CH 510 The History of Christianity 1

CH 510 The History of Christianity 1UNIT THREE The Medieval ChurchSlides based in part on The Story of Christianity by Justo Gonzalez The New OrderFall of the Western Roman EmpireTheodosius I was the last emperor to rule over a unified Roman empire (West and East) 379-395; the empire was permanently divided after his deathRome was sacked by the Visigoths (under Alaric I) on August 24, 410; first time in 800 years that it had been sacked by a foreign enemyAt the time it was no longer the capital of the western empire (being replaced by Mediolanum and later Ravenna), but it was still considered the eternal city and spiritual center of the Roman empireThe western empire officially ended with the abdication of Romulus Augustus (the last de facto emperor) in 476 under pressure from Flavius Odoacer who led a revolt against himOdoacer would be considered the first barbarian king of ItalyThe last de jure emperor was Julius Nepos (who died in 480)BarbariansThe HunsConfederation of Central Asian tribes, spread out across a large area of EurasiaEstablished control over a large area of Eastern Europe under Attilas rule (434-453)Never settle in large numbers within the Roman Empire; preferred to raid it and leave its government to othersPrecipitated the great migrations of the Germanic peoples into the Roman Empire, first the Goths, then others, in order to escape from themTheir empire broke up a year after Attilas deathThe VandalsDisplaced by the Huns, the Vandals migrated down the north bank of the river Danube to escape them After battling with the Franks, who controlled the northern Rhine regions, they were able to walk across the river Rhine when it froze in the cold winter of 406-7, and invade GaulIn 409, the Vandals moved into Spain, where they tried to settle but were dislodged by the VisigothsIn 429, under King Genseric, the Vandals moved on to North Africa, in part of the complicated political maneuvering of the dying Roman empire, when different groups would be promised lands in return for military aid to different court factions They were at the gates of Hippo as its bishop, Augustine, was dying

The VandalsEstablished a kingdom in North Africa after the conquest of Carthage in 439 Eventually the Vandal kingdom also included Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica and the BelearicsIn 455, the Vandals sacked Rome (the second time it was sacked)The Vandals were Arian Christians, and so their rule was disastrous for the church in North AfricaThe Vandal kingdom collapsed in the Vandalic War (533-4), when Justinian I managed to recapture N. Africa for the Eastern Roman EmpireThe GothsLong-standing traders with and mercenaries for the Roman Empire, who were settled in large numbers on the north bank of the DanubeConverted to the Arian faith by the half-Goth missionary, Ulfilas (Wulfila)In 376, the Goths came under aggressive attack from the HunsTheir leader came to an agreement with the Emperor Valens that they would be given lands and allowed to settle south of the Danube However, Valens reneged on his promise (because of a famine), inciting the Goths to wage war with the empire (Gothic War, 378-382)In 378, the Goths decimated the Roman field army at the Battle of Adrianople, killing Emperor ValensThe Goths were inside the empire to stay; divided into Visigoths (Western Goths) and Ostrogoths (possibly translated as Eastern Goths) during the 5th and 6th centuriesFrom then on, they alternately made peace with various Roman emperors and generals and were double-crossed by them

Ulfilas (ca. 310-383)Ulfilas (Wulfila)Name means Little Wolf in GothicHalf-Goth, Half-Greek from CappadociaOrdained bishop by Eusebius of Nicomedia during the height of the Arian controversy; sided with ArianismReturned to his people to work as a missionaryGiven permission by Constantius II to migrate with his converts to Moesia (Bulgaria) to escape persecutionFrom there he translated the Bible from Greek into Gothic, for which he devised the Gothic alphabetConverted many of his people to the Arian faith

The Creed of UlfilasI, Ulfila, bishop and confessor, have always so believed, and in this, the one true faith, I make the journey to my Lord; I believe in one God the Father, the only unbegotten and invisible, and in his only-begotten son, our Lord and God, the designer and maker of all creation, having none other like him (so that one alone among all beings is God the Father, who is also the God of our God); and in one Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, as Christ said after his resurrection to his apostles: "And behold, I send the promise of my Father upon you; but tarry ye in the city of Jerusalem, until ye be clothed with power from on high" (Luke 24:49) and again "But ye shall receive power, when the Holy Ghost is come upon you" (Acts 1:8); being neither God (the Father) nor our God (Christ), but the minister of Christ ... subject and obedient in all things to the Son; and the Son, subject and obedient in all things to God who is his Father ... (whom) he ordained in the Holy Spirit through his Christ.The VisigothsMigrating westward, the Visigoths would sacked Rome under their king, Alaric, in 410 (the incident that led Augustine to write hisCity of God); they then temporally settled in Gaul In 415, the Visigoths were asked by Honorius to help drive the Vandals out of SpainThey settled in the Aquitaine by 418, the nucleus of what would become, by 475, an independent Visigothic kingdom covering most of the Iberian peninsula (modern-day Spain)Though they were Arian Christians, they did not persecute the orthodox to the extent that the Vandals did; relied on the conquered orthodox inhabitants of their territories as the guardians of ancient culture (providing a measure of stability)The conversion of King Recared (586-601) to Nicene orthodoxy meant the conversion of the majority of Visigoth nobles; Arianism would soon disappear on the Iberian peninsula Third Council of Toledo (589) added filioque to the Nicene Creed as a measure against Arianism

The OstrogothsA second group of Goths from around the Crimean rebelled against Attila in the early 450s Under Theodemir, they dealt the final blow to the Huns by defeating the sons of Attila at the Battle of Nedao in 454They initially joined up with the other Goths south of the Danube, eventually settled along the Dalmatian coastThe Byzantine emperor Zeno commissioned the Ostrogoths to take back Italy from Odoacer, who had deposed the last nominal Roman emperor of the West, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 Their great general, Theodoric, invited Odoacer to a banquet in 493 and killed him at the table Theodoric the Great (454-526) then set up his own rule in Italy, with his capital in Ravenna; his mausoleum survives, together with several churches he had decorated with beautiful mosaicsAfter the death of Theodoric, the Kingdom of Italy was conquered by Justinian I in the Gothic War of 535-554

The FranksA loose confederation of Germanic tribes who inhabited the Upper RhineRaided the Roman Empire from time to time (3rd-5th centuries); many Franks would join the Roman legions from the mid-fourth century Further displaced in the early fifth century, partly by skirmishes with the Vandals, Sueves and Alans, as the latter made their way down the Rhine to escape from the Huns, and partly by the Huns themselves They spread into Northern Gaul, following and continuing to skirmish with the other tribesThe FranksThe Franks were finally united under the Merovigians (Dynasty started by Meroveus)Two successful leaders, Childeric (who reigned c.457 481) and his son Clovis (who reigned 481-511), established Frankish dominance more securely By the 6th century the Franks had subdued the Burgundians, ruling most of Gaul (France) north of the Loire Clovis (the grandson of Meroveus) married a Burgundian princess and on the eve of battle promised to convert to Christianity if his wifes God gave him victory; Clovis was baptized on Christmas day (496)Clovis' decision to convert to the Nicene version of Christianity in 496 was decisive for its re-establishment in Western Europe, as the Frankish kingdom continued to prosperThe Merovigians & CarolingiansThe Merovigians would go on to found one of the most enduring monarchies to replace the old western Roman empire (developing later into the Carolingians); one of the most active forces in the spread of Christianity over western EuropeBy the eighth century, the Carolingian Empire would come to dominate most of western EuropeThis empire would eventually evolve into France and the Holy Roman Empire

The Burgundians

Burgundians: East Germanic tribe, initially from ScandinaviaIn 369, Valentinian I enlisted the help of the Burgundians to fight against another tribe, the AlamanniThey crossed the Rhine and entered the empire in the early 5th century with other tribes of the great Germanic migration (e.g. Vandals); settled in southern and central GaulThey had a stormy relationship with the Romans, who used them to fend off other tribes, but were suspicious of their Arianism; often raided border regions and expanded their territories when possibleConverted to Catholicism circa 500 ADConquered by Clovis of the Franks in 534; the Burgundians were largely absorbed into the Frankish kingdomThe Lombards Germanic tribe of Scandinavian originsBy the 5th century they had migrated and settled in the valley of the Danube RiverJustinian I had re-taken Italy from the Ostrogoths in the Gothic War of 535-554However, by 568 the Lombards conquered Italy under the leadership of Albion, setting up a Lombard Kingdom in Italy (later named the Kingdom of Italy)In 774, the Lombard kingdom would fall to the Franks, though Lombard nobles would rule parts of the Italian peninsula until the 11th centuryLargely pagan; their initial conversion to Christianity was nominal and largely incomplete; while allied to the Ostrogoths they were Arian; pressure to embrace Catholicism after the conquest of ItalyThe Angles, Saxons & JutesThe Angles came from Angeln (north Germany), the Saxons from Lower Saxony, and the Jutes from Jutland (Denmark) The first started arriving in south-east Britain from the 440s The Angles may have been initially invited by the Britons to help protect them from the raids of the Picts and Scots; over the next two centuries they gradually extended across the north and west of what would eventually be called EnglandLanguage: Old English (Ingvaeonic), a West Germanic languageAnglo-Saxon period: 550-1066 (Norman conquest)Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons began around 597 and was nominally completed by 686

The Scots (Irish)Mentioned by the fourth-century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus as perpetuating countless attacks on Roman Britain, along the western coast After the withdrawal of the Roman legions in the early years of the fifth century, these attacks increased The west of Scotland, Argyll and the Isles, was settled by Scots from Ulster (Northern Ireland) in the late fourth and early fifth centuriesTerritorial control over western Scotland grew imperceptibly over the next few centuries, helped by the monastic connections of powerful characters such as Columba of IonaThe BritonsAfter the withdrawal of the Roman administration in the early fifth century, the Britons were relatively vulnerable Raided from the North by the Picts, from the West by the Scots/Irish, and from the East by the Angles, Saxons and Jutes (many of whom, ironically, may have been invited over by the Britons as mercenaries)The Britons were steadily pushed West by the Angles/Saxons over the ensuing centuries, into Strathclyde, Wales and the West Country (Cornwall)A number of them settled in Brittany (northern France), which was itself, however, subject to Scots/Irish raidsChristianization of the British IslesWithdrawal of Roman legionsChristianity had existed in Britain even before the conversion of ConstantineGlastonbury, located near the mouth of the Severn River, is one of the earliest Christian holy places in BritainLatin-speaking British bishops were present at the Council of Arles (314)By the end of the fourth century, Roman troops were gradually removed from Britain (mostly by imperial usurpers seeking to make their fortunes in Gaul)Result was the vulnerability of the Romano-Celtic inhabitants (the Britons), who had to defend themselves first against their pagan neighbors (to the North and West) and then against invading Angles, Saxons and Jutes The country reverted back to tribal organization and towns depopulated as the Germanic invasions turned into full-blown occupationInvasion of Britain (beginning in the 5th century)Germanus of Auxerre (378-448)Survival of Celtic ChristianityBishop Germanus of Auxerre made to visits to Britain at the request of colleagues there (429 and 444-5); to combat Pelagianism, and to lead a British force against a joint Saxon and Pictish invasion in the northHowever, over the course of the century, Christianity was driven farther and farther west, until confined to Cornwall, Wales and StrathclydeConversion of Ireland is associated with a Briton named Patrick (389-461)

St. Patrickca. 389-461The Career of St. PatrickA Romano-Briton (not Irish!), probably born somewhere in western Britain or WalesSon of a Christian deacon named CalpurniusKidnapped by Irish pirates as a young man, and put to work as a slaveEscaped after six years; Patrick ended up in Gaul where he trained for the priesthoodEventually returned to Ireland as a missionary bishopIn 431, Pope Celestine had dispatched Palladius to be bishop for the Scots (Irish) who believed in Christ; he died within a yearPatrick was sent to replace himPatricks CareerPatrick was noted for having won significant converts among local royal families of IrelandEstablished territorial bishoprics (on tribal basis) rather than dioceses, since cities of Romano-Gallic society did not yet exist in IrelandIntroduced communal ascetic life to Ireland; after his death these monastic communities would become the pastoral centers of the Irish churchThe abbots of these communities typically belonged to royal families of the various tribes, and were often (but not always) bishops as wellIn this way the Irish episcopate was monastically based and essentially tribal, rather than territorially based (as was the rest of the catholic world)

Celtic ChristianityMonastic communities would become the foci of pastoral and missionary workAlso become the centers of learning, the arts and educationIrish monasticism influenced the parallel development in Wales St. Illtyd (d. 535) and St. David (d. 560)During the time of Patrick, British Christianity extended northwards into the territory above Hadrians Wall through the efforts of St. NinianThe conversion of Scotland proper (north of the Clyde and Forth) was the work of monastics from IrelandThe inspiration behind these missions was St. Columba (521-597)St. Columba (or Colum Cille)St. Columbas careerA member of the royal family of ONeill of Connaught; educated at the abbey at ClonardTradition holds that a dispute with St. Finnian over a copy of a manuscript of a psalter led to pitched battle at Cl Dreimhne in 561 in which many were killed; Columba was threatened with excommunication by a synod; St. Brendan interceded for him and it was agreed to send him into exileColumba vowed to convert as many people in Scotland as had been killed in battleColumba and twelve companions eventually established a community on the island of Iona in 563 (under the patronage of King Dalriada of Argyleshire)Iona would become the center for the conversion of the Picts

Conversion of NorthumbriaThe missionary work of Iona continued after Columbas death and began to extend to pagan Anglo-Saxon settlers of NE England by the 7th centuryKing Oswald of Bernicia, having been raised among the converted Scots and Picts (while in exile), summoned help from Iona upon regaining his throne in 633The response was from St. Aidan of Iona, who established a monastery on the Holy Island of Lindisfarne (634)Aiden also trained the brothers Chad and Cedd, who worked for the conversion of Mercia and the East Saxons respectivelyThe Anglo-Saxon kingdomsNorthumbria (Northern England)Mercia (Central)East Anglia (East-Central)Wessex (South & West)Kent (Southeast)

St. Augustine of Canterburyca. 530-605The Mission of AugustineIn the same year that Columba died (597), Augustine arrived in southeastern England to establish a mission for Kent and East Anglia Augustine had been sent by Pope Gregory the Great to take advantage of the new political situation thereKing and Bretwalda (High King) Ethelbert of Kent had married a Christian Frankish princess by the name of BerthaAugustine baptized Ethelbert on Easter Day in the year 601Established his see in Canterbury, and two others in Rochester and LondonThe mission fell apart after the deaths of Augustine (605) and Ethelbert (616), but would be revitalized in the second half of the 7th centuryCeltic Christianity v. Roman ChristianityThe northern missions were structured according to the Irish model; the Saxons missions in the south were structured after the Roman territorial modelThe southern missions were also consciously loyal to Rome and to the papacyMany obvious and definable differences between the two traditions, particularly in liturgical practice, including the dating of Easter and difference in monastic tonsureThe entire ethos and organization of Celtic Christianity was different from that of the Roman missionCouncil of Whitby (663)King Oswy of Northumbria called for a council to resolve the matter for his kingdomWhitby on the North Sea was chosen as the site; St. Hilda (d. 680) had established a double monastery thereArguing the Roman cause was Wilfrid, abbot of Ripon; while Colman of Lindisfarne argued the case for the Celtic traditionWhen King Oswy learned that the bishop of Rome was the successor of Peter (and held the keys to heaven) , he decided in favor of the Roman disciplineThe decision resulted in eventually bringing the whole of England under Roman obedienceThis decision would have momentous consequences for the reform of European churches through the proliferation of monastic communities on the continent that continued in the spirit of Irish missionary endeavorsBenedictine MonasticismBenedict of Nursia (480-547)Family belonged to the old Roman aristocracy; grew up under Ostrogoth rule in Italy; familiar with the tensions between Arianism and orthodoxyAt the age of 20 he resolved to become a hermitEstablished 12 monastic communities east of Rome before moving his base of operations to Monte Cassino in the mountains of southern ItalyBenedicts greatest significance was not in the founding of an order, per se, but in the writing of the Rule for his community at Monte CassinoBenedicts RuleTwo elements: permanence and obedienceMonks were bound to their monastery for life, unless ordered to go to another placeMonks were to obey the Rule and their abbot without delayCore of monastic life was prayer; eight periods of prayer (or eight hours) were assigned throughout the dayMatins/Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, and ComplineDevoted to the recitation of the Psalms, Scripture reading, other devotionsThe Lombards destroyed Monte Cassino in 589; the monks fled with the Rule in handBenedicts Rule became widespread as it caught the attention of Pope Gregory the Great; went with Augustine to EnglandThe Rise of the PapacyOrigins of the PapacyMost scholars agree that Peter visited and was martyred in Rome; however, it is unclear that he established any form of lasting hierarchy thereThe Roman church during the Imperial Era was important, though the theological influence of North Africa was arguably just as important during this timeThe barbarian invasions brought an upsurge in the authority of the Roman papacy; In the West, the church was regarded as the guardian of ancient civilization; and the western churchs most prestigious bishop became the focal point for regaining Christianitys hold on EuropeImportant Roman PopesLeo the Great (440-461) Attila the Hun; Vandals; Sack of Rome (455)Hilarius (461-468) Schism with the EastHormisdas (514-523) Ended schism with ConstantinopleBenedict I (575-579) Held the Lombards at bayPelagius II (579-590) Bought the Lombards off; appealed to the FranksGregory the Great (590-604) One of the most important popes in history; Gregorian reforms; Mission to EnglandThe Arab ConquestsExpansion under Muhammad (622-632) Expansion under the Rashidun Caliphate (632-661) Expansion under the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)

The Eastern ChurchThe Eastern Empire and the FaithIn the East, the Empire continued for another thousand yearsOften beleaguered by foreign invasion; autocratic emperors who kept a tight reign on ecclesiastical leadersCivil interventions in ecclesiastical matters, particularly theological debates; appeals to the emperor in doctrinal disputes was commonEmperors often made theological decisions based on political considerations; leading to even greater acrimonyTheological controversy became the hallmarks of eastern Christianity in the Middle Ages; issues at stake were often central to the GospelDecisions made in the East (even with little participation in the West) were regarded as normative for the whole ChurchFirst permanent schisms within ChristianityChristological ControversiesThe Councils of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381) had settled the matter of the divinity of the Second and Third Persons of the TrinitySubsequent controversies would focus on the question of how the two natures divinity and humanity were joined in Jesus ChristTwo Sides of the Same CoinAntiochene ChristologyEmphasis on the human natureInsisted that Jesus had to be fully (psychologically) human, therefore the Godhead dwelt in himEarly teacher: Diodore of TarsusDuo-phusis (two natures)

Alexandrian ChristologyEmphasis on the divine natureInsisted that Jesus had to be fully (psychologically) divineRevered Athanasius, who taught that the incarnation involved the union of the Logos with the bodily dimension of human natureMono-phusis (one nature)Apollinaris of Laodicea (d. 390)Friend and supporter of Athanasius and the Nicene faithLargely responsible for converting Basil of Caesarea to the homoousian positionChristology was driven by the desire to affirm that Christ, the divine Son, was immediately present to transform and divinize the sinful mortality of the human creatureTaught that the true ego (or life-principle) in Jesus was simply the Logos himselfImpossible to assert that the divine Son united with a complete, normal human being, for that would require the union of two competing wills, two minds, two selves, and hence two Sons, human and divineThe unity of Christ would be destroyed; God would not be with usApollinaris ChristologyA trichotomy of the divine mind, and a human body & soulDivineLogos(Mind)Human Body/SoulApollinaris views attackedGregory of Nyssa Against ApollinarisGregory of Nazianzus insisted that since it is not merely the flesh which sins, but soul and mind as well, it was necessary for the divine Logos to take a complete human nature, intellect as well as ensouled bodyCondemned by a Roman synod in 377 and by a synod in Antioch in 379Council of Constantinople included Apollinarianism in its lengthy list of erroneous teachings to be condemned (Canon 1)For that which he has not assumed he has not healed, but that which is united to his Godhead is also saved. (Gregory of Nazianzus)NestorianismInitially, the Antiochene position was articulated by Diodore of Tarsus and his pupil, Theodore of MopsuestiaThe Antiochene opposed Apollinarianisms teaching that the Christ is one composite nature, objecting that this negated what they wanted to affirm namely that in Christ were TWO SUBJECTS of action and predication TWO NATURES and TWO HYPOSTASESThis position was too much for those who embraced the Alexandrian positionThe elevation of Nestorius to the patriarchate of Constantinople in 428 brought this issue to a headNestorianismProsopic union : One Prosopon (i.e. face) Unity of IndwellingThe Man Complete Human HypostasisThe LogosComplete Divine HypostasisNestorian ControversyEarly on in Constantinople, Nestorius delivered a sermon in which he condemned the use of Theotokos (God-bearer) as a title for the Virgin MaryThat which is formed in the womb is notGodGod was within the one who was assumedThe one who was assumed is styled God because of the One who assumed himMore appropriate to refer to Mary as ChristotokosNestorius views were reported to Cyril of Alexandria, a strong supporter of the Theotokos position; Cyril had been looking for an occasion against Nestorius over a case in which Nestorius had reversed a judgment of Cyril in the case of some Egyptian monks

Cyril of Alexandrian: Champion of Alexandrian ChristologyOne incarnate nature of the divine LogosThe one Lord Jesus Christ was identical to the only begotten Son of God, who was enfleshed and became a human beingTherefore, there could only be ONE subject, one nature and one hypostasis, that of the Divine LogosThe humanity of Christ, body and soul, was a mode of existence which the Logos made his own through his birth of a woman; the humanity could not be separated from the Logos as another beside himNestorius understood Cyril to be saying that the humanity and the divinity had somehow been fused into Christ into something that was no longer either divine or humanCouncil of Ephesus (431)Called by Theodosius II in the East and Valentinian III in the WestCyril and his allies were the first to arrive and quickly condemned Nestorius before his supporters could stop himJohn of Antioch (Nestorius main support) was delayed in getting to Ephesus and thus convened his own council to condemn Cyril and exonerate NestoriusFinally, the delegates of Pope Celestine (Rome) joined the Cyrillian assembly and proceeded to add John of Antioch to the deposedThe two sides were at an impasse with Theodosius unsure as to what to doFormula of ReunionIn 433, John of Antioch sent Cyril his text called the Formula of Reunion, which admitted to the use of Theotokos, and also that Christ was complete God and complete human being and that a union of two natures had occurred, as a consequence of which we confess one Son.Cyril signed it with enthusiasm; Nestorius cause was now lost, and he was exiled: the Cyrillian assembly at Ephesus was vindicatedHowever, the document turned out to be a compromise which each side; by 438, Cyril was convinced that the Antiochenes had been duplicitous; he then wrote against the teachings of Diodore of Tarsus and Theodore of MopsuestiaThe stage was set for a renewal of acrimonyThe Aftermath of the Council of Ephesus (431)Formula of (Re)Union (433) Both John of Antioch and Cyril of Alexandria agreed to itVictory for the Alexandrian position: Monophysite language; exile of NestoriusOne (monos) incarnate nature (phusis) of the divine Logos.Theotokos language was upheld as orthodoxTruce with the Antiochenes: Complete God and complete human being languageBoth sides suspected duplicity and recriminations soon beganControversy flares up againCyrils condemnation of the teachings of Diodore of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopseustia, which many Antiochene signers of the Formula of Reunion still honoredCyril dies in 444, succeeded as bishop of Alexandria by Dioscorus, who had little regard for the FormulaThe new bishop of Constantinople was Flavian (447-449), who supported the Formula but was inclined towards the Antiochene position

Eutyches (380-456)Popular leader of a monastery in Constantinople and the principle support of Dioscorus of Alexandria in that city; influential in the imperial courtAccused before Flavian at a synod of teaching that the human nature of Christ was altered or absorbed by his deityEutyches refused to admit that Christs humanity was the same (homoousios) as ours, famously maitaining that Christ was from two natures before the union, but in one nature after the unionEutyches was condemned by the synod but made an immeidate appeal to the imperial court, which then proceeded to demand that Flavian, not Eutyches, produce a confession of faith!Back in Alexandria, Dioscorus called for and obtained an imperial summons for a general councilPrelude to ChalcedonBoth Flavian and Dioscorus appealed to Leo I of Rome (440-461)Leo responded to Flavian in a long and carefully argued letter (Leos Tome) that Eutyches was an extremely foolish and altogether ignorant manLeo appealed to the baptismal creed of the Roman church to substantiate the traditional western view that Christ has two substances or natures that remain intact and come together in one personLeos Tome would prove to set Rome against its normal ally, Alexandria, in favor of a more Antiochene-friendly christologyPrelude to ChalcedonTheodosius II called for a council to meet at Ephesus in 449Dioscorus and his supporters took all necessary steps to predetermine the outcomeFlavian was condemned; Eutyches vindicatedLeos Tome was denied a readingFlavian died of suspicious circumstances on the way to exileRupture of the ancient alliance between Rome and Alexandria resultsLeo calls the council a robbers synod; calls for a new council to be held in ItalyTheodosius II refuses; then accidentally dies in 450The new empress, Pulchera and her husband, Marcian agree to a new council to be held in Chalcedon (451)

Council of Chalcedon (451) Fourth council to be called ecumenicalActed quickly to depose Dioscorus and Eutyches (a win for the Antiochenes)Rehabilitated Antiochene supporters of the Formula of Reunion (a win for the Antiochenes)Canonized the Second Letter of Cyril of Alexandria to Nestorius and his letter affirming the Formula of Reunion as adequate expositions of the meaning of the Nicene Faith against the errors of Nestorius (a win for the Alexandrians) Crafted a formula composed largely of phrases and ideas drawn from Cyrils letters, Leos Tome, and the Formula of Reunion (a draw between Alexandria and Antioch with Rome coming out on top)Chalcedonian DefinitionDoes not define the union (i.e. how it took place)Set limits beyond which error lies, for example:Nestorius had gone too far in not admitting to the unity of personEutyches had gone to far in not admitting the distinction of natures

One and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten, manifested in two natures without confusion, change, division or separation. The union does not destroy the difference of the two natures, but on the contrary the properties of each are kept, and both are joined in one person and hypostasis.Aftermath of ChalcedonBecame the standard orthodoxy of the entire Western church and most of the EastThe cause of the first long-lasting schisms in Christian historyNestorians (Syrian Churches of the East)Monophysites (Church of Armenia; Coptic Church)Christological differences became both the cause and the excuse for political discord in the empireEmperor Zenos Henoticon (482) attempted to settle the christological disputes by requiring all to go back to the beliefs held prior to the controversy failure of imperial policy resulting in the Acacian Schism (between East and West)Schism healed in 519Justinian I (483-565)Further Christological Debates: Neo-ChalcedonianismControversy of the Three Chapters Justinian I sought to regain the allegiance of his Monophysite subjects who rejected Chalcedon by condemning the writings of three hated Antiochene theologians who Chalcedon had failed to condemn: Theodore of Mopsuestia, Ibas of Edessa and Theodoret of Cyrrhus (the latter two explicitly accepted as orthodox by Chalcedon)Second Council of Constantinople (553) eventually considered the Fifth Ecumenical CouncilCondemned the Three Chapters (the writings, not the theologians who wrote them)Resulted in a Neo-Chalcedonian orthodoxy summarized in the phrase One of the Trinity suffered in the fleshFailed to satisfy those who wished to see the decisions of Chalcedon withdrawnThe Neo-Chalcedonian Doctrine of En-HypostasisTeaching of Leontius of Jerusalem at the Second Council of ConstantinopleThe doctrine that the human nature of Christ has no hypostasis (principle of concrete existence) of its own but exists in the hypostasis of Gods SonHallmark position of Neo-Chalcedonian orthodoxy

Further Christological Debates: MonothelismGreek monos (one) and thelema (will)Monothelite position: Christ had but one will; the divine will taking the place of a human willYet another attempt to reconcile the Monophysites to imperial orthodoxy, but considered by many to deny the full humanity of ChristSupported by Pope Honorius (of Rome); later declared a heretic for this positionThe debate was interrupted by the Arab conquests that overran Syria and EgyptThird Council of Constantinople (681) the sixth to be called ecumenical condemned this view

Further Christological Debates: IconoclasmFrom earliest times Christians had used art and images in worship; some bishops expressed concern for idolatry at timesIn the eighth century, several Byzantine emperors attempted to avert the misuse of images as objects of worship (idolatry)Constantine V called a council in 754 that forbade the use of images in worship altogetherResponse to Islamic threat (strong teaching against physical representations)Desire to curb the power of monks in the East (who were almost unanimous in their support of IconsIconoclasts (destroyers of images) vs. Iconodules (worshippers of images)

Iconoclasts vs. IconodulesIconodules: If Jesus were truly human, and in him God had become visible, how could one object to representing him?Iconoclasts: The second commandment condemns all visible representations of the divineThe Second Council of Nicaea (787) the seventh and last to be considered ecumenical settled the dispute in favor of the Iconodule position:Distinction between latria and dulia: worship due only to God, and honor (veneration) afforded images (or other things like people)Triumph of Orthodoxy (842) the definitive restoration of images to the churchesNicaea II receives cool reception in the West; eventually affirmedImperial Restoration in the WestCoronation of Charles, King of the Franks, on Christmas Day, 800May God grant life to the great and pacific emperor! (Pope Leo III)Charlemagnes Reign (King of the Franks, 768-814; Emperor of the Romans, 800-814)When Leo II crowned Charles emperor (in 800) most of western Christendom was already under his ruleHis campaigns against the pagan Frisians and Saxon in northern Europe had been long and bloody, often resulting in forced baptism; he had accomplished the forced conversion of the Frisians by 784 and that of the Saxons by 785Began the long process of reconquering the Iberian peninsula (Spain) from the Islamic MoorsAs emperor, Charles began a program of both civil and ecclesiastical reform throughout EuropeBenedict of Aniane (Monastic reform; proliferation of Benedictine ideals)Alcuin of York (theological/liturgical reform)Theodulf of Orleans (educational reform)Alcuin of York

ca. 730-804Monastic ReformDecline of the Carolingian Empire (late 9th Century)Many monasteries had been sacked and destroyed by Norsemen and HungariansMany of the unaffected abbeys became the personal means of aggrandizement for nobles or bishopsRule of Benedict generally ignored; violence in the monastery was rifeEither violence from ransacking pagansOr violence of conscience, and even murderCluniac ReformIn 909, Duke William of Aquitaine founded a small monastery and called a devout monk named, Berno, to become its abbotAt Bernos request, Williams favorite hunting ground at Cluny was set aside for lands to sustain and support the monastery Cluny was deeded over to Saints Peter and Paul thus placed under the direct jurisdiction and protection of the Pope; prevented the interference of other bishops and noblesThe deed also forbade popes from invading or otherwise taking what belonged only to the two holy apostlesAt first the monastery only sought to keep Benedicts Rule in its entirety; but eventually sought to reform other houses as wellResult was a network of second Clunys, directly under the authority of the abbot of the main house; each house was appointed a priorAbbots of ClunyBerno (909-926)Odo (926-944)Aymard (944-965)Mayeul (965-994)Odilo (994-1049)Hugh (1049-1109) under whom reform of womens monastic communities took placePontius (1109-1122) Period of declinePeter the Venerable (1122-1157) Period of revivalCluniac LifeDivine Office (Hours of Prayer): Cluniacs came to spend practically their whole time at the Divine OfficeAt the high point of the movement 138 Psalms were sung in a single dayThis was technically a departure from the Rule, but justified by arguing that monks function was to pray and praise God The typical duties of labor within the monasteries were given over to oblatesIn time, the Cluniacs would extend their reforming zeal to the entire churchThree solemn vows: Celibacy, Obedience, PovertyIn time, the massive accumulation of wealth by Cluniac monasteries would be a main cause of their declineCistercian ReformIn the late 11th century, Robert of Molesme founded a new monastery in Citeaux (Cistertium in Latin)Eventually the community of Citeaux gave rise to a wave of monastic reform similar to that of Cluny over a century beforeThe great figure of Cistercian reform was Bernard of Clairvaux, who brought a group of friends with him when he presented himself to the monastery for admission in 1113Later, Bernard would be told to found another monastery in ClairvauxBernard of Clairvaux1090-1153Papal Reform in the 11th CenturyThe need for Papal reformThe sin of Simony the purchase or perceived purchase of ecclesiastical officeClerical abuses: disuse of clerical celibacy, practice of taking concubines, immodesty, and accepting benefices from lay peopleThe Controversy over Lay investiture i.e. the control over clerical appointments by European monarchsCommencement of the period of papal reform (11th century)In the year 1048, three reform-minded monastics Bruno, Hildebrand, and Humbert would enter Rome as pilgrims for the election of the new pope; each opposed to the practice of simony and each committed to papal reformBruno had been offered the papacy by the western emperor, but refused his offer; once there, if elected by the people, he would acceptBruno was elected, and chose the name Leo IX beginning the program of reform by promoting clerical celibacy and the abolition of simony, advancing the cause of reform north of the AlpsIn time, Humbert would become a chief advisor and theologian to many of the reforming popes; responsible for the system of election by the college of cardinalsHildebrand would eventually be elected pope, and choose the name Gregory VIIReforming Popes of the 11th centuryLeo IX (1049-54) Great Schism (1054)Victor II (1055-57) Convened the Second Lateran Council against clerical abusesStephen X (1057-58)Nicholas II (1058-61) Attacked the practice of lay investiture and attempted to consolidate the papacys political independence of German, Roman and Italian rulersAlexander II (1061-73) Extended papal authority through political alliances, particularly with the Normans, including sanctioning the Norman conquest of England in 1066Gregory VII (1073-85)The Great Schism 1054 Leo IXs reforming zeal and concern for the authority of the Roman see ultimately brought his career to a tragic close, including a final and irrevocable break with Eastern Christianity His two gravest errors were: (1) making war against the Normans in Sicily and being taken captive (1053); (2) sending Humbert to represent him as legate to Constantinople, leading to the Great SchismContributing factors to the Schism: Long-held jealousies between the two patriarchates (Rome & Constantinople); differences in custom, culture and political allegiancesThe patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius, determined to assert the authority of his see over the other eastern patriarchates, and to establish its equality and independence in relation to RomeAn rare political alliance between Emperor Constantine IX (East) and Henry III (West) prompted the emperor to demand that Cerularius write the traditional synodical letter to the pope in Rome, which he had failed to do at his successionThe Great Schism 1054 Cerularius was not willing to write the letter; instead he closed all churches of the Latin rite in Constantinople, hoping to destroy the new political alliance between East & WestIn 1053, Cerularius persuaded Leo of Ochrida to address a letter to the western churches criticizing them for illicit Frankish customs, including the use sunleavened bread in the Eucharist and fasting on SaturdayUpon Leo IXs capture by the Normans, Cerularius changed his tune and wrote a more conciliatory letter (now that Byzantine territories in Italy were in danger); Leo responded by sending a delegation to ConstantinopleLeo sent Humbert and two other legates who bore a letter from Leo (that Humbert had actually written) which was uncompromising in its toneThe Great Schism 1054 Cerularius, despite the emperors desire for conciliation, chose to ignore the legates and to question their credentials (the announcement had just come in that Leo had died)On July 16, 1054, Humbert went into Hagia Sophia, made a public protest against the behavior of Cerularius, and then laid upon the altar a sentence of excommunication against him that ranked him with the devil and his angels and ended with a triple AmenThe action of the legates was received with satisfaction in the West despite its dubious legality (Leo was dead); Cerularius seems to have thought that he got what he wanted as wellThe schism has not been formally healed to this day

Hildebrand Gregory VII (r. 1073-85) One of the last of Leo IXs reforming cardinals to survive, Hildebrand had be a central figure among the papal counselors of the eraAs a Roman himself, he was equally devoted to the honor of the city and the authority of the papal office; single-minded in his resolve for reformIn his work Dictatus Papae, Hildebrand had contended that the pope (not the emperor) was Vicar of Christ.The Roman Church was founded by God alone. The Roman Pontiff alone can with right be called universal.The Roman Pontiff alone can depose or reinstate bishops.The Roman Pontiff alone may use imperial insignia (since he alone is the true successor of ConstantineThat it may be permitted him to depose Emperors.That he himself may be judged of no one.That he may absolve subjects from their fealty to wicked men.

Gregory VII (Hildebrand)The principles he laid out in Dictatus Papae were not new:Found in two earlier works of forgery: Donation of Constantine and the Pseudo-Isidorian DecretalsHe was, however, the first pope to insist on these principles as a practical program of reform, which his successors would put into effectIn 1075, Henry IV made an appointment to the archbishopric of Milan; Gregory answered immediately with a stern letter of rebukeHenry then summoned a council to meet in Worms (January 1076), where a large portion of the German bishops joined in denouncing Hildebrand and rejecting his authority as pope; supported by the Lombard bishopsGregory replied by holding a Roman synod in February 1076 that excommunicated Henry, forbade him to exercise royal authority in Germany and Italy, and released all of his subjects from their oaths of allegiancePope vs. EmperorHenry IV answered in a letter of defiance calling Hildebrand now no pope, but a false monk and demanding that he relinquish his office and make room for another who will not cloak violence with religion.In the end, Henry could not sustain his opposition, for the popes decree had undermined the German bishops and given license for rebellion to the kings enemies in GermanyA synod of lay nobility held a synod in October 1076 declared that unless released from excommunication within a year, Henry would be deposedHenry met Gregory while crossing the Alps in winter, and for three successive days presented himself barefoot, as a penitent, before the castle gate at Canossa; Gregory lifted the excommunication in January 1077Pope vs. EmperorThis threw Henrys enemies into disarray; civil war broke outA second decree of excommunication and deposition went out against Henry in 1080, but this time Henry prevailed, and this time had Gregory deposed at a synod in Brixen, and appointed a new pope Clement III (an anti-pope)Henry went on to take control of Rome and had himself crowned emperor; Gregory went into exile to Monte CassinoUpon his death, Hildebrand declared the his successor would be the aged abbot of Monte Cassino, who took the name Victor III The next pope, Urban II, would regain the city of Rome and expel Clement IIISchism would continue under Urbans successor, Paschal II (1099-1118)Gregory VIIs legacyGregory had achieved much for the prestige and authority of the papacyThough the papal schism would persist for a number of years, eventually it would be the papacy, not the German empire, that would turn out to have gained control over the headship of Latin ChristendomCallixtus II (1119-24) would end the dispute over lay investiture (separation of powers)Prelates would be elected freely, according to ancient custom, but in the presence of the emperor or his representativesOnly proper ecclesiastical authority could invest prelates with the symbols of their officeOnly civil authorities could confer feudal rights, privileges and possessions

Medieval HeresiesMedieval Heresies The Cathars Cathars Pure Ones, a dualist heresy teaching a doctrine of two opposing divine principles or even two gods existing in open warfare from eternity; sometimes called Medieval Manichees (a misnomer, though much affinity)May be related to the eastern Bogomil heresyOne sacrament (consolamentum): baptism by the Spirit, not with water but by laying on of hands; custom of wearing black robesChose to call themselves simply Christians or Good MenReceiving the consolamentum: a sign of ones perfection and entrance into the elect; most chose to defer until death was nearAlso called Albigenses, from the town of Albi in FranceBy 1200, the Cathars of southern France and northern Italy were a serious threat to the established churchThe WaldensesUnlike the Cathars, the Waldenses originated in no conscious hostility to the churchFounder: Peter Waldo (more accurately Valdes), a wealthy merchant of Lyons; the name Peter was added by his followers of the late 14th century to link Waldo to the first apostlePeter Waldo (c. 1140-1218)Peter WaldoImpressed by a song about St. Alexis sung by a traveling minstrel, Waldo asked a master of theology the best way to God. The theologian quoted him, If you would be perfect, go, sell what you possess and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heave; and come, follow me (Matt 19:21)Selling all that he had, and making provision for his wife and endowing his daughters for life, he literally put this counsel into practiceHe procured vernacular translations of scripture passages and the fathers and walked the streets preaching a life of repentance for the forgiveness of sinsMany thought he was mad, but he gained a following for his vita apostolica He soon aroused the suspicion and hostility of the archbishop and clergy of Lyons; Canon law restricted preaching to clergyWaldenses (a.k.a. Waldensians)Waldo and his followers appealed to the Third Lateran Council, who laughed at them as ignorant laymen but did not pronounce them hereticsPope Alexander III applauded their devotion to poverty but denied them the right to preach without first securing permission from their bishopAt first they obeyed the restriction, but when permission was not granted they began to interpret the refusal of their right to preach as the word of man over against that of GodThey were excommunicated in 1182 and expelled from LyonsThe Poor of Lyons made their way to NE France and into Germany, and southward into LombardyCondemned along with the Cathars in 1184 at the Council of Verona by Pope Lucius IIIForeshadow of the Protestant Reformation?Waldensian beliefs:The Bible, particularly the New Testament, was the sole rule of belief and life; every prescription must be followed to the letterPreachers went out two by two in simple woolen robes, barefooted or wearing sandals cut in a special patternPreached repentance unto life; rejected all oaths and shedding of bloodRenounced marriage and all worldly goods; maintained themselves through contributions of their sympathizers (friends, believers)Did not consider episcopal ordination necessary; woman as well as men were granted the right to preachLay celebration of the Lords Supper was permitted in regions where the sacrament was not readily available from a Catholic priestThe CrusadesPrelude to the CrusadesEuropean ExpansionismConversion of Vikings and Magyars (Hungarians) removes pressure on Europe; raids subside around 1000 Agricultural advances increase food supply Cluniac Reform 11th centuryGreat Schism 1054 Battle of Hastings 1066 Capture of Toledo from Moslems 1087 Capture of Sicily from Moslems 1091 The Crusades: CausesRise of the Seljuq Turks in 1037, a Turkic-Persian, Sunni-Muslim empireBattle of Manzikert, 1071, meant that the Byzantines would eventually lose Anatolia to the Turks Loss foreshadows eventual end of Byzantine Empire Turks begin to disrupt pilgrim traffic to the Holy LandSeljuq Turkish EmpireUrban II calls for Crusade (1095)Purposes:Drive Turks from AnatoliaPlace the Eastern empire (and the Eastern patriarchate) under obligation to the West (and to the Pope)Heal the Great SchismCapture the Holy Land from the Muslims and restore it to Christendom

First Crusade (1097-98)Achieved all major objectives in Holy LandSet up the Kingdom of Jerusalem and other Crusader states in the LevantTurkish threat blunted, though not eliminatedArea was not actually strategic to Moslems, could have been held indefinitely with a little skill. Initial gains would be lost through diplomatic bungling, as Crusaders attempted to destabilize their neighbors

Second Crusade (1145-48)Called by Pope Eugene IIIOccasion: The Fall of EdessaComplete military fiasco for the CrusadersDiscredited the invisible reputation of the CrusadersOnly military success was the recapture of Lisbon (Portugal) from the Moors (the Crusaders were en route to the Holy Land and stopped to help a much smaller Portuguese army) Third Crusade (1189-91)Called by Gregory VIIIOccasion: the Fall of Jerusalem to Saladin, the Fatimid ruler of Egypt and SyriaInvolved Richard I of England, Phillip II of France, Frederick I of Holy Roman EmpireRestored many of the coastal possessions of the Crusaders (the city of Acre), but not Jerusalem

Fourth Crusade (1199-1204)Called by Pope Innocent III in 1198, went largely ignored at firstTo pay for crusade, the Crusaders sought financing from the VenetiansWhen they arrived at Constantinople they were not well received; Crusaders then sacked Constantinople in 1204 Any chance to heal the Great Schism were utterly lost (In 1453, when attacked by Turks, Byzantines preferred surrender to asking Rome for aid)

Other CrusadesFifth Crusade (1218-19) Capture of Damietta which the Crusaders swapped for Jerusalem; tried to capture Egypt, but were routedSixth Crusade (1229) Frederick II of Germany negotiated a ten year treaty and the return of JerusalemSeventh Crusade (1248-54) Nearly an exact repeat of the Fifth CrusadeEighth Crusade (1270) Much of the expedition diverted to Tunisia, so never reached objective; the final Crusader states in Palestine would fall by 1291; one remaining island stronghold would holdout 1303The Spanish ReconquistaAncient Visigothic kingdom of Spain had fallen to the Moors in the eighth century; the remnants of it being relegated to the northern region of AsturiasThe Franks under Charles Martel would stop the eastward advance of the Moors at the Battle of Tours (ca. 732)The unification of Christian of Spain began with the discovery in northern Spain of the tomb of Saint James (Santiago) in the ninth century; the road to Santiago brought northern Spain into constant contact with the rest of Christian EuropeThe last great caliph of Cordova died in 1002 saw the division of Muslim lands into a multitude of petty kingdoms, leaving them vulnerable to Christian encroachment

113The Spanish ReconquistaBy 1085, Alfonzo VI and the Spanish kingdom of Castille had taken Toledo from the Muslims; causing the Moors to reinforce from North AfricaIn 1212, a coalition of Christian kings joined in defeating the Moors at the Battle of Navas de Tolosa; by 1248 the only Moorish state on the Iberian Peninsula was the kingdom of GranadaIn 1492, Granada fell to Ferdinand (of Aragon) and Isabella (of Castille)Consequences of the Age of the CrusadesDistrust between Christians and MuslimsDistrust between Latin and Byzantine Christians (permanent division)Weakening of the Byzantine Empire; finally fall in 1453 to the Ottoman TurksEnhanced power of the papacy, which gradually grew in its international authority during this periodContact with the Holy Land influenced Christian piety, devotion and liturgy; veneration of relics gained momentumMonastic ideal took on a militaristic form: Templars, Order of St. John of Jerusalem (Knights of Malta; Knights Hospitallers)Violent suppression of heretical groups: Bogomils, Cathars, WaldensesRe-introduction of Aristotle to the West (Maimonides and Averroes)Trade as a new source of wealth; the emergence of cities and the bourgeoisieMendicant OrdersFactors that contributed to the emergence of the MendicantsMovement of populations to citiesGrowth of a monetary economy; growing chasm between rich and poorTraditional parish ministry not as adaptable to the growing spiritual needs of people in contrast to the adaptability of monasticismThe emergence of the mendicant (beggar) orders both responded to a more urban population and challenged the mores of the monetary economyA forerunner of the mendicant orders was Peter Waldo and his followers (Waldenses); condemned as heretics in 1184St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226)St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226)Giovanni Francesco di Bernardon Little FrenchmanSon of a wealthy merchantProfound religious experience led him to embrace a life of poverty; gave all he had to the poorImprisoned by his father; the local bishop finally ruled that he must give up his inheritance; lived as a hermit in the woodsIn 1209 he began to combine his love of poverty with the vocation of preaching; poverty became a means of identifying with the poor and the sickGained a small following in Assisi, who then went to Rome to ask for authorization from the pope (Innocent III)Innocent III approved his order in 1210FranciscansThe Friars Minor Order of Lesser BrothersA sister order for women the Poor Clares would be founded by St. Clare on Palm Sunday, 1212Third Order of Penitents and TertiariesFrancis will forbade his followers to possess anything or to appeal to the pope to have his Rule made less stringentLater disputes over the authority of the will would cause controversy within the order; in 1230, Pope Gregory IX would declare the will non-bindingFrancis voluntarily gave up leadership of his movement at a meeting of the general chapter in 1220 and knelt in obedience to his successor; then he retired to the chapel that he had rebuilt in his youth; Francis died in 1226St. Dominic (1170-1221)St. Dominic (1170-1221)Domingo Flix de Guzmn born in Caleruega in Castille to an aristocratic familyAfter ten years of study in Palencia, Dominic became a canon at the cathedral in Osma; After four years as a canon, the cathedral chapter dissolved to follow the monastic rule of the Canons of St. Augustine, meaning that they lived as a monastic community without withdrawing from the worldIn 1203 he visited southern France and was moved by the success of the Cathars (Albigensians) and the efforts to convert them to Catholicism by forceConvinced that there were better ways to convert the Cathars, Dominic began a mission to preach and teach orthodoxyThe DominicansJoining a disciplined life of monasticism with rigorous study and preaching proved to be a powerful combination to combat heresyThe archbishop of Toulouse gave him a church in which to preach as well as a house in which to organize a monastic communityHe went to Rome in 1215 to request permission from Innocent III to found a new order; the pope refused because he was concerned about the proliferation of different monastic ordersThe pope encouraged him to continue his work and to adopt one of the existing monastic rules; Dominic and his followers chose the rule of the Canons of St. Augustine, but adapting the rule to their own needsThe also adopted the rule of poverty and mendicancy, following the early Franciscans, in order to refute the Cathars (Albigensians)The new pope, Honorius III, granted the formation of the Order of Preachers (Ordo Praedicatorum) in January 1217.The Mendicant Orders in the UniversitiesThe Dominicans founded houses in the major theological universities of Paris and OxfordAlbert the Great and Thomas Aquinas would bring great prestige to the order in intellectual circlesThe Franciscans also established a foothold in the universities, albeit somewhat later Alexander of Hales joined the Franciscans in 1236Scholasticism Thirteenth CenturyScholasticismName given to the theological systems and methodologies that developed in the various schools of the high middle agesEarly roots were in the monasteries; but later (12th century) the cathedral schools became centers of theological activity; by the 13th century, the universities supplanted the cathedral schoolsAnselm of Canterbury (1033-1109)Anselm of Canterbury Born in Italy; reputable teacher at the Norman abbey of Bec; Archbishop of Canterbury (1093)Author: ProslogionThe ontological argumentHis approach: Faith seeking understandingAuthor: Cur Deus Homo (Why God became Man)Satisfaction Theory of the Atonement

Other scholastic notablesPeter Abelard (1079-1142) author of Sic et NonPeter Lombard (1100-1160) Four Books of Sentences

Averroes (1126-1198)Muslim scholar of ToledoCommentator on AristotleProfound impact on Western ScholasticismThe Latin AverroistsMainly members of the Arts Faculty of the University of ParisEmbraced the new philosophical ideas of Aristotle with enthusiasmInsisted on the radical independence of reason and philosophy from any constraints imposed by faith and theology; insisted that the path of reason should be followed to the end, and that if this posed a problem for theologians, then so be itAllowed them to accept a number of teachings taught by Aristotle that would otherwise have contradicted Christian orthodoxySome, like Bonaventure, responded to this challenge by reasserting the traditional Platonic and Augustinian outlook; i.e., faith is necessary in order to achieve correct understandingAlbert the Great (1206-1280)The Synthesis of Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophyOperates on the basis of autonomous principlesCan be known apart from revelationSeek truth by a strict rational methodDoes not seek to prove what the mind cannot understandTheologyStarts its inquiry from the basis of revealed truthsRevealed truths are those which cannot be known by reason aloneRevealed truths are more certain than those of reason (which may err)Thomas Aquinas (c. 1224-74)Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-74)Born in Roccasecca, Italy (father: Landulf of Aquino)Nickname in childhood: The Dumb Ox; his teacher, Albert, would later say, The bellowing of that ox will be heard throughout the world.Joined the Dominican Order in 1244; imprisoned by his family for a yearStudied in Paris, CologneAuthor: Summa contra GentilesArguments in favor of the Christian faith (benefit missionaries)Author: Summa theologiae (aka theologica)Three partsDetailed study of key aspects of Christian theology

Thomas lasting contributionThe Five Ways arguments for the existence of GodThe Principle of Analogy theological foundation for knowing God through creationThe relation of faith and reason

Sacramental SystemTransubstantiationDefined by the 2nd Lateran Council, 1215CLASSIC DEFINITION: The conversion of the whole substance of the bread and wine into the whole substance of the Body and Blood of Christ, only the accidents (i.e. appearances) of the bread and wine remainingThomas Aquinas UnderstandingFirst, because it is not customary but horrible for men to eat the flesh of a man and drink his blood, the flesh and blood of Christ are offered under the form of things which are more frequently used, namely bread and wine. Secondly, lest this sacrament might be ridiculed by unbelievers if we ate our Lord in his own form. Thirdly, that while we receive the body and blood of our Lord invisibly this may contribute to the merit of our faith (ST, III, q. 75:5)

Defining TermsForm = The underlying reality of a thingSubstantial Form = That which distinguishes the substance of one thing from the substance of another. That which makes a thing what it is, and not something else.

Matter = What a thing is made of; a things constituent parts; the corporeal substratum of a thing

Form + Matter = SubstanceForm inheres in matter to make a substanceAccidentsReal but incidental properties of things, contingently conjoined to a substance (color, quantity, taste, texture, etc.)

Examples:Heating a rock changes the accident of temperature, but not the substance of the rock (transaccidentation)

The process of decay changes both the substance and the accidents of a thing (transformation)TransubstantiationThe substance changes (as in transformation), however the accidents remain the sameHow? Thomas posits the radical separability of substance and accidentsBut Transubstantiation takes place only in the realm of the miraculousIn the miracle of Transubstantiation, substance exists without its accidents (properties), and accidents exist without their substanceThus Christs presence is a non-local presence, since locality is an accidentEast & West: The Final BreachThe Fate of ConstantinopleThe Byzantine Empire weakened by the Fourth Crusade, and the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by the CrusadersPeriod of Latin rule: unstable, empire broken up into smaller Greek states that allied themselves against the Latins, but fought amongst themselves for imperial successionConstantinople is re-taken by the Greek state of Nicaea in 1261, but the old empire never recovered from its infightingThe Turks were held at bay by threats from the Albanians, Hungarians and the MongolsFinally, in the mid-1400s, the Turks were ready to conquer ConstantinopleAttempt at ReconciliationSultan Mohammed IIs dream to take Constantinople and make it his capitalByzantine emperors again appeal to the West; the price that the popes demanded was ecclesiastical reconciliationThe Council of Ferrara-Florence in 1439:The decisions of the council attempted to reconcile and/or defend distinctive Western doctrines (e.g. the Filioque phrase in the Creed) over against traditional Eastern theologyThe Eastern emperor, Constantine IV, pressured the bishop of Constantinople to capitulate to the CouncilThe Patriarchs of Jerusalem, Alexandria and Antioch rejected the council and thus broke communion with Constantinople; the Russian Orthodox Church followed suitAttempt at ReconciliationConstantine XI continued his plans for reunion with Rome despite losing the allegiance of the rest of Eastern ChristianityThe Roman Mass was celebrated in Saint Sophia (Hagia Sophia) in 1452However, help from Western Europe never cameOn April 7, 1453, Mohammed II laid siege to the city; the walls of the city could not withstand the artillery of the TurksThe last solemn service at the cathedral of Hagia Sophia was celebrated on May 28, 1453; the city fell on May 29Constantine the Greats dream of a new Christian Rome had come to an endImmediate AftermathHagia Sophia becomes a mosque.Greek Orthodox Church remains intact, most of the populace remains ChristianGennadius Scholarius is appointed Patriarch of the Orthodox Church by Mohammed IIAvignon PapacyCelestine V and Boniface VIIIConflict of idealsCelestine V (r. 1294) aspired to reform the church through Franciscan simplicity; considered one of the humblest men to ever occupy the throne of St. Peter; he resigned the papacy after serving only five months and eight daysBoniface VIII (1294-1303) had Celestine imprisoned and may have had Celestine murderedNot many were happy with Bonifaces electionThe powerful Colonna family in Italy who had their own designs on the papacyThe extreme Franciscans (the Fraticelli)Many saw Celestines election as a fulfillment of a prophecy announced by Joachim of Fiore that the Age of the Spirit had begun; Thus many did not accept his abdicationBoniface VIII (1294-1303)The first part of his reign was successfulDealt with the powerful Colonna familyDealt with a rebellion in GermanyHeld off the war between England and FranceDeclared a Year of Jubilee in 1303, granting a plenary indulgence to anyone who visited the tomb of St. PeterRelations between Boniface and Philip of France grew tenseIssued a the bull Unam Sanctum which asserted papal claims to universal power, both ecclesiastical and politicalAfter various mutual recriminations, Boniface attempted to excommunicate Philip in September 1303 Boniface was kidnapped by his enemies (Sciarra Colonna and William Nogaret), on the eve of the excommunication, demanding his resignationThe Slap of AnagniBoniface responded to the demand to resign by saying that he would sooner dieThis response elicited a famous slap Boniface was then beaten badly, humiliated and nearly executed; locals managed to secure his release after three days: He died in October 1303 of kidney stonesIn the Aftermath of AnagniThe next pope, Benedict XI, restored the fortunes of many of Bonifaces enemies, but refused to try the former pope posthumously; died after brief pontificated (perhaps poisoned)The pro-French party obtained an agreement from the cardinals on the election of Clement V Clement never visited Rome even once; moved the papal curia to Avignon, France in 1309Clement agreed to try Boniface posthumously; though Boniface was exoneratedClement forgave Nogaret and his companions and commended Philip of FranceUnder Clement, the Templars were tried and condemnedThe first Avignon Pope: Clement V (1305-1314)The Babylonian Captivity of the ChurchClement V moved the papal curia to Avignon in 1309Clement had named twenty-four cardinals, all but one was French, and several were his relativesFor nearly seventy years the popes would generally remain in Avignon, and willingly serve as the tools of French policyAvignon PopesJohn XIII (1316-1334) Elected at 72 and ruled for 18 years!Benedict XII (1334-1342) Built the great papal palace in Avignon; alienated England and Germany during the 100 Years WarClement VI (1342-1352) Tried to mediate the 100 Years War; many saw the Black Plague as divine punishment for the papacys absence from RomeInnocent VI (1352-1362) Attempted to return to Rome, but died before accomplishing itUrban V (1362-1370) Reforming pope; returned to Rome in 1365; the Romans received him with joy, but in the long run he failed to win their loyalty, so returned to AvignonGregory XI (1370-1378) Made a cardinal by his uncle, Clement VI when seventeenCatherine of Sienna (1347-1380)Catherine of SiennaJoined the Sisters of the Penance of St. Dominic (A tertiary order of the Dominicans) as a young girlTwo years later had a vision in which Jesus joined her in mystical marriage and ordered her to serve othersBecame a famous teacher of mysticism, gathering around her followers (both men and women), some of whom were more educated than she; her Dominican followers kept her well versed in theological questions so that she could avoid heresyIn 1370, she had a vision in which she claimed that her mission was to restore the papacy to Rome; she set out on a pilgrimage to bring about peaceful resolution of many of Italys wars and feudsFinally, in 1377, Gregory XI returned to Rome, ending the Babylonian Captivity; Catherine died three years later`The Effects of the Avignon PapacyPapacy had become a tool of French policies; other nations began to view the papacy as a competing foreign powerAs a result, nationalism was on the rise in Europe; resentment towards the papacyRevenues from unfilled vacancies poured into Avignon, France; no motivation to fill vacant posts or to move back to RomeSimony once again became prevalent in the church; to this abuse was added the abuses of pluralism (the holding of more than one benefice or post), absenteeism, and nepotismThe Great Western SchismCauses of the Great SchismGregory XI had actually considered returning to Avignon as conditions in Rome proved to be less than ideal; he died before he had the chanceThe people of Rome feared that the majority of French cardinals would elect someone who would return the papacy to AvignonFearing that the French cardinals were planning to escape Italy, a mob invaded the place where the conclave met and demanded the election of a Roman or at least an ItalianUnder duress, the cardinals elected the archbishop of Bari, an Italian, who took the name Urban VI; his coronation was one of great pomp in which all the cardinals, both French and Italian, participatedUrban VI (1378-1389) The inflammatory reforming actions of Urban VIIn an effort to curb absenteeism, Urban declared all bishops who formed part of his court (i.e. not in their dioceses) to be traitors to ChristHe denounced the ostentatiousness of the cardinals and declared that those who received any gifts whatsoever were guilty of simonyIn an effort to curb French influence, he appointed a vast number of Italian cardinalsMeanwhile, he appointed many of his relatives to positions of importance, thereby opening him up to the charge of nepotismMany of his cardinals charged that Urban had gone mad, and began to form an opposition party against himThe plot against UrbanBoth French and Italian cardinals joined the opposition against Urban, fled Rome and gathered in AnagniThere they declared that they had elected Urban under coercion and thus his election was not validThey then proceeded to elect a new pope (the Italians present abstained, but did not protest), who took the name of Clement VIIThus an unprecedented situation developed; for the first time there were two popes elected by the same cardinalsThe new pope took up arms against Urban and attacked Rome; he was repulsed and resided in AvignonAll of western Europe would now have to take sidesDivided EuropeAvignon PapacyFranceScotlandCastile & Aragon (at first supporters of Urban)A number of German nobles who had reason to oppose the emperorRoman PapacyEnglandScandinaviaFlandersHungaryPolandHoly Roman Empire (Germany)Divided EuropePortugal changed allegiances repeatedlyIn Italy, each city and each ruler followed its own course and changed allegiances as political factors dictatedThe Kingdom of Naples sided with Avignon (for the most part)Urbans MessCatherine of Sienna devoted herself to Urbans cause before her death; but Urban did not make things easyUrban decided to created a principality for his nephew, and thus became embroiled in a series of senseless wars; when some of his cardinals suggested he change this policy, Urban had them arrested and they died of suspicious meansUrban died in 1389, and his cardinals elected Boniface IXBy taking the name Boniface, the new pope indicated that he would follow the anti-French policies of the earlier Boniface

Two Lines of PopesThe Great Western Schism went beyond the election of two competing popes to the election of their successors, and thus was created two competing lines of popesThe Great Western Schism encouraged ecclesiastical abuses, especially that of simony as the competing popes were always in need of fundsPapal Claimants during the Great Schism (1378-1417)Avignon Line (Anti-Popes)Clement VII (1378-1394)Benedict XIII (1394-1423)AbdicatedThree others not recognized by any nation:Clement VIIIBenedict XIV (Bernard Garnier)Benedict XIV (Jean Carrier)Roman PopesUrban VI (1378-1389)Boniface IX (1389-1404)Innocent VII (1404-1406)Gregory XII (1406-1415)Interregnum (1415-1417)Martin V (1417-1431)Proposal of the University of Paris (1394)Three possible solutions to the Great Schism:Both Popes resign, and a conclave consisting of both sets of cardinals proceed with the election of a new oneQuestion be settled by negotiation and arbitrationA General Council be called to decide the matterCharles VI of France attempts to interveneWhen Clement VII of Avignon died, Charles VI of France asked the Avignon cardinals not to elect a new one, hoping that he could convince the Pope of Rome to abdicateThe Avignon cardinals, feeling that their case could be weakened, went ahead an elected Benedict XIII anywayCharles responded by besieging Avignon, but had to abandon the siege due to changing political fortunesMeanwhile, the Roman popes began a series of maneuvers to make it appear that they wanted to end the schismBoth sides, however, refused to negotiate, which ended up alienating many of the cardinals on both sidesThe Roman cardinals were the first to break with their pope begin negotiations with the Avignon Party; meanwhile France withdrew her support for BenedictThe stage was set for the Conciliar MovementConciliarismThe Call for a General CouncilNot since the days of Constantine did the church place so much of hope on the convening of a universal council to settle the decades long Babylonian CaptivityAs it began to be articulated in western theology, conciliar theory (or conciliarism) held that a universal council, representing the entire church, had more authority than the popeThe question was: who had the authority to call a council of the whole church? In the Western Church, councils were summoned by popes; in the Eastern Church, councils had been summoned by emperorsThe difficulty was solved when cardinals of both parties issued a joint call to a great council to be held in Pisa in 1409Council of Pisa (1409)When the council gathered in Pisa, it had the support of both colleges of cardinals and well as most of the courts of Europe a very hopeful sign that was soon to be dashedRather than try to determine who was the rightful pope, the council declared that both were unworthy, and thus both were deposedThe council then went on to deal with the issues of simony and other abusesMeanwhile, the cardinals elected another pope who took the name Alexander VConvinced that they had ended the schism, the council adjourned

And then there were threeMost of Europe accepted the decisions of Pisa and the new pope, Alexander VHowever, both rival Popes (Rome and Avignon) refused to accept the decisions of the council of Pisa, and both had enough support to insist on their claimsAlexander died less than a year after his election; the cardinals then proceeded to elect his successor, John XXIIIThe Pisan Antipopes: Alexander V (1409-1410) and John XXIII (1410-1415)The Intervention of Sigismund of GermanyJohn XIII found himself forced to flee Italy and seek asylum from Emperor Sigismund of Germany, who at the time was the most powerful monarch of EuropeSigismund decided that it was time for another council to decide the issue once and for all, and required of John XXIII his agreement on the issue as a condition of asylumJohn XXIII was to convene the council, which would gather in Constance in 1414Council of Constance (1414) finally settles the matterBy convening the council, John XXIII assumed that those assembled would support his claim to the papal throne; he was mistakenThe council was of a reformist mindset, and thus called for his resignation; John fledJohn was a fugitive for months, but eventually captured, brought back to Constance and forced to resign; he was then condemned to prison for the rest of his lifeGregory XII, the Roman pope, resigned as he promised to do if his rivals did likewiseThe council then elected Martin VBenedict XIII refused to resign and took refuge in a fortress where he continued to claim his legitimacy; no one paid much attention to him; he died in 1423Benedict had up to three successors, though since their elections were dubious, he is considered the last of the Avignon line.The Three Reforming CouncilsThe Council of Constance (1414) attempted to reform the church, legislate against abuses, and rid the church of heretics; John Huss was condemned; Also decreed that councils should meet every ten years or so to continue the work of reformationThe Council of Basel (1431) Called by Martin V, but dissolved by his successor, Eugene IV; it refused to adjourn and ended up electing an antipope (Felix V gave up claim in 1449)The Council of Ferrara-Florence (1439) Eugene decreed the transfer of the Council of Basel to Ferrara (eventually to Florence); there the council attempted a formula of reunion between East and West as a condition for western aid to Constantinople

The Waning of the Medieval SynthesisThe Renaissance The RenaissanceMeaning: rebirth i.e. the rebirth of knowledgeCultural movement from the 14th to the 17th centuriesFlowering of art, science, literature, religion, and politicsResurgence of learning from the classical period of Greek and Roman antiquity (immediate past considered the Dark Ages)Intellectual transformation that swept Europe, widely considered the bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era

Characteristics of the RenaissanceRenaissance thinkers turned their gaze backward in historical time; not to the immediate past which was arrogantly assumed to be "dark," but to the classical past of ancient Greece and Rome, which they assumed was bathed in light The Classic period was considered a Golden Age. Therein were found thinkers who had similar interests to the Renaissance thinker, and who had wrestled with identical problems Increasingly, Renaissance thinkers would view the medieval synthesis as too formal, too compartmentalized, too confining; it was too logical, too systematic, too AristotelianThe Renaissance would end up reacting strongly against the medieval synthesis -- against all pigeon-holingProto-ReformersTwo Types of Reform One that addressed mainly moral and pastoral issues, such as simony and absenteeism (Conciliar Movement)One that also sought to reform not only the life, but also the doctrines of the ChurchJohn Wycliffe 1328-1384John Huss (Jan Hus) 1369-1415John Wycliffe (Wyclif), 1328-1384Wycliffes ResumeLittle is known of his early lifeSpent most of his career in Oxford, England; famous for his erudition and logic; not very good humoredIn 1371, he left the university to serve the English Crown, first as a diplomat then as a polemicistThis was during the time of the Avignon papacy, so Wycliffes arguments on the nature and limits of lordship and dominion were well received by the English authoritiesWycliffes Position on Legitimate DominionAll legitimate dominion comes from GodDominion is to be characterized by the example of Christ, who came to serve, not to be servedAny dominion exercised for the profit of the ruler and not for the good of the governed (commonwealth) is not true dominion, but rather usurpationThe same is true of dominion that seeks to expand its power beyond the limits of its authorityTherefore, any supposed ecclesiastical authority that collects taxes for its own benefit, or seeks to extend its power beyond the sphere of spiritual matters, is not legitimateWycliffe applied this last principle to civil power, which must also be measured according to the service it renders to its subjects; Wycliffe eventually lost support of many of the English nobles for this viewThe Radicalization of Wycliffes ViewsWycliffes views became more radical as the result of the scandal of the Great Western Schism (1378)The true Church is not the pope and his visible hierarchy, but rather the invisible body of those who are predestined to salvationIt is impossible to know for sure who is predestined, but there are indications or fruits of salvation in true believersMany ecclesiastical leaders were in truth reprobate; eventually Wycliffe would declare that the pope was among those who were probably reprobateWycliffes View of Scriptural AuthorityScripture is the possession of the Church and only the Church can interpret Scripture correctly (as the Roman Church taught)However, the Church that owns the Scriptures is the body of all who are predestinedTherefore, the Bible ought to be put back into the hands of believers, and in their own languageWycliffe and his followers began to put this into practice by translating portions of the Bible into EnglishBy 1382, Wycliffe had managed to translate much of the New Testament directly from the Latin Vulgate; Wycliffes Bible was complete by 1384Wycliffe and the MassThe Fourth Lateran Council (1215) had declared the doctrine of TransubstantiationWycliffe would eventual reject this doctrine because he saw it as a denial of the principle manifested in the incarnationWhen God was joined to human nature, the presence of divinity did not destroy the humanityLikewise, when Christ unites himself with the bread and wine he does not destroy them; in a sacramental or mysterious way, the Body (Blood) of Christ is present in communion; but so is the bread (wine)Wycliffe would be condemned in Oxford for this view; however, after a brief imprisonment, he was allowed to resume his studies and writingsWycliffes EndIn 1381, Wycliffe retired to his parish in Lutterworth, a benefice that he had received from the Crown for services rendered (irony: Wycliffe profited from absenteeism)Wycliffe died of stroke in 1384 and buried in consecrated groundThe Council of Constance (1415) later condemned him; had his remains disinterred and burned; ashes thrown in the River SwiftThe movement called the Lollards took their inspiration from WycliffeThe LollardsPejorative name meaning mumblersBelieved in vernacular translations of the Bible, preached against clerical celibacy, pilgrimages, and the abuse of imagesAlso rejected Transubstantiation and prayers for the deadAt first Lollardy had adherents among the gentry, but a number of failed political uprisings brought it into disfavorLollardy remained an underground movement in England up to the 16th century; eventually Lollards would swell the ranks of the Protestants in EnglandJohn Huss (1369-1415) John Huss of BohemiaFamous preacher and scholar; rector of the University of Prague (1402)At first he had no intention of changing the traditional doctrines of the church; he only sought the reform of the Christian life, particularly that of the clergyKing Richard II of England had married a Bohemian princess; through this political connection many Czechs were able to study in England where they came into contact with the writings of John Wycliffe The writings of Wycliffe caused a great stir in the University of Prague, dividing the Germans and the Czechs in their opinions of himJohn HussThe Germans questioned Wycliffes orthodoxy, to which Huss responded that it was the right of scholars to study Wycliffe even if they did not agree with all of his positionsHuss himself did not agree with Wycliffe on the question of TransubstantiationThe King of Bohemia supported the Czech scholars, compelling the Germans to leave Prague and found the University of Leipzig; on leaving Prague they declared Prague to have become a hotbed of heresiesConflict with the Pisan PapacyThe Council of Pisa (1409) had attempted to end the Great Schism by deposing two popes and electing a third (Alexander V and later John XXIII); now there were three popesThe Archbishop of Prague obtained a papal decree banning the works of Wycliffe and ordering the preaching should only take place in cathedrals, parish churches and monasteries Huss decided he could not obey and continued preaching at the chapel of Bethlehem (which did not fall into any one of these categories)In 1410, Huss was summoned to Rome to answer for his disobedience; he refused to go and was excommunicated in 1411With the support of his king and the people of Bohemia, he ignored the papal sentence and continued to preach and teachThe Radicalization of Huss ViewsWhile not questioning the legitimacy of the Pisan pope, he nonetheless concluded that an unworthy pope was not to be obeyed; popes acting in their own interests, and not for the welfare of the church, were not to be obeyedHuss concluded that the Bible was the final authority by which the pope as well as any Christian is to be judgedHuss protested against John XXIIIs sale of indulgences to pay for his crusade against Naples; he came to conclude that only God can grant forgiveness, and to sell that which can only come from God is a usurpationHuss also criticized John XXIII for making war against fellow Christians; the king of Bohemia (who needed the popes support) ordered Huss to silence his protestJohn Huss CondemnationAfter another excommunication, Huss withdrew to the countryside to write on the needed reformation of the ChurchIn 1414, Emperor Sigismund (of Germany and Hungary) called for a council to meet in Constance in order to end the three-popes controversy; he invited Huss to defend his views at the council and granted him safe-conduct to attendUpon entering Constance, it was clear that John XXIII wanted to try Huss outside of the council in a papal consistory; Huss was taken into custody and ordered to recant; Huss responded that he would recant only if someone could show him that he was a hereticHe was then treated as a prisoner; the emperor at first protested, but then washed his hands of the affairJohn Huss CondemnationOn June 5, 1415, Huss finally appeared before the Council of Constance John XXIII (the Pisan pope) had fled the council upon his deposition, but had been captured and returned as a prisonerThe hope was that the council would see Huss as the enemy of the anti-pope John and thus be dismissed without chargeInstead, Huss was condemned for his refusal to recant John Huss MartyrdomI appeal to Jesus Christ, the only judge who is almighty and completely just. In his hands I place my cause, since he will judge each, not on the basis of false witnesses and erring councils, but of truth and justice.

On July 6, Huss taken to the cathedral, dressed in priestly garments which were then torn from him, shaved of his tonsure, and had a paper crown decorated with demons placed on his head; refusing one last chance to recant, he was burned at the stake as he recited the PsalmsJerome of Prague, Huss colleague, was burned a few days laterThe Martyrdom of HussLord Jesus, it is for thee that I patiently endure this cruel death. I pray thee to have mercy on my enemies.Rebellion in BohemiaTaborites and Horebites two groups that claimed Huss as their inspirationThe threat of armed intervention led the various Hussite groups to agree to Four Articles:The Word of God to be preached freelyCommunion in both kinds (bread and wine)Clergy should live in apostolic povertyGross and public sin should be punished severelyOne general council and two failed crusades against Bohemia finally convinced the Catholics that negotiation with the Hussites was necessaryThe Church in BohemiaAs a result of these negotiations, the Church of Bohemia rejoined the rest of western Christendom, but allowed to retain communion in both kinds and other elements of the Four ArticlesMost Bohemians, particularly the nobility, accepted the agreement; many left the church to found the Unitas Fratrum (Union of Brethren)The Brethren grew rapidly, not only in Bohemia but also in MoraviaThe Brethren established close ties with the Protestants in the 16th century, and some would ally with LutheranismHapsburg persecution in the 16th century almost wiped them out; the Moravians would eventually come to the new worldGirolamo Savonarola (1452-1498)SavonarolaDominican Friar, native of Ferrara, Italy; spent most of career in study and devotionIn 1490, he was invited to Florence by Lorenzo de Medici, the Magnificent; joined the monastery of St. Mark and began a series of lectures on Scripture to his fellow friars; soon developed a popular following and he began to preachDuring Lent in 1491 he was invited to preach at the main church in Florence; he preached a sermon which contrasted true Christian life and the life of luxury, which offended many of the powerful of Florence including Lorenzo de MediciLorenzo then hired another preacher to attack the views of Savonarola; but the people supported Savonarola and compelled the rival preacher to flee the citySavonarola as Prior of St. MarkSavonarola refused to give the customary gratitude to Lorenzo for his election as prior of St. Mark, opting to thank God in privateHe then sold a great deal of the convents holdings and gave the proceeds to the poorHe then embarked on a program of reform of the inner life of his community; other monastic houses asked to join in the reformation that he had begun; news of his holiness spreadEven the dying Lorenzo called on the saintly friar to join him at his bedsideSavonarola intervenes with Charles VIII of FranceLorenzos successor, Pietro de Medici, was expelled from Florence for trying to buy Charles VIII off as he marched south to claim the cro