Compiled by Li XiaoxiangIllustrated by Fu ChunjiangTranslated by Yang Liping

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Contents

Prologue1

Pre-Qin Literature 3Prior to 221 BC

Literature of the Han Dynasty 21206 BC - AD 220

Literature of Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties 33AD 220-589

Literature of the Tang Dynasty 47AD 618-907

Literature of the Song Dynasty 83AD 960-1279

Literature of the Yuan Dynasty 109AD 1271-1368

Literature of the Ming Dynasty 119AD 1368-1644

Literature of the Qing Dynasty 137AD 1644-1911

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1The literature of China can be traced back to the distant past. At that time, withonly basic production tools and methods, people had to exert great effort in theirwork. As they laboured, they uttered rhythmic sounds such as yo-ho, yo-ho intime with their breaths. These rhythmic work songs allowed them to coordinatetheir breathing and movements, reduce fatigue and increase productivity.

As these work songs gradually grew richer in content, they evolved into metricaland meaningful poems. Later, people also liked to sing these songs and poemswhile dancing and offering sacrifices to gods or ancestors. Unfortunately, therewas no written language during the prehistoric period and these early poems,which could only be handed down orally, are now lost to time.

PROLOGUE

Heave-ho!

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2The well-known Earth-beating Song below is said to have been handed downfrom the time of the legendary sage rulers Yao and Shun.

We work at sunrise,

We rest at sunset.

Dig a well to drink,

Till the field to eat.

Of what avail are emperors to us?

According to the book Origins of AncientPoems written by Shen Deqian of theQing Dynasty, the Earth-beating song

was the first poetic song in China.

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3*Pre-Qin refers to the period before the unification of China, and generally has referenceto the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period.

PRE-QIN LITERATURE

Pre-Qin* literature is the first chapter in the history of Chinese literature. Apartfrom the earlier ballads and myths, the literature of this period is representedmainly in poetry and prose. The Book of Songs and Songs of the South aretwo monuments in the history of ancient Chinese poetry. At the same time,historical and other types of prose writings of the Warring States Period aregenerally regarded as models of classical prose.

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4ANCIENT MYTHS

Myths were invented by ancient people to explain natural and culturalphenomena. For instance, when did the heaven and the earth come into being?Where did human beings come from? What are the sun, the moon, the stars,wind, rain, thunder and lightning? Lacking in scientific knowledge, the ancientpeople used their rich imagination to create many strange and fantastic storiesand legends.

Before there was a written language, these myths were handed down orally.Later, some of them were recorded in the pre-Qin books and records. Of allpre-Qin books and records, Classic of Mountains and Seas is the richestsource book of ancient myths, containing about 100 myths, which include familiarstories such as N Wa patches the sky, Pan Gu separates Heaven fromEarth, The mythical bird Jingwei fills up the sea and Kuafu chases the sun.These beautiful legends have had a far-reaching influence on later literaturewith the rich inspiration they offered.

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5Pangu Cleaves Apart the Earth and Sky

Long, long ago, the universe was a dark turbid mass like a giant egg.Pangu, with his body measuring some 90,000 li, was born and bred inthis darkness, where he slept soundly. One day, he awoke and hackedaway at the darkness, eventually splitting it into the sky and the earth.He used his body as a pillar to keep them apart. Exhausted from thearduous task, he lay dying, whereupon his left eye turned into the sun;his right eye became the moon; his body the hill; his blood the river; hishair the foliage; and his drops of sweat, the rain and the dew. Hence,Pangu gave of his entire body for the earth as we know it today.

Nwa Mends the Heavens

Long after Pangu separated the heaven and the earth, the deity Nwacreated little clay figurines that looked and behaved like her. One day,two gods, Gonggong the god of water and Zhurong the god of fire, wereembroiled in a fierce fight. The defeated Gonggong rammed his headagainst the mountain, causing untold disasters to the world and broughtdown half the sky. Humans were terrified by the ensuing fires and floodserupting all over the place. The quick-thinking Nwa mended the skywith smelted rocks, propped up the sky with the four limbs of a giantturtle placed on its back, and saved the human race who perpetuatedtill the present day.

Kuafu Chases the SunIn ancient times, the Kuafu tribe suffered long and dreary winter, andlonged for the warmth of the sun. Bent on catching the sun, their heroKuafu made his way to where the sun set. Feeling parched along theway, he drank up all the water in the Yellow River and did the same forthe Wei River. He decided to go to the Great Lake for more water butbefore he could reach there, he collapsed and died. His wooden clubgrew into a peach forest, which provided shade and fruit for travellersto quench their thirst.

These amazing myths became

the source of inspiration for

great literary works to come.

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6Pre-Qin Mythology:

The Mythical Bird Jingwei Fills up the Sea

N Gua, the daughter of Emperor Yan, wasplaying at the beach of the East Sea.

These shellsare so

beautiful!

Help!Help!

She tirelessly picked up branches andpebbles with her beak and threw them intothe sea, though it was too deep and vastfor her to fill.

People named the bird Jingwei. Itsindomitable spirit epitomizes the earlypeoples determination in their struggleagainst nature.

You hideoussea, I swearto fill you up!

All of the sudden, waves came upand tookher away.

N Gua changedinto a little bird afterher death.

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7The Book of Songs, containing 305 poems, is the earliest anthology of poemsextant in Chinese history and covers a period of about five centuries, extendingfrom the early Western Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC) through the middle ofthe Spring and Autumn Period (6th century BC).

It is said that there were originally over 3,000 poemsbut Confucius reduced the collection to the presentnumber after careful selection. These poems wereoriginally lyrics that were sung to melodies for ritualsand ceremonies, and for entertainment as well.Later, the book became one of the five majorConfucian classics (wu jing).

The book is divided into three parts:

THE BOOK OF SONGS

Ya (Elegantiae)Feng (Airs of the States) Song (temple hymns)

Feng comprises 160folksongs collected from15 regions and mostlyreflect the lives andexperiences of people.

Ya consists of 105songs performed inthe imperial court ofthe Zhou Dynasty.

Song comprises 40songs chanted duringsacrificial activities atancestral temples.

Enjoy the lyrical lines:Dark green grow the rush leaves;The white dewdrops turn to frost.

The woman whom I love,Is on the opposite bank.

Excerpt from Rush Leaves

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8Excerpt from The Book of Songs:

Chewk-chewk, an osprey whistle,

In the river from an isle.

Lo, a slim and graceful girl,

Fit for a man young and gentle.

Water mallow long and short grow,

Past her left and right flow.

Lo, a slim and graceful girl,

Pursue her, awake or asleep.

Seek and court her yet in vain,

Still miss her, awake or asleep.

There she is, but out of reach,

In bed I toss and turn, restless.

This poem describes a young man thinking of a girl. The birds call makes

him think about marrying her, using water mallow to express his sleepless

longing and determined courtship.

Song Collectors

The Zhou government created a special official post to collect folksongs.

Ringing a wooden bell, these officials visited various communities and

recorded their lyrics.

The collectors handed the lyrics to

court musicians. Once sorted and

refined, the songs would then be

presented to the emperor. These lyrics

could help the emperor understand

popular sentiments and social

conditions.

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9What grass does not wither?

What grass does not wither?

When do I not march?

What man is not forced

To go from here to there?

What grass does not blacken?

Who doesnt remain single?

A poor soldier am I,

Why not treat me as a human?

I am not a tiger or a bull,

Scampering in the wilderness.

A poor soldier am I,

Kept busy from dawn to dusk.

Excerpt from The Book of Songs

Wars broke out often during the Spring and Autumn and Warring

States Periods. The ordinary folk saw their families torn apart, losing

their homes and loved ones. Many young men were drafted to fight in

the wars. This poem tells how soldiers were forced to rush here and

there with little time for rest, living like wild beasts.

Artistic Features of The Book of SongsMost of the poems in The Book of Songs have tetrasyllabic (four-character)lines. Sometimes phrases or lines of one stanza are repeated in another stanzawith little or no change. This metrical recurrence is used to give the poem amusical effect. Common poetic techniques used include Fu (direct narration),Bi (figures of speech) and Xing (using what one sees in ones vision or mindseye to introduce the theme).

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10

Qu Yuan (340277 BC)

During the late Warring States Period, there appeared a newpoetic formChu Ci or Songs of the South. Based on folksongsin the southern state of Chu, they were revised by the patrioticpoet Qu Yuan. The new form departed from the standardtetrasyllabic (four-character) lines set by The Book ofSongs, with flexible syntax and many more lines. Writtenin ornate language, Chu Ci poems convey their meaningsin an oblique way by drawing extensively on allusions tomyths. Thus, they are filled with romantic flavour andcharm. Another feature is that sound particles suchas xi and xie are used quite often as caesuras.

Qu Yuan left behind 25 poems, including The Lament (also known as On Encountering Sorrow), NineSongs, Nine Essays, Questioning Heaven,Distant Journey, Divination and The Fisherman.Depicting vividly the social conditions and political situation of the State of Chuand Qu Yuans life of struggle, these poems are filled with deep concerns aboutthe country and the people, and showcase his dauntless spirit.

After Qu Yuan, the style continued to be adopted by men of letters such asSong Yu, Tang Le and Jing Chai. Song Yu stands out among them with hisThe Gaotang Rhapsody and Rhapsody on the Holy Lady. Liu Xiang ofthe Han Dynasty compiled the works of Qu Yuan and other writers of ChuCi into an anthology under the title of Chu Ci, or Songs of the South. This isChinas second poem anthology.

Not only was Qu Yuanan accomplishedscholar, he was alsoclosely linked to aChinese festival.

He was in fact thereason for thecelebration of theDumpling or DragonBoat Festival!

CHU CI (SONGS OF THE SOUTH)

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11

The Story of Qu Yuan

A noble of the State of Chu, Qu Yuan onceserved as a high-ranking official.

Later he lost favour with the King of Chubecause of the slanders of venal officials atcourt.

He was demoted twice and exiled to thenorth and western regions of the presentHunan province.

On hearing that the Qin army had conquered theChu capital city of Ying, he was so overwhelmedby sorrow and anger that he took his life bythrowing himself into the Miluo River.

His suicide occurred on the fifth day of the fifthlunar month. It was later set as a memorial date inhis honour. On that day, people hold dragon-boatraces and eat rice dumplings. So it is also called theDragon-Boat Festival.

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12

Excerpts from The Lament by Qu Yuan:

The road ahead is so long and so distant!I must travel up and down to seek my hearts desire.

In the poem, Qu Yuan pleaded with the King of Chu toreform the corrupt government and push the country backonto the right track, but the emperor would only listen tothe slanderous talk of a group of sycophants. Feeling alone,Qu Yuan rode a whirlwind to the horizon, where animmortal advised him:

Youd better leave that dark placequickly to seek light and hope.

Qu Yuan reached the land of lightat last. But when he looked down,he caught sight of his troubledhometown, and could not bear toleave the country after all.

The LamentQu Yuans masterpiece, The Lament, contains373 lines. It is regarded as the grandest lyricalpoem in the history of ancient China. It is apersonal statement by the poet, expressing hislove for his country.

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