of Integration, liberal ethnicity and 'Europe of

the nations' more promisingthe nations' more promising