CH.3 - AN INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC...

! www.clutchprep.com

!

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E

CH.3 - AN INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

CONCEPT: INDEX OF HYDROGEN DEFICIENCY (STRUCTURAL)

A saturated molecule is any molecule that has the maximum number of hydrogens possible for its chemical structure. The

rule that we use for this is _____________.

● Any molecule that has less than __________ number of hydrogens is considered to be __________________.

EXAMPLE: How many hydrogens must the following carbon skeletons contain to be saturated? Are they missing any?

IHD rules give us the ability to quickly determine which molecules are more saturated and which molecules are less

saturated with hydrogen.

● 1 IHD = Compound is missing ___ hydrogens.

□ Rings/Double bonds = _____

□ Triple Bonds = ______

EXAMPLE: What is the degree of unsaturation of the following compounds?

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: INDEX OF HYDROGEN DEFICIENCY (MOLECULAR FORMULA)

□ Molecular Formula:

- When given only the molecular formula of the molecule use the following rules.

(Theoretical # H’s – Actual # H’s) / 2 = IHD, where: ● H / X = _______ ● O = ______ ● N = ______

EXAMPLE: What is the IHD for each of the following compounds?

a. C4H7Cl

b. C6H7N

c. C7H12O2

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: CONSTITUTIONAL ISOMERS

Constitutional isomers are molecules that have identical molecular formulas (all the same atoms), but have

different _______________________. You will be asked to compare molecules and determine how they are related.

EXAMPLE: How are the following two compounds related?

A) Identical Compounds

B) Constitutional Isomers

C) Different Compounds

Steps to solve Constitutional Isomer Problems:

Step 1. (Are the atoms all the same?) Count non-_______________ atoms and IHD in both compounds

- If not exactly the same, they are ____________________________

- If the same, then go to step 2

Step 2. (Are the atoms all connected the same?) Look for a _____________ atom, then count bonds from there.

-If not exactly the same, they are _______________________________

-If the same, then they are _____________________________

EXAMPLE: How are the following sets of compounds related?

A) Identical Compounds A) Identical Compounds

B) Constitutional Isomers B) Constitutional Isomers

C) Different Compounds C) Different Compounds

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

● We can group several millions of different molecules into subsets of similar _________________________

1. Hydrocarbons

● All carbon groups regardless of size can be symbolized using an _______ group.

● When an alkane is attached to a greater carbon chain, it is given an ________ suffix. (i.e. __________ group)

● Carbons are given a “degree” based on how many other ____________ they are attached to

□ Hydrogens possess the __________ degree as the carbon they are attached to

□ Degrees are expressed as primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary (1⁰, 2⁰, 3⁰, 4⁰)

EXAMPLE: Determine the degree of the indicated carbons and hydrogens

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


2. Alkyl Halide _________

● Any –R group directly attached to a halogen.

● The degree of alkyl halide is determined the same way as __________________

The carbonyl ____________ is NOT a functional group, but it is a major component of many functional groups

3. Alcohol ____________ 6. Carboxylic Acid ______________(_________) ● Degree of alcohol is determined the same ● The acid of organic chemistry way as ____

4. Amine ______________ 7. Amide _______________(___________)

Degree of alcohol is determined the same ● Degree of alcohol is determined the same way as ____. way as ____.

5. Ether __________________ 8. Ester __________________(___________)

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


9. Carbonyls

The term “ carbonyl” is not the proper name of the functional groups because the functionality of the group depends on its location on the carbon chain.

.

● Ketone ______________(__________) ● Aldehyde ______________(__________)

- _______________carbonyl group - _______________carbonyl group

10. Nitrile ________________

11. Benzene

● Directly attached to –R group _______________ (_________)(_____)

● Extra CH2 between –R group _______________ (_____________)(_____)

EXAMPLE: Identify all the functional groups in the following compound. Show degrees where applicable.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


12. Other Carbonyl Compounds

● Acyl Chloride (__________) ● Anhydride (_______________)

13. Sulfur Compounds

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


PRACTICE: Identify all the functional groups in the following compound. Show degrees where applicable.

a.

b.

c.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: ALKANE NOMENCLATURE

● Before 1919, chemists literally had to memorize thousands of random (common) chemical names.

● IUPAC naming provides a systematic method to give every chemical structure a unique, unambiguous chemical name .

CONCEPT: ALKANE PREFIXES

We will use the following set of rules to systemically name alkanes:

Rule #1. Number the longest carbon chain and assign a root name accordingly.

● If there is a tie between longest chains, choose the chain that gives _____________ substituents.

Alkane Prefixes

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E



Rule #2: Decide the direction of the root chain starting from the closest substituent

● If there is a tie between substituents, compare the ______________________ substituents

● If there is STILL a tie, determine direction using _____________________________.

EXAMPLE: Name the longest carbon chain and determine the direction of the root chain

EXAMPLE: Name the longest carbon chain and determine the direction of the root chain

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E



Rule #3: Designate numerical locations of substituents

● When one or more substituents are identical, use the prefixes ______ (2), _____ (3), ______ (4).

● Represent substituents using –yl suffix on alkane groups. (alkanes become alkyls)

EXAMPLE: Name the root chain, determine the direction of the root chain and then identify & locate all substituents

Rule #4: Name substituents in alphabetical order (prefixes don’t count toward this!)

Rule #5: Use __________ to separate numbers from numbers, _________ to separate letters from numbers.

EXAMPLE: Provide the IUPAC name for the following alkane:

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: COMMON SUBSTITUENTS

Although we try to use IUPAC naming as much as we can, there are a few common substituents you should know the common names for:

EXAMPLE: Name the following alkane:

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: CYCLOALKANES

□ Monocyclic compounds are named by attaching the prefix “cyclo-“ to the root chain.

● The root is assigned to the portion of the alkane with the greater number of carbons:

● If there is only 1 substituent, the location can be ______________.

EXAMPLE: Name the following alkanes:

□ Bicyclic compounds are composed of ______ distinct rings attached along one bond.

□ Bridged compounds are unique types of bicyclic molecules composed of ____ compound rings attached by _____

___________________________ atoms.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: BICYCLICS

□ Bicyclics come in different categories: Normal and Bridged.

Nomenclature:

● A bridgehead atom must always be in the 1 position.

● Format: bicyclo[ring1.ring2.ring3]alkane

● Number from the largest ring to the smallest ring

- If it has no bridge, then the third ring just counts as _____

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: ALKYL HALIDES

Alkyl halides are named by naming them as a substituent before the root chain and indicating their location.

● Prefixes: -F ______________, -Cl _______________ -Br ________________ -I ______________

Alkyl halides have NO ________________ when it comes to numbering the direction of the chain.

EXAMPLE: Name the following compounds:

a.

b.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: ALCOHOL NOMENCLATURE

□ Alcohols are named by adding the modifier (-_______) the end of the root.

● Alcohols receive _______________ priority in numbering alkanes

● Locations can be donated _______________ the root “old school” or _______________ the root “new school”

EXAMPLE: Name the following compound:

a.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: ETHER NOMENCLATURE

□ Common Name: List alkyl groups in alphabetical order and follow with the word ____________

□ IUPAC: Smaller half of the ether is named as an _________________ substituent on the main alkane chain

EXAMPLE: Provide the correct common and IUPAC name of the following ether

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: AMINE NOMENCLATURE

The degree of the amine directly determines how it will be named.

1o Amines: Add the suffix –amine is to the name of the alkyl substituent. If the alkyl substituent’s name ends with an –e

replace it with –amine.

EXAMPLE: Name the following 1o Amines.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


If a higher priority functional group is present then the suffix –amine changes into the prefix –amino.

EXAMPLE: Name the following multi-functional amine.

2o and 3o amines: If different alkyl groups are attached the largest alkyl group is chosen as the parent name, and the other

alkyl groups are N-substituents.

EXAMPLE: Name the following amines

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

● IMF’s are what make molecules ______________. Without them everything would be _____________

● Boiling point / melting point questions are always directly referring to the strength of ___________ between molecules.

1. Hydrogen Bonding – (H) Bound to small, highly electronegative atoms: ___________________

2. Dipole-dipole (net dipole force)

3. Van der Waals (London Dispersion Forces)

□ Increase with:

a. Size b. Ring > Chain > Branched

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


PRACTICE: Which of the following pairs of molecules would have the highest boiling point?

1. OR

2. OR

3. OR

4. OR

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: SOLUBILITY

Only one rule: _________ dissolves _________

EXAMPLE:

PRACTICE: Circle the following molecules would you expect to be miscible in an aqueous solution?

a. b.

c. d. e. f.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: CONFORMATIONS

Most organic molecules have the ability to exist in multiple arrangements without experiencing any chemical changes.

□ Many of these arrangements exist due to the ability of ______ bonds to _____________

□ These arrangements are NOT isomers because structurally the molecule never changes.

EXAMPLE: Hexane Conformers

● These alternate arrangements are called _________________________

PRACTICE: Determine if the following pairs of molecules are isomers or conformers.

a. b.

c. d.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: NEWMAN PROJECTIONS – CONFORMATIONAL ENERGY

Newman projections are drawings used to help us visualize all the conformers that can be made by rotating a ___ bond

□ The dihedral angle ________ is used to describe rotation around a single bond

● Calculated by taking the angle of the largest group on the front and back relative to each other

θ = ____ = ___________________: The two largest groups overlap each other

● _____________ energy

θ = ____ = ___________________: The two largest groups are adjacent to each other

● _____________ energy

θ = ____ = ___________________: The two largest groups are opposite to each other

● _____________ energy

EXAMPLE: Plot the following dihedral angle values with their respective energy to determine the energy diagram for the rotation of hexane along the C3 – C4 bond.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: NEWMAN PROJECTIONS – METHOD

Through a series of steps, we can consistently draw accurate Newman Projections to determine conformational stability.

EXAMPLE: Draw the most energetically favorable Newman Projection for CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 down the C2 – C3 bond.

1. Convert problem into bond line structure

2. Highlight the bond of interest

3. Draw an eyeball glaring down the length of the bond

4. Surround only the bond of interest with ALL implied hydrogens

5. Draw front carbon with 3 groups in the front and a back carbon with 3 groups in the back

6. Determine which dihedral angle would correspond

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


PRACTICE: DRAWING NEWMAN PROJECTIONS

1. Draw the most energetic Newman Projection of CH3CH(C6H5)CH3

2. Draw the most stable Newman Projection of CH3CH2CH2OH through the C2 – C1 bond.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: CALCULATING CONFORMATIONAL ENERGY

□ Sometimes we’ll be asked to calculate the energy barrier (kJ/mol) of rotation or of a specific interaction.

● Barrier to rotation can be calculated by memorizing other known values.

EXAMPLE: The barrier to rotation for the following molecule is 22 kJ/mol . Determine the energy cost associated with the

eclipsing interaction between a bromine and hydrogen atom.

PRACTICE: The barrier to rotation for 1,2-dibromopropane along the C1—C2 bond is 28 kJ/mol. Determine the energy cost

associated with the eclipsing dibromine interaction.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: HEAT OF COMBUSTION

Heat of Combustion is a technique that blows up molecules to see how energetic they are:

___ Heat of Combustion = ____ Energy = ____ Stability

___ Heat of Combustion = ____ Energy = ____ Stability

Sources of Alkane Instability:

1. Shape: Straight chains are less stable than branched chains.

2. Strain: Found in many cycloalkanes. There are a few types of strain:

□ Angle strain exists when cyclic tetrahedral bonds are forced out of their ideal bond angle of ____________

□ Torsional strain exists when neighboring carbons possess hydrogens that overlap in space (eclipse)

EXAMPLE: Which of the following conformations of cyclohexane would have the lowest heat of combustion?

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: CYCLOHEXANE – CHAIRS AND POSITIONS

Although so far we have assumed rings to be planar, cyclohexane actually exists in a ______________ form to alleviate

torsional and ring strain.

Like single bonds, cyclohexane can ___________ to form two different “chair conformations” in equilibrium with each other

Chair conformations have TWO substituent positions:

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: CYCLOHEXANE - DETERMINATION OF CIS AND TRANS

How to draw cyclohexane:

□ Draw two slightly angled parallel lines □ Cap both ends

□ Cis or trans is based on whether the groups are facing the same __________ of the ring

● NOT based on whether they are axial or equatorial.

EXAMPLE: Name the following cyclohexane compounds:

a.

b.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: CYCLOHEXANE – EQUIVALENT CHAIRS

Many of the cyclohexane molecules we will draw in this chapter will be substituted.

□ In this chapter, only three things matter when drawing equivalent chairs.

● Distance between groups

● Cis vs. Trans

● Equatorial Preference (determines conformers)

PRACTICE: Determine if the following pairs of chairs are identical, conformers or different.

a.

b.

c.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: CYCLOHEXANE – EQUATORIAL PREFERENCE

One of the two positions is much more crowded or ______________ ____________________ than the other.

● Rings will ALWAYS “flip” in order to accommodate the preference of their largest, bulkiest substituent. When chairs flip: □ Axials become ______________________ □ Equatorials become ______________________ EXAMPLE: This chair is not in its most stable conformation. Draw the chair flipping to accommodate equatorial preference a.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


PRACTICE: Drawing Equatorial Preference

1. Draw the MOST STABLE conformation of cis-1-tert-butyl-4-methylcyclyhexane

2. Draw the LEAST STABLE conformation of trans-1-tert-butyl-3-neopentylcyclohexane.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: CALCULATING FLIP ENERGY

Sometimes we’ll be asked to calculate the energy required (kJ/mol) to flip chairs into the axial position.

PRACTICE: Calculate the difference in Gibbs free energy in (kJ/mol) and (kcal/mol) between the alternative chair conformations of the following disubstituted cyclohexanes:

a. trans-4-iodo-1-cyclohexanol

b. cis-2-ethyl-1-phenylcyclohexane

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: CALCULATING CHAIR EQUILIBRIUM

We can use the difference in (∆Gº) to calculate the percentage and/or ratio of chairs at any given temperature.

● First, use ∆Gº to solve for the equilibrium constant:

*Correction: Gas Constant = 8.314

● Then, use Ke to solve for the percentage of each conformer:

PRACTICE: Estimate the equilibrium composition of the chair conformers of the following cyclohexanes at room temp:

a) cis-1,3-diethylcyclohexane

b) trans-1-methyl-3-phenylcyclohexane

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CONCEPT: DECLINS

□ Declins are specific types of bicyclic molecules. They come in two conformations of differing stability.

EXAMPLE: Draw the following declin as a chair conformation in the most stable conformation.

ORGANIC - BRUICE 8E


CH.3 - AN INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC...

Documents

Transcript of CH.3 - AN INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC...