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98 Chapter 8: Group Processes

CHAPTER 8

Group Processes

OUTLINEI. Individuals in Groups: The Presence of Others

A. Social Facilitation: When Others Arouse UsB. Social Loafin : When Others !ela" Us#. Facilitation and Loafin : Unif$in the Paradi %s&. &eindividuation: When People Lose #ontrol

II. Group &$na%ics: Interactin 'ith OthersA. (oinin a Group

B. !oles) *or%s) and #ohesiveness#. Group Polari+ation&. Groupthin, -. Group Perfor%ance: Are ore /eads Better than One0

III. #ooperation) #o%petition) and #onflictA. i"ed otives and Social &ile%%asB. #onflict -scalation#. !educin #onflict throu h G!IT&. *e otiation

I1. !evie'1. 2e$ Ter%s

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: GUIDELINES FOR STUDY3ou should 4e a4le to do each of the follo'in 4$ the conclusion of #hapter 5.

6. -"plain ho' the presence of others affects tas, perfor%ance and ho' 7a8onc9s social facilitation%odel accounts for these effects. &escri4e three alternative accounts for these effects. pp. 259-262 ;

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. &efine roupthin, and its antecedents) 4ehavioral s$%pto%s) and conse uences. Address ho'roupthin, can 4e prevented. pp. 275-278 ;

5. &escri4e the different t$pes of tas,s that roups perfor%) and the relationship 4et'een roup perfor%ance and t$pe of tas,. &iscuss oal settin in roups) and the advanta es anddisadvanta es of 4rainstor%in . pp. 278-281 ;

C. &escri4e the roles of 4iased sa%plin ) co%%unication net'or,s) infor%ationDprocessin 4iases)and diversit$ in roup co%%unication and perfor%ance. pp. 281-285 ;

6E. &efine social dile%%a. &escri4e the prisoner9s dile%%a and resource dile%%as. &iscuss %i"ed%otives in the conte"t of these dile%%as) and delineate ps$cholo ical and structural factors thatinfluence 4ehavior in social dile%%as. pp. 286-289 ;

66. &iscuss ho' threat capacit$ and perceptions of others can lead to the escalation of roup conflict.-"plain ho' G!IT) ne otiation) and findin a co%%on round can reduce roup conflict. pp.289-295 ;

MAJOR CONCEPTS: THE BIG PICTURE

Belo' are three 4asic issues or principles that or ani+e #hapter 5. 3ou should ,no' these issues and principles 'ell.

6. The presence of others can have a %a8or i%pact on people9s 4ehavior. It i%proves our perfor%ance on si%ple tas,s) 4ut i%pairs our perfor%ance on difficult tas,s. If people 'or, 'ithothers on a 8oint pro8ect) the$ tend to slac, off and do less 'or, than if the$ 'or,ed individuall$.And) 'hen people for% to ether in an unor ani+ed cro'd) the$ often lose their sense of identit$and can 4e spurred to violent and destructive acts.

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Chapter 8: Group Processes 100

KEY TERM E ERCISE: THE CONCEPTS YOU SHOULD KNO!Belo' are all of the ,e$ ter%s that appear in boldface in #hapter 5. To help $ou 4etter understand theseconcepts) rather than 8ust %e%ori+e the%) 'rite a definition for each ter% in $our o'n 'ords. Afterdoin so) loo, at the ne"t section 'here $ou9ll find a list of definitions fro% the te"t4oo, for each of the,e$ ter%s presented in rando% order. For each of $our definitions) find the correspondin te"t4oo,definition. *ote ho' $our definitions co%pare 'ith those fro% the te"t4oo,.

Ke" Ter#s6. social dile%%a

. social loafin

?. raduated and reciprocated initiatives in tensionDreduction G!IT;

@. deindividuation

. collective

5. resource dile%%a

C. roup polari+ation

6E. roupthin,

66. social facilitation

6. escalation of co%%it%ent6?. inte rative a ree%ent

6@. collective effort %odel

6 . prisoner s dile%%a

65. process loss

6C. transactive %e%or$

Te$%&oo' De()*)%)o*sa. A roupDproduced reduction in individual output on eas$ tas,s 'here contri4utions are

pooled.

4. The condition in 'hich co%%it%ents to a failin course of action are increased to 8ustif$invest%ents alread$ %ade.

c. Which concern ho' t'o or %ore people share a li%ited resource.

d. A techni ue that atte%pts to increase the production of creative ideas 4$ encoura in roup%e%4ers to spea, freel$ 'ithout critici+in their o'n or others9 contri4utions.

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

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e. A situation in 'hich a selfDinterested choice 4$ ever$one creates the 'orst outco%e forever$one.

f. A process 'here4$ the presence of others enhances perfor%ance on eas$ tas,s 4ut i%pairs perfor%ance on difficult tas,s.

. People en a ed in co%%on activities 4ut 'ith %ini%al direct interaction.

h. The theor$ that individuals 'ill e"ert effort on a collective tas, to the de ree that the$ thin,their individual efforts 'ill 4e i%portant) relevant) and %eanin ful for achievin outco%esthat the$ value.

i. A theor$ holdin that the presence of others 'ill produce social facilitation effects onl$'hen those others are seen as potential evaluators.

8. A roup decisionD%a,in st$le characteri+ed 4$ an e"cessive tendenc$ a%on roup%e%4ers to see, concurrence.

,. A ne otiated resolution to a conflict in 'hich all parties o4tain outco%es that are superior to'hat the$ 'ould have o4tained fro% an e ual division of the contested resources.

l. A theor$ holdin that the %ere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitationeffects.

%. The loss of a person9s sense of individualit$ and the reduction of nor%al constraints a ainstdeviant 4ehavior.

n. A strate $ for unilateral) persistent efforts to esta4lish trust and cooperation 4et'eenopposin parties.

o. The e"a eration throu h roup discussion of initial tendencies in the thin,in of roup%e%4ers.

p. A theor$ holdin that the presence of others 'ill produce social facilitation effects onl$'hen those others distract fro% the tas, and create attentional conflict.

. In the prisoner9s dile%%a) participants are iven a series of choices in 'hich the$ have theoption of cooperatin or co%petin .

r. A roup %a$ perfor% 'orse than it 'ould if ever$ individual perfor%ed up to his or her potential.

s. A shared s$ste% for re%e%4erin infor%ation that ena4les %ultiple people to re%e%4erinfor%ation to ether %ore efficientl$ than the$ could alone


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ANS!ERS FOR KEY TERM E ERCISEAns'ers for the ,e$ ter%s e"ercise are listed 4elo'.

6. e

. a

?. n

@. m

. g

5. c

C. o

6E. j

66. f

6. b

6?. k

6@. h

6 . q

65. r

6C. s


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PRACTICE +UI,: TEST YOUR KNO!LEDGE OF THE CHAPTER

Mu-%)p-e.C/o)ce +ues%)o*s6. &ave is a novice tennis pla$er. /e is %ore an"ious 'hen 4ein 'atched 4$ a roup of instructors

than 4$ a roup of novice pla$ers. This difference in an"iet$ illustrates the process of a. social co%parison.

4. evaluation apprehension.c. social loafin .d. %ere presence.

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5. The ,ind of reciprocit$ that usuall$ reduces cooperation and escalates conflict 4et'een partiesinvolves the use of a. perceived co%petence.

4. threat capacit$.c. pu4lic oods.

d. persuasive ar u%ents.C. The %ere presence account of social facilitation su ests that people do 4etter on eas$ tas,s and

'orse on hard tas,s 'hen perfor%in in front of others than 'hen perfor%in alone 4ecausea. the$ are concerned a4out the i%pression the$ are %a,in .

4. the$ are distracted 4$ the other people.c. the presence of other people produces arousal) 'hich in turn affects perfor%ance.d. the$ don9t 'or, as hard in the presence of others.

6E. When people discuss a topic 'ith others in their o'n social roup 'ho a ree 'ith the%) the$ areli,el$ toa. shift their position a'a$ fro% the initial leanin s of the roup.

4. reverse their position alto ether.c. e"hi4it no chan e in their position.d. enhance or e"a erate the initial leanin s of the roup.

66. Linda thin,s that capital punish%ent is 'ron and should not 4e allo'ed. When she tal,s to herfriends 'ho a ree 'ith her vie's) she %ost li,el$ 'illa. develop ar u%ents in favor of capital punish%ent.

4. 4elieve %ore stron l$ that capital punish%ent is 'ron .c. 4e unaffected 4$ her friends9 vie's.d. challen e her friends9 vie's.

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6?. Priscilla and #arol are preparin for a 4i e"a%. Priscilla chec,s out a li4rar$ 4oo, that #arol'ants so that #arol can9t et it. #arol steals Priscilla9s notes so that Priscilla can9t use the%.Priscilla and #arol area. en a ed in a conflict spiral.

4. 4oth e"hi4itin an individualist orientation.c. en a ed in a pu4lic oods dile%%a.d. restrained 4$ threat capacit$.

6@. When t'o people are faced 'ith a situation in 'hich %utual cooperation 4$ 4oth is 4eneficial to 4oth) co%petition 4$ 4oth is har%ful to 4oth) 4ut co%petition 4$ onl$ one is 4eneficial to theco%petitor and har%ful to the cooperator) the situation can 4e descri4ed asa. the prisoner9s dile%%a.

4. the tra ed$ of the co%%ons.c. a pu4lic oods dile%%a.d. a freeDrider pro4le%.

6 . The red an and the 4lue an have 4een fi htin for so%e ti%e. On Frida$) 'hen the 4lue andecides to share its han out 'ith the red an ) the red an is li,el$ to attri4ute this 4ehavior toa. the ,indness of the 4lue an .

4. an atte%pt to reduce conflict 4et'een the t'o an s.c. ulterior %otivation on the part of the 4lue an .d. a chan e of leadership in the 4lue an .

65. Specific 4ehaviors) either for%al or infor%al) that are e"pected for different positions 'ithin aroup are called

a. nor%s. 4. social roles.c. dis8unctive tas,s.d. superordinate oals.

6C. Statin one9s intentions to reduce tension and ta,in unilateral cooperative actions to reducetension are steps ina. G!IT.

4. roupthin,.c. inte rative a ree%ents.d. social dile%%as.

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ANS!ERS TO THE PRACTICE +UI,

Mu-%)p-e.C/o)ce +ues%)o*s: Correc% A*s1ers 0*2 E$p-0*0%)o*s6. 4. evaluation apprehension. Because &ave is %ore nervous in front of e"perts) he is

pro4a4l$ concerned a4out others evaluatin hi%. After all) the e"perts can 4e harsher and %oredetailed critics than the novices. There is no evidence to sho' that he is co%parin hi%self 'ithothers or en a in in social co%parison. Social loafin is unli,el$ to occur in this situation

4ecause &ave is not 'or,in on a 8oint tas, 'here individual productivit$ is uno4serva4le.Finall$) the %ere presence e"planation of the social facilitation pheno%enon does not distin uish

4et'een t$pes of people) so &ave9s differential reaction to e"perts and novices is inconsistent 'ith%ere presence.

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'hat people fail to share in the pu4lic oods dile%%a) have so%e connection to reciprocit$ 4uthave little to do 'ith the escalation of conflict 4et'een parties.

C. c. the presence of other people produces arousal, which in turn affects performance. Thise"planation of social facilitation su ests that the %ere presence of other people causes one to

4eco%e aroused and that this arousal i%proves perfor%ance on eas$ tas,s and i%pairs

perfor%ance on difficult tas,s. It does not) ho'ever) propose that people9s perfor%ance is affected 4$ the i%pression the$ are %a,in ) 4$ the distraction the$ face) or 4$ ho' hard the$ are 'or,in .

6E. d. enhance or exaggerate the initial leanings of the group. Group polari+ation ise"a eration throu h roup discussion of initial tendencies in the thin,in of roup %e%4ers.Because of roup polari+ation) it is ver$ unli,el$ that people 'ould shift or reverse their position)or even have no chan e in their position) 'hen discussin their vie's 'ith li,eD%inded others.

66. 4. believe more strongly that capital punishment is wrong. Linda is li,el$ to 4elieve %orestron l$ that capital punish%ent is 'ron after discussin this topic 'ith her friends 'ho a ree'ith her 4ecause such discussion is li,el$ to lead to roup polari+ation) the tendenc$ for people to

ain conviction in their vie's 'hen discussin the% 'ith li,eD%inded others. It is unli,el$ thatLinda 'ould co%e to favor capital punish%ent) that her vie's 'ould 4e unaffected) or that herfriends 'ould challen e her vie's.

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restrained 4$ threat capacit$. -ven thou h the$ clearl$ have the a4ilit$ to har% one another) itappears that neither one is a'are that the other person %i ht har% the% in retaliation a crucialfeature of threat capacit$;) and in an$ event the$ do not appear to 4e restrained 4$ the other

person9s a4ilit$ to do har%.

6@. a. the prisoners dilemma. The prisoner9s dile%%a is a classic paradi % in 'hich t'o

people have the option of cooperatin or co%petin . If one pla$er cooperates and the other pla$erco%petes) the pla$er 'ho co%petes ets a 4i pa$off. If 4oth pla$ers cooperate) then the$ 4othreceive a %oderate pa$off. But if the$ 4oth co%pete) the$ 4oth lose a su4stantial a%ount. Peopleusuall$ respond to others in ,ind in this paradi %. The tra ed$ of the co%%ons) the pu4lic oodsdile%%a) and the freeDrider pro4le% are all dile%%as faced 4$ lar e social roups) so the$ areeasil$ represented 4$ t'o people.

6 . c. ulterior motivation on the part of the blue gang. When t'o roups are in conflict 'ithone another) the$ tend to %a,e conflictD%aintainin attri4utions and to see the 'orst in eachother9s actions. In this case) the red an is li,el$ to 4e suspicious of the 4lue an and thin, thatthe 4lue an has ulterior %otives for this esture of friendship. Because these roups have ahistor$ of conflict) it is unli,el$ that the red an 'ill thin, the 4lue an is 4ein ,ind)atte%ptin to reduce conflict) or chan in its leadership. These attri4utions are all positive) or at

least neutral) and the red an 'ould 4e li,el$ to search for a less flatterin attri4ution for the 4luean 9s 4ehavior.

65. 4. social roles. Social roles are the specific 4ehaviors carried out 4$ individuals in a roupthat are e"pected 4$ %ost of the roup %e%4ers. *or%s are shared e"pectations for the roup thathelp define the social roles) 4ut the$ are not the 4ehaviors the%selves. Superordinate oals arealso shared 4$ the roup) 4ut the$ are not associated 'ith positions 'ithin the roup. Finall$)dis8unctive tas,s are not related to e"pectations in a roup.

6C. a. G !". G!IT is the acron$% for the strate $ ,no'n as raduated and reciprocatedinitiatives in tensionDreduction. This strate $ allo's one part$) 'ithout the cooperation of theother part$) to atte%pt to reduce conflict. It involves clear state%ents of one9s desire to reducetension) follo'ed 4$ unilateral cooperative actions. If an$ of these actions elicits cooperation fro%

the other part$) then a hi herDlevel cooperative action is initiated in response. G!IT has 4eensho'n to 4e effective in reducin tension 4et'een parties. Groupthin, and social dile%%as havelittle to do 'ith reducin tension) and inte rative a ree%ents %a$ 4e enacted to reduce tension 4utare not a unilateral solution.

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t$picall$ 4e the correct one. When in the %idst of a ra in fire) or %ilitar$ firefi ht) carefuldeli4eration is often i%possi4le) and arousal 'ill tend to elicit their do%inant responses.

A*s1ers %o Ess0" +ues%)o*s: S0#p-e Ess0"s

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