Business Research Methods

William G. Zikmund

Chapter 11:

Observation Methods

“YOU SEE, BUT YOU DO NOT OBSERVE.”

Sherlock Holmes

Scientific Observation Is Systematic

What Can Be Observed?

• Physical actions

• Verbal behavior

• Expressive behavior

• Spatial relations and locations

• Temporal patterns

• Verbal and pictorial records

Phenomena Example

Human behavior or physical Shoppers movementaction pattern in a store

Verbal behavior Statements made byairline travelers who waitin line

Expressive behavior Facial expressions, tone of voice, and other form of body language

What Can Be Observed

Phenomena Example

Spatial relations How close visitors at anand locations art museum stand to paintings

Temporal patterns How long fast-food customerswait for their order to be served

Physical objects What brand name items are stored in consumers’ pantries

Verbal and Pictorial Bar codes on product packagesRecords

What Can Be Observed

Categories of Observation

• Human versus mechanical

• Visible versus hidden

• Direct

• Contrived

Observation of Human BehaviorBenefits

• Communication with respondent is not necessary

• Data without distortions due to self-report (e.g.: without social desirability) Bias

• No need to rely on respondents memory

• Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained

Observation of Human BehaviorBenefits

• Certain data may be obtained more quickly

• Environmental conditions may be recorded

• May be combined with survey to provide supplemental evidence

Observation of Human BehaviorLimitations

• Cognitive phenomena cannot be observed

• Interpretation of data may be a problem

• Only short periods can be observed

• Observer bias possible

• Possible invasion of privacy

Observation of Physical Objects

• Physical-trace evidence

• Wear and tear of a book indicates how often it has been read

Scientifically Contrived Observation

• The creation of an artificial environment to test a hypothesis

Response Latency

• Recording the decision time necessary to make a choice between two alternatives

• It is presumed to indicate the strength of preference between alternatives.

Content Analysis

• Obtains data by observing and analyzing the content of advertisements, letters, articles, etc.

• Deals with the study of the message itself

• Measures the extent of emphasis or omission

Mechanical Observation

• Traffic Counters• Web Traffic• Scanners• Peoplemeter• Physiological

Measures

Monitoring Web Site Traffic

• Hits and page views

• Jupiter Media Metrics

• Nielsen//NetRatings

Physiological Reactions

• Eye tracking

• Pupilometer

• Psychogalvanometer

• Voice pitch

Eye Tracking Monitors

• Record how the subject actually reads or views an advertisement

• Measure unconscious eye movements

Pupilometer

• This device observes and records changes in the diameter of the subject’s pupils.

Psychogalvanometer

• Measures galvanic skin response

• Involuntary changes in the electrical resistance of the skin

• Assumption: physiological changes accompany emotional reactions

Voice Pitch Analysis

• Measures emotional reactions through physiological changes in a person’s voice