Ch02 b.chemistry.mission
Transcript of Ch02 b.chemistry.mission
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Human Anatomy & PhysiologySEVENTH EDITION
Elaine N. MariebKatja Hoehn
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Vince Austin, Bluegrass Technical and Community College
C H
A P
T E
R
2Chemistry Comes Alive
P A R T B
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Biochemistry
Organic compounds
Contain carbon, are covalently bonded, and are often large
Inorganic compounds
Do not contain carbon
Water, salts, and many acids and bases
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Properties of Water
High heat capacity – absorbs and releases large amounts of heat before changing temperature
High heat of vaporization – changing from a liquid to a gas requires large amounts of heat
Polar solvent properties – dissolves ionic substances, forms hydration layers around large charged molecules, and serves as the body’s major transport medium
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PLAYPLAY InterActive Physiology®: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid/Base Balance: Introduction to Body Fluids
Properties of Water
Reactivity – is an important part of hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions
Cushioning – resilient cushion around certain body organs
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Salts
Inorganic compounds
Contain cations other than H+ and anions other than OH–
Are electrolytes; they conduct electrical currents
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Acids and Bases
Acids release H+ and are therefore proton donors
HCl H+ + Cl –
Bases release OH– and are proton acceptors
NaOH Na+ + OH–
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Acid-Base Concentration (pH)
Acidic solutions have higher H+ concentration and therefore a lower pH
Alkaline solutions have lower H+ concentration and therefore a higher pH
Neutral solutions have equal H+ and OH– concentrations
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Acid-Base Concentration (pH)
Acidic: pH 0–6.99
Basic: pH 7.01–14
Neutral: pH 7.00
Figure 2.13
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Buffers
Systems that resist abrupt and large swings in the pH of body fluids
Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system
Carbonic acid dissociates, reversibly releasing bicarbonate ions and protons
The chemical equilibrium between carbonic acid and bicarbonate resists pH changes in the blood
PLAYPLAY InterActive Physiology®: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid/Base Balance: Acid/Base Homeostasis
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Organic Compounds
Molecules unique to living systems contain carbon and hence are organic compounds
They include:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
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Carbohydrates
Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Their major function is to supply a source of cellular food
Examples:
Monosaccharides or simple sugars
Figure 2.14a
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Carbohydrates
Disaccharides or double sugars
Figure 2.14b
PLAYPLAY Disaccharides
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Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides or polymers of simple sugars
Figure 2.14c
PLAYPLAY Polysaccharides
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Lipids
Contain C, H, and O, but the proportion of oxygen in lipids is less than in carbohydrates
Examples:
Neutral fats or triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids
Eicosanoids
PLAYPLAY Fats
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Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)
Composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule
Figure 2.15a
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Other Lipids
Phospholipids – modified triglycerides with two fatty acid groups and a phosphorus group
Figure 2.15b
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Other Lipids
Steroids – flat molecules with four interlocking hydrocarbon rings
Eicosanoids – 20-carbon fatty acids found in cell membranes
Figure 2.15c
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Representative Lipids Found in the Body
Neutral fats – found in subcutaneous tissue and around organs
Phospholipids – chief component of cell membranes
Steroids – cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones
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Representative Lipids Found in the Body
Fat-soluble vitamins – vitamins A, E, and K
Eicosanoids – prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes
Lipoproteins – transport fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream
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Amino Acids
Building blocks of protein, containing an amino group and a carboxyl group
Amino group NH2
Carboxyl groups COOH
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Amino Acids
Figure 2.16a–c
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Amino Acids
Figure 2.16d, e
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Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds
Figure 2.17
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Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acid
Dehydrationsynthesis
HydrolysisDipeptide
Peptide bond
+N
H
H
C
R
H
O
N
H
H
C
R
CC
H
O H2O
H2O
N
H
H
C
R
C
H
O
N
H
C
R
C
H
O
OH OH OH
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Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acid
+N
H
H
C
R
H
O
N
H
H
C
R
CC
H
O
OH OH
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Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acid
Dehydrationsynthesis
+N
H
H
C
R
H
O
N
H
H
C
R
CC
H
O H2O
OH OH
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Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acid
Dehydrationsynthesis
Dipeptide
Peptide bond
+N
H
H
C
R
H
O
N
H
H
C
R
CC
H
O H2O
N
H
H
C
R
C
H
O
N
H
C
R
C
H
O
OH OH OH
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Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds
Figure 2.17
Dipeptide
Peptide bond
N
H
H
C
R
C
H
O
N
H
C
R
C
H
O
OH
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Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds
Figure 2.17
HydrolysisDipeptide
Peptide bond
H2O
N
H
H
C
R
C
H
O
N
H
C
R
C
H
O
OH
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Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acidHydrolysis
Dipeptide
Peptide bond
+N
H
H
C
R
H
O
N
H
H
C
R
CC
H
O
H2O
N
H
H
C
R
C
H
O
N
H
C
R
C
H
O
OH OH OH
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Protein
Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds
Figure 2.17
Amino acid Amino acid
Dehydrationsynthesis
HydrolysisDipeptide
Peptide bond
+N
H
H
C
R
H
O
N
H
H
C
R
CC
H
O H2O
H2O
N
H
H
C
R
C
H
O
N
H
C
R
C
H
O
OH OH OH
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Structural Levels of Proteins
Primary – amino acid sequence
Secondary – alpha helices or beta pleated sheets
PLAYPLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Secondary Structure
PLAYPLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Primary Structure
PLAYPLAY Chemistry of Life: Introduction to Protein Structure
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Structural Levels of Proteins
Tertiary – superimposed folding of secondary structures
Quaternary – polypeptide chains linked together in a specific manner
PLAYPLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Quaternary Structure
PLAYPLAY Chemistry of Life: Proteins: Tertiary Structure
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Structural Levels of Proteins
Figure 2.18a–c
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Structural Levels of Proteins
Figure 2.18b,d,e
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Fibrous and Globular Proteins
Fibrous proteins
Extended and strand-like proteins
Examples: keratin, elastin, collagen, and certain contractile fibers
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Fibrous and Globular Proteins
Globular proteins
Compact, spherical proteins with tertiary and quaternary structures
Examples: antibodies, hormones, and enzymes
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Protein Denuaturation
Reversible unfolding of proteins due to drops in pH and/or increased temperature
Figure 2.19a
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Protein Denuaturation
Irreversibly denatured proteins cannot refold and are formed by extreme pH or temperature changes
Figure 2.19b
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Molecular Chaperones (Chaperonins)
Help other proteins to achieve their functional three-dimensional shape
Maintain folding integrity
Assist in translocation of proteins across membranes
Promote the breakdown of damaged or denatured proteins
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Characteristics of Enzymes
Most are globular proteins that act as biological catalysts
Holoenzymes consist of an apoenzyme (protein) and a cofactor (usually an ion)
Enzymes are chemically specific
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Characteristics of Enzymes
Frequently named for the type of reaction they catalyze
Enzyme names usually end in -ase
Lower activation energy
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Characteristics of Enzymes
Figure 2.20
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Mechanism of Enzyme Action
Enzyme binds with substrate
Product is formed at a lower activation energy
Product is released
PLAYPLAY How Enzymes Work
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Active siteAmino acids
Enzyme (E)Enzyme-substratecomplex (E-S)
Internal rearrangementsleading to catalysis
Dipeptide product (P)
Free enzyme (E)
Substrates (S)
Peptide bond
H2O
+
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Active siteAmino acids
Enzyme (E)Enzyme-substratecomplex (E-S)
Substrates (S)
H2O
+
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Active siteAmino acids
Enzyme (E)Enzyme-substratecomplex (E-S)
Internal rearrangementsleading to catalysis
Substrates (S)
H2O
+
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Active siteAmino acids
Enzyme (E)Enzyme-substratecomplex (E-S)
Internal rearrangementsleading to catalysis
Dipeptide product (P)
Free enzyme (E)
Substrates (S)
Peptide bond
H2O
+
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Nucleic Acids
Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus
Their structural unit, the nucleotide, is composed of N-containing base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
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Nucleic Acids
Five nitrogen bases contribute to nucleotide structure – adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U)
Two major classes – DNA and RNA
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Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Double-stranded helical molecule found in the nucleus of the cell
Replicates itself before the cell divides, ensuring genetic continuity
Provides instructions for protein synthesis
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Structure of DNA
Figure 2.22a
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Structure of DNA
Figure 2.22b
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Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Single-stranded molecule found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm of a cell
Uses the nitrogenous base uracil instead of thymine
Three varieties of RNA: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA
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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Source of immediately usable energy for the cell
Adenine-containing RNA nucleotide with three phosphate groups
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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Figure 2.23
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Solute Solute transported
Contracted smoothmuscle cell
Product made
Relaxed smoothmuscle cell
Reactants
Membraneprotein
P Pi
ATP
PX X
Y
Y
+
(a) Transport work
(b) Mechanical work
(c) Chemical work
Pi
Pi
+ADP
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Solute
Membraneprotein
P
ATP
(a) Transport work
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Solute Solute transported
Membraneprotein
P Pi
ATP
(a) Transport work
Pi
+ADP
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Relaxed smoothmuscle cell
ATP
(b) Mechanical work
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Contracted smoothmuscle cell
Relaxed smoothmuscle cell
ATP
(b) Mechanical work
Pi
+ADP
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Reactants
ATP
PX
Y+
(c) Chemical work
![Page 63: Ch02 b.chemistry.mission](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062513/556c3d10d8b42a02258b5751/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24
Product madeReactants
ATP
PX X
Y
Y
+
(c) Chemical work
Pi
Pi
+ADP
![Page 64: Ch02 b.chemistry.mission](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022062513/556c3d10d8b42a02258b5751/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.24
Solute Solute transported
Contracted smoothmuscle cell
Product made
Relaxed smoothmuscle cell
Reactants
Membraneprotein
P Pi
ATP
PX X
Y
Y
+
(a) Transport work
(b) Mechanical work
(c) Chemical work
Pi
Pi
+ADP