CFITES Vol 4 e

CF I TESNationalDefence

Défensenationale

operations

STRATEGICGUIDANCE

needsassessment

CFITES:

canadian forces

individual training

and education system

Canad ian Forces Ind iv idua lT ra in ing and Educat ion Sys tem

D e s i g n o f I n s t r u c t i o n a l P r o g r a m m e s

A-P9-050-000/PT-004

V O L U M E 4

F O R E W O R D

A-P9-050-000/PT-004, Manual of Individual Training and Education, Volume 4, Design of InstructionalProgrammes, is issued on authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff.

This publication is effective on receipt and supersedes A-P9-000-008/PT-000 (Preparation of Training Plans) dated 92-10-30.

Suggestions for changes shall be forwarded through normal channels to National Defence Headquarters, Attention: Director Recruiting, Education and Training (DRET).

I

DGPA Creative Services 99CS-03261999-11-05 A-P9-050-000/PT-004

III

TT A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

PART 1 INTRODUCTIONBackground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Overview of CFITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Purpose of Design Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2Overview of Design Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

PART 2 DEFINE LEARNER CHARACTERISTICSPurpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3Relevant Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3Sources of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4Guidelines on Gathering Target Population Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

PART 3 PERFORM INSTRUCTIONAL ANALYSISPurpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5Identify Performance Components . . . . . . .5Apply Target Population Information . . . . .6Organize Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6Write Enabling Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . .7Develop Scalar Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

PART 4 PREPARE LEARNING ASSESSMENT PLANPurpose of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10Contents of Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10Performance Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

PART 5 DESIGN LEARNING ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTSOverview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Determine Test Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Determine Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

PART 6 IDENTIFY/COST INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIESOverview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12Identify Instructional Methods . . . . . . . . .13On Job Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14Identify Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Learning Environment Options . . . . . . . .17Preliminary Identification of Strategies . .18Development Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18Cost Instructional Strategies . . . . . . . . . . .19

PART 7 SELECT/APPROVE INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGYPurpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21Selection Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21Review for Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . .21Review Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21Analyze Organizational Impact . . . . . . . .22Business Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

PART 8 SPECIFY COURSE CONTENT AND LESSON GUIDANCEPurpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

ANNEX A: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES A1

ANNEX B: DEVELOPING SCALAR DIAGRAMS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL ANALYSIS B1

ANNEX C: INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS C1

ANNEX D: INSTRUCTIONAL TAXONOMIES D1

ANNEX E: INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA E1

ANNEX F: DEVELOPMENT COST FACTORS F1

ANNEX G OPERATING COST FACTORS G1

ANNEX H: ACTIONS CHECKLIST H1

ANNEX I: SAMPLE LESSON SPECIFICATION I1

M A N U A L O F I N D I V I D U A L T R A I N I N G A N D E D U C A T I O N — V O L U M E 4

P A R T 1

1

Background

Purpose

Overview of CFITES

Figure 1: CFITES Quality Control Model

II N T R O D U C T I O N

1. Canadian Forces policy on Individual Training and Education (IT&E) statesthat IT&E activities shall be conducted in accordance with the managementmodel known as the Canadian Forces Individual Training and EducationSystem (CFITES). The Manual of Individual Training and Education providesguidance on the application of the CFITES in a series of interrelated volumes,each focusing on a different aspect of the system.

2. This volume of the Manual of Individual Training and Education providesguidance to Managing Authorities on the design of instructional programmes.In the application of these guidelines, users should note that designing aninstructional programme is a systematic, iterative process. This means that as the user completes a step, there will often be a requirement to reviewprevious steps. It should also be noted that the degree of formality withwhich the guidelines are applied will vary with the particular instructionaldesign context.

3. For an introduction to and description of the CFITES, see Volume 1, CFITESIntroduction/Description. As shown in Figure 1 below, Design is the secondphase of the six-phase CFITES Quality Control model.

operations

STRATEGICGUIDANCE

analysis designdevelopment

conductevaluation

validation

needsassessment


P A R T 1

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4. The purpose of the Design phase is to describe or select an instructionalprogramme which will enable CF members to achieve, at optimum cost,the performance objectives which were defined in the Analysis phase(described in Volume 3 of this series, Analysis of InstructionalRequirements ). Design activities are aimed at defining what needs to be learned, how it will be learned and how learning will be assessed.

5. The result of the Design phase is a course content/lesson guidance document which specifies:

a. the course content;

b. the instructional strategy;

c. the assessment plan and test plans;

d. resource requirements; and

e. lesson specifications.

6. The input to the Design phase is the qualification standard, producedduring the Analysis phase, which defines the outcomes of the instructionalprogram as performance objectives (POs). The steps of the Design phaseprovide a systematic methodology for determining how these objectives will be achieved in the most effective and efficient manner.

7 The fundamental processes or steps of the Design phase, which aredescribed in Parts 2 to 8 of this volume, are as follows:

a. define learner characteristics;

b. perform instructional analysis;

c. prepare learning assessment plan;

d. design learning assessment instruments;

e. identify/cost instructional strategies;

f. select instructional strategy; and

g. specify course content and lesson guidance.

Overview of Design Phase

Purpose of Design Phase


P A R T 2

3

DD E F I N E L E A R N E R C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S

8. The purpose of this step is to identify those characteristics of the targetpopulation which will have to be taken into account if the instructionalprogram is to be appropriate for the intended learners. The course is morelikely to be successful if it is adapted to what they already know about thesubject matter and to the way in which they learn best. Other factors such as the size and location of the target population may affect decisions on howthe course is delivered. The information gathered on learner characteristicsshould be recorded for succeeding staff who will maintain the coursecontent/lesson guidance documentation.

9. Current subject-matter competence. The learners' level of skill and knowledgewith respect to the performance objectives (POs) is a factor which dependsmainly on previous related training or education, and experience. It may alsobe affected by strong opinions or attitudes about the subject matter.Information should be obtained on the learners':

a. experience with target performance;

b. ability to perform any part of the POs;

c. knowledge of the subject matter (and how it was acquired);

d. positive or negative perceptions of the subject matter; and

e. perception of the impact of achieving the POs on self, work, career.

10. Learning skills and preferences. Learning skills are those abilities whichenable the learning process, such as reading comprehension, keyboarding skillor mathematical ability. Preferences are attitudes towards specific types oflearning materials and equipment, for example, a liking for computers or anaversion to lectures. These skills and preferences tend to be closely related toeducational level, previous training, age and experience.

11. Target population data. This category includes:

a. the size of the target population and the expected annual throughput;

b. the location(s) of the intended learners; and

c. any other information which may have a bearing on design such as location, access to computers, military environment, age and sex.

Purpose

Relevant Information


P A R T 2

4

12. Existing sources. Data can be gathered from available documentation suchas course prerequisites and occupation/speciality specifications, or frompersonnel who are knowledgeable about the target population, for example,supervisors, recruiters and personnel selection staff. In some cases,information can be obtained from external sources such as governmentdepartments, foreign armed forces or commercial organizations.

13. Data gathering methods. If information from existing sources is notsufficient, data may be obtained from the target population throughspecially developed instruments such as:

a. questionnaires;

b. placement tests;

c. structured interviews;

d. focus groups; and

e. observations.

14. Note the following guidelines on gathering data on learner characteristics:

a. any discrepancies between data obtained from different sources must be resolved before proceeding;

b. plan for samples that are representative (rank, occupation and location, for example) or the data will provide an incomplete or false picture;

c. some interview participants may attempt to bias information in order toadvocate a personal or organizational agenda;

d. if the analyst is not well prepared, data collection sessions can turn into unfocussed “gripe” sessions;

e. note sample population hopes and concerns - the instructional designshould address these factors; and

f. set reasonable time requirements for collecting the data.

Sources of information

Guidelines onGathering TargetPopulation Data


P A R T 3

5

PP E R F O R M I N S T R U C T I O N A LA N A L Y S I S

15. The purpose of this process is to determine what to teach so that the learnerwill achieve the performance objectives (POs) as specified in the qualificationstandard produced during the Analysis phase.

16. Instructional analysis begins with an examination of the POs in order toidentify their component skills, knowledge and attitudes. The aim is todetermine everything a trainee needs to learn. The components are thenbroken out into sub-components, grouped into sub-objectives, and placed in a sequence suitable for learning. These sub-objectives, known as enablingobjectives (EOs), support POs and are in turn supported by sub-componentsknown as teaching points.

17. Instructional analysis requires the following steps:

a. identify all components and sub-components of the tasks that make up the PO;

b. apply target population information to determine current subject mattercompetence (knowledge, skills and attitude);

c. group and sequence the components and sub-components into units suitable for learning, that is, EOs and teaching points;

d. write EOs; and

e. develop a scalar diagram to document the content and structure of theinstructional program.

18. Although these procedures may be carried out in sequence, it is usually necessary to revise earlier work as each step is taken. An overview of theentire process is given in Table 2 at the end of Part 3.

19. In this step the POs are examined to determine what needs to be taught sothat the learners will attain them. POs are contained in the qualificationstandard and define the required performance, conditions and standard aswell as key supporting elements (skills, knowledge and attitudes). It is oftennecessary to identify additional skills and knowledge that are essential to thetasks, but not specifically mentioned in the PO. Such components may beidentified from the parent specification, manuals, experience with the tasks,or transferred from similar tasks, equipment, procedures and situations.Indicators of attitudes that affect task performance (such as "observe safetyprecautions" and "care for subordinates") should also be identified. Thesecomponents are broken out into sub-components when it is anticipated thatseparate demonstrations (skills and attitudes) or explanations (knowledge or

Purpose

Methodology

Identify PerformanceComponents


P A R T 3

6

attitudes) will be useful, or where only certain parts of a component requireinstruction. This deconstruction of elements is continued until separatedemonstrations and explanations are deemed impractical or the targetpopulation is known to have that level of skill or knowledge.

20. When all the components of the PO have been identified, information onlearner characteristics can be applied to determine which components needto be taught, or at what level the analysis can stop. The relevant factor issubject matter competence: the entry level proficiency of the targetpopulation is the starting point for the content of the instructionalprogramme.

21. Structuring course content. In order to organize the course content into astructure that will facilitate learning, it is necessary to group and sequencethe various components identified through the analysis described above.Developing this structure involves: grouping the components into principleunits of learning and establishing an appropriate sequence of instructionwithin each group and among groups. It may be necessary to go throughseveral iterations of grouping and sequencing to establish a satisfactorystructure.

22. Enabling objectives. An EO is a principle unit of learning and constitutes amajor step towards achieving the PO. EOs may correspond to the majorcomponents identified in the first round of deconstructing POs, or they mayresult from grouping several related components. The key is to definemanageable units of learning; units which are coherent in terms of logic,learning or work, of suitable scope and appropriate for testing for progress.

23. Teaching points. Teaching points are the elements which make up an EO:discrete steps, facts, abilities or concepts that require a separatedemonstration or explanation. For example, learning to conduct aninterview will involve learning the use of different types of questions, how to put the candidate at ease and so on.

24. Sequencing instruction. The order in which the various components of the target performance are presented will have a significant influence on learning. The sequence of instruction is also an important factor inidentifying EOs and teaching points. Content may be arranged according to:

a. learning order, which is the difficulty of the subject matter, proceedingfrom simple to complex, familiar to unfamiliar, or concrete to abstract;

b. logical order, which is the inherent progression of the subject matter; or

c. job performance order, which is the sequence in which the task elementsoccur on the job.

Apply Target PopulationInformation

Organize Components


P A R T 3

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25. It is often necessary to adjust and re-adjust the sequence before anappropriate order is established. Once this is done, the hierarchy of EOs and teaching points for each PO can be confirmed.

26. Construction. An EO is similar to a PO in that it is composed of threeessential parts: a performance statement, conditions statement, and astandard. The following table describes these elements.

27. Scalars are the recommended means of conducting and documenting aninstructional analysis. A scalar diagram clearly defines the overall structureof the course content by graphically illustrating the hierarchy of EOs andteaching points for each PO. An example of a scalar and its development isgiven in Annex B. Convenient tools for developing these diagrams are cards,“yellow stickies” or organization chart software.

Write EnablingObjectives

Table 1: Elements of Enabling Objectives

Develop ScalarDiagram

EXAMPLE

Conduct traffic accident interview.

Given traffic accident scenario andwitness to accident.

Exhibit tact by:

asking questions in a polite manner;

listening attentively; and

addressing witness by rank or title.

DESCRIPTION

A description of what the learner will be ableto do at the end of the unit of instruction.

A description of the circumstances underwhich the performance will occur.

A statement of the required level of proficiency.

PART

Performancestatement

Conditionsstatement

Standard


P A R T 3

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Table 2: Conducting Instructional Analysis

COMMENTS

• The supporting elements (skills, knowledge and attitudes) of the tasks listed in a PO.

• The knowledge listed in a PO that is independent of any specific task.

• Skills, knowledge and attitudes that are necessary to achievingPOs, but are not identified in the qualification standard.

• Attitudes that influence making interpretations, judgements and choices in the PO.

Break down a component if:

• The scope of the component must be refined to ensure that allsub-components are learned. or

• The scope of the component is known, but only selected sub-components need to be learned.

Ensure that:

• All components and sub-components are new and necessary to the learner.

• All necessary sub-components are identified.

• All components and sub-components are analyzed to the levelof what the learners already know or can do.

Record each component and sub-component. Determine howthey can be grouped together based on:

• Performance, learning or logical order, dependence and association. or

• The size of a grouping for learning purposes and checkinglearner progress.

STEP

1. Identify major components of PO

2. Identify additional components

3. Break down components into sub-components

4. Stop when a sub-componenthas reached the learner’s entry level

5. Group related components andsub-components


P A R T 3

9

COMMENTS

Build a scalar diagram of the components and sub-componentsbased on:

• Building sequences from left to right in each group.

• Building dependence from bottom to top in each group.

• Similarly organizing groups by sequence and dependence.

• Grouping components and sub-components that support more than one group into the group that best introduces them to the learners.

Once all components and sub-components are grouped andrelated:

• Identify and adjust the groups (merge or split groups or components) to create EOs.

• Convert components and sub-components into teaching pointswithin an EO.

STEP

6. Relate components and sub-components in each group.

7. Identify EOs and teaching points


P A R T 4

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PP R E P A R E L E A R N I N GA S S E S S M E N T P L A N

28. The assessment plan establishes the overall strategy for testing in support of an instructional programme. It specifies how achievement of theperformance objectives (POs) will be assessed and how learner progressthrough enabling objectives (EOs) will be assessed. Tests that measureachievement of POs are known as performance checks (PCs), while teststhat measure progress are known as enabling checks (ECs). Detailedguidelines on planning assessment are contained in Volume 7 of this series,Evaluation of Learners.

29. The following are the essential elements of an assessment plan:

a. a concept for achievement testing, that specifies how each PO, and critical EOs, will be assessed;

b. a pass/fail policy, based on results of achievement tests;

c. test/retest policies; and

d. a concept for progress testing, that specifies how each EO will be assessed.

30. The assessment plan must reflect the principle of performance orientationby specifying the use of practical tests for achievement testing to themaximum extent possible. Practical tests require the learner to perform job tasks in realistic settings. The use of practical tests for PCs is not onlythe best way to evaluate achievement, it also has a positive influence oninstruction because of the tendency to "teach to the test". This is one of the reasons it is preferable to develop the assessment plan early in the Design phase.

31. Although the emphasis should be on practical testing, theory tests may beeffective supplements to the practical tests. Theory tests are generally inwritten form (for example, short answer) and employ sampling, that is,selecting representative elements from a larger field of knowledge. Theorytests are used to supplement practical tests, test achievement of knowledgeEOs and test learner progress.

Purpose of Testing

Contents of Plan

PerformanceOrientation


P A R T 5

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DD E S I G N L E A R N I N GA S S E S S M E N T I N S T R U M E N T S

32. Once an assessment plan has been developed, a plan, or specification for each performance check (PC) and enabling check (EC) is prepared. The specification describes content and format: what will be tested and how it will be tested. Actual preparation of test materials, as well as thedevelopment of tests at the teaching point level, is done in the Developmentphase. Detailed guidelines on designing tests are contained in Volume 7 ofthis series, Evaluation of Learners.

33. Determining test content — what will be tested — begins with anexamination of the objective with the aim of achieving the best possiblematch to ensure the test supports the objectives. Ideally, the test performance,conditions and standards will simply reiterate those in the performance orenabling objective. However, it is usually necessary to consider carefully howeach of these elements will be accurately reflected in the test situation. Forexample, it may be necessary to ensure that certain intermediate steps of thetarget performance are evaluated, or that explicit details and their assessmentcriteria are included in the test standards.

34. Sampling strategy. It may not be feasible to completely test the performanceof some tasks or test every part of a large body of knowledge. In such cases,sampling is used to select a representative performance. Practical tests mayfocus on the most important or most difficult elements of the performance.Theory tests may use a random sample of sufficient size to represent overallknowledge of the subject matter, or indicate knowledge of what to do inunusual or unsafe situations.

35. Item type. The type of items selected for a test should be appropriate for theobjective on which it is based. Practical test items are of three general types,all of which are based on observation of actual performance of the job task:checklist, rating scale and anecdotal record.

36. Theory test items are usually classified as either selection or supply.Selection items require the candidate to choose an answer, as in multiplechoice, matching, or true-or-false questions. Supply items require thecandidate to produce the answer, as in fill-in-the-blanks or essay questions.

Overview

Determine Test Content

Determine Format


P A R T 6

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Overview

II D E N T I F Y / C O S T I N S T R U C T I O N A L S T R A T E G I E S

37. Definition. An instructional strategy is the combination of methods, mediaand environment used to deliver instruction — in other words, how thesubject matter will be taught. One of the most familiar examples of aninstructional strategy is demonstration and practice (method), led by aninstructor (media) in a classroom (environment). Other examples are: acomputer-based tutorial run on a personal computer in the workplace and a lecture delivered on a video conferencing system.

38. Purpose. The purpose of this step of the Design phase is to identify viableinstructional strategies and make preliminary cost estimates for each. Thiswill ensure that the subsequent selection of an instructional strategy isbased on due consideration of the performance objectives (POs), the targetpopulation and cost, rather than unfounded assumptions about a particularapproach. An effective strategy enables learners to attain the objectivesdefined in the qualification standard. An efficient strategy does this at the lowest cost per student.

39. Methodology. Developing an instructional strategy is a complex matter,involving many issues and decisions on a large number of options. Because these issues are interrelated, it is usually necessary to reviewearlier decisions at each step. A suggested methodology for systematicallyidentifying strategies is outlined in the following table.

FACTORS/OPTIONS

type of objectives, testing requirements

constraints, methods, subject matter, efficiency

centralized, distributed, combination

compatibility, learner characteristics, instructor ability

in-house, contractor, combination, off-the-shelf

development and operating costs

STEP

identify methods

identify media

consider learning environment options

combine methods, media and environment

consider development options

cost strategies

Table 3: Identifying Instructional Strategies

Note:When the scope of POs is broad, it is preferable to work at the level of enabling objectives (EOs) for the initial decisions on methods, media and environment. Of course, all final decisions must respect therequirements of the PO.


P A R T 6

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40. Overview. The term method refers to the type of learning activity orinstructional event, such as demonstration-performance, case study orlecture. Annex C provides a glossary of instructional methods and guidelineson their application. Methods are the first component of an instructionalstrategy to be addressed. The aim is to identify instructional activities thathave a high probability of promoting learning, and transferring learning to the operational situation. The inputs to method selection are: the coursecontent/structure established through instructional analysis and theassessment plan. An initial selection of methods is made for each objectivetaking into consideration the type of learning and the type of assessment.

41. Compatibility with type of learning. If learning is to occur, the methods must be consistent with the objectives. For example, a lesson on a procedurewill require a different method from a lesson on a concept or principle. It is therefore important to determine what type of learning is involved in each objective. Instructional outcomes can be defined according to theclassifications established by leading theorists such as Bloom, Simpson andKrathwohl. Their definitions of learning types — known as taxonomies — are summarized in Annex D. For most CF instructional programmes, theclassification of learning objectives as either knowledge, skill or attitude isrecommended. These categories may be further refined as shown in the Table4. Table 5 provides examples of methods that are appropriate for the varioustypes of learning.

Identify InstructionalMethods

Table 4: Categories of Learning Outcomes

TYPE

recall

comprehension

application

analysis

CATEGORY

knowledge

intellectual skill

psychomotor skill

attitude

EXAMPLES

name the parts of a radar system

explain signal processing in a sonar system

plan a combat operation

determine the weak points in a defensive system

perform an engine run-up on an aircraft

exhibit tact and diplomacy during interview


P A R T 6

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42. Limited application. On job training (OJT) is a method that is in effect an instructional strategy because it determines the main mechanisms fordelivering the course content. This option has limited application becauseit assigns a potentially substantial workload to operational units thatnormally prefer to have personnel arrive with the necessary performancecapabilities. OJT should only be considered after close consultation withthe Command/Group and units concerned, and then only if there arereasonable grounds to expect user acceptance and Command/Groupapproval.

43. Criteria. OJT may be suitable for POs that:

a. involve a minimal increase in existing skills or knowledge or are minorextensions of previous training and/or experience;

b. include conditions and standards which cannot be duplicated effectively or economically in an instructional environment;

c. have little immediate impact on unit or operational effectiveness;

d. are performed frequently and are not difficult to learn;

e. are performed under close supervision; or

f. are performed largely with reference to job aids.

Table 5: Matching Methods to Learning Outcomes

On Job Training

METHODS

lecture, self-study,

tutorial, guided discussion, self-study

simulation, OJT

simulation, case study, game

simulation, case study

case study, study assignment

demonstration-practice, simulation, tutorial

behaviour modelling, guided discussion, role play

TYPE OF LEARNING

recall of facts

comprehension of concepts

application of principles

analysis

synthesis

evaluation

physical skills

attitude (affective)


P A R T 6

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44. Definition. For the purpose of this manual, the term medium is taken to refer to the means of delivering instructional activities to the learner. Someexamples of media are computers, printed texts, and video conferencing. In the context of identifying an instructional strategy, an instructor is alsoconsidered to be a medium. A glossary of instructional media is given at Annex E.

45. Characteristics. To be instructionally effective, a medium — or combinationof media — must be able to provide all the inputs, or stimuli, that are essential to learning. In general terms these are:

a. presentation or demonstration;

b. application or practice;

c. feedback;

d. interaction; and

e. testing.

46. Learning aids. In order to provide these stimuli, the instructional mediummust be able to display or refer to the learning aids required for the objectivesunder consideration, such as pictures, diagrams, video recordings andmodels. Some learning aids such as simulators, real equipment and modelsare often so crucial to an instructional strategy that they are best consideredas media.

Note: Advisor 3.0 by BNH Expert Software is a decision support toolavailable through MA IT&E staff. Advisor can be used to determine the most effective and efficient media for a given situation.

47. Identify constraints. There is an enormous variety of instructional media tochoose with developments in technology constantly adding new possibilities.To ensure a focus on real and reasonable options, while making efficient useof analysis and planning resources, it is best to determine whether there areany critical factors which rule out the use of certain media or require the use of others. Examples are: availability of equipment and infrastructure,mandated strategies and organizational requirements.

48. Technology-based instruction. In order to further narrow the range, it may be useful to broadly categorize all approaches as either instructor-led ortechnology-based. Instructor-led learning refers to the traditional approach inwhich an instructor leads a group, or an individual, through various learningactivities. Technology-based instruction uses alternate means of delivery andincludes computer based instruction (CBT), interactive multi-media andvarious forms of distance learning such as video conferencing. Paper-basedself-study packages are also included in this category. Depending on therequirement — both quantitative and qualitative — technology-basedinstruction can offer the following advantages:

a. flexible access to instruction for learners;

b. low delivery costs;

c. consistency in delivery and content; and

d. elimination of risk to personnel, the environment and resources.

Identify Media


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49. Disadvantages of technology-based instruction. Although technology canbe used to enhance learning and reduce costs, problems are frequentlyencountered. Among these are:

a. decreased motivation due to inadequate support through feedback,encouragement, remedial action, etc.;

b. learner "saturation" through overuse of a single media or method;

c. high start-up costs;

d. equipment failure or obsolescence; and

e. incompatibility of hardware or software.

50. Compare to methods. To be effective for a given set of objectives, a mediummust be capable of supporting the selected methods. This means providingthe necessary stimuli in an appropriate manner. Thus, if demonstration andpractice are required to learn a procedure, the selected media should beable to:

a. provide an adequate demonstration of the procedure;

b. allow for sufficient realistic practice;

c. provide feedback to the learner;

d. permit interaction between learners and the instructor or system; and

e. support testing in accordance with the assessment plan.

51. Subject matter considerations. The subject matter will influence mediaselection when there are key aspects of the target performance whichclearly favour a certain type of delivery. Instructor-led learning will likelybe the preferred option when subject matter includes:

a. one-on-one interaction (examining a patient, conducting an interview);

b. interaction with a group (instructing, facilitating, leading a platoon);

c. physical skills (changing a tire, firing a weapon); or

d. a need for the presence of a role-model (acquire military values).

52. Technology-based training tends to be more appropriate for subjects which involve:

a. risk to personnel, environment, equipment (firing a weapon, piloting a ship);

b. the need for a high degree of consistency (interpretation of legal issues); or

c. the need to manipulate a large number of variables in real time (application of engineering or financial principles).


P A R T 6

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53. Efficiency. In order to achieve optimum efficiency in instruction, media mustbe considered from the perspective of cost-effectiveness. The application oftechnology to achieve cost savings should be investigated unless there is aclear requirement for an instructor-led approach. In general, technology-basedinstruction is more expensive to develop than classroom instruction;however, delivery costs can be much lower. Technology-based instructionmay be cost-effective when:

a. the target population is large — it is generally assumed that the cost-per-student is lower than classroom training when the annual throughput is300 or more; or

b. the target population is geographically dispersed — potential savings in travel costs can offset development costs.

54. Technology-based training may also be preferable when learning activitieswould otherwise require:

a. using real equipment that is hazardous or expensive to operate; or

b. consuming expensive materials such as ammunition or fuel.

55. Although the location at which the instruction will take place may bedetermined by the methods and media, in most cases the following optionscan be considered:

a. Centralized instruction. Bringing the learners to the instruction is the most familiar option and offers the advantages normally associated withschools. These include purpose-built learning facilities such as classrooms,labs and machine shops, as well as direct access to instructional staff andlearning resources;

b. Distributed instruction. Taking the course to the learners is an increasinglyprevalent option, particularly as advances in technology increase thevariety of instructional activities and resources that can be offered at adistance. Distributed instruction, whether it be delivered on-site or bydistance learning, offers easier and more flexible access to courses,reduced travel costs and reduced time away from the workplace.Depending on the media, distributed learning can take place in a numberof different settings which may be categorized as:

(1) anytime, anyplace — portable, self-contained instructional packagessuch as paper-based self-study materials can be used at whatever timeor location the learner chooses,

(2) at selected sites — suitably equipped facilities are needed for some technologies such as video conferencing, or

(3) in the workplace — instruction is conducted at the learner’s normalplace of work, most commonly in the form of computer-based trainingrun on standard office computers; and

Learning EnvironmentOptions


P A R T 6

18

c. Combination. A combination of centralized and distributed deliverymay be suitable in some cases. For example, a self-study package whichcovers certain objectives may be distributed prior to the classroom portion of a course to reduce the amount of temporary duty required of participants.

56. Combine elements. Having considered methods, media and the learningenvironment, the design team is ready to combine these elements intoproposed instructional strategies. An instructional strategy should employseveral methods, may include several media to suit various learningobjectives and may use more than one environment. Each combination of elements should be checked for compatibility of methods, media andenvironment. Ideally two or three strategies appropriate to the POs will be proposed so that the selection/approval decision will be well founded.

57. Compare to learner characteristics. Proposed strategies should bereviewed in terms of the characteristics of the target population todetermine whether any one strategy is more desirable from thisperspective. This review may also reveal mismatches that can be rectified by:

a. modifying the instructional strategy to accommodate learner characteristics; or

b. modifying the learner characteristics to accommodate the strategy, for example by providing training to upgrade learning skills, or by establishing pre-requisites.

58. Some examples of the effect of learner characteristics on the choice ofinstructional strategies follow:

a. when learners have varied levels of subject matter competence, self-paced learning may be preferable to group-paced instruction;

b. computer skills training should be considered if CBT is to be used withlearners who have no ability in this area;

c. instructor-led approaches are generally preferable to technology-basedtraining when the target population is small; and

d. if the target group is geographically dispersed, distributed learningshould be considered as a means of eliminating travel costs.

59. Compare to instructor ability. The abilities of instructional staff may alsoaffect the identification of strategies. If instructors are not comfortable orfamiliar with a particular approach, it is not likely to be effective. As withlearner characteristics, a mismatch in this area may be corrected bymodifying the strategy or by training the trainers.

60. Before costing selected strategies, the design team must consider how the instructional materials will be produced. Development options are discussed in the following sub-paragraphs:

PreliminaryIdentification ofStrategies

Development Options


P A R T 6

19

a. In-house development. In-house development requires the developmentenvironment itself (such as computers and software or video equipment) andexpertise in that environment. Advantages of this option include the build-upof expertise and complete control of the project. However, the costs of acquiringthe environment and the expertise may be high. Moreover, the expertise will beshort-term if it involves military personnel, due to posting cycles. This optionshould only be taken when there is an established internal capability andresources or there is a clear business case for establishing the capability;

b. Contractor development. Contracting requires expertise in project definition,project planning, and the contracting process. This option has the advantageof well-defined costs (assuming a well-defined requirement) and allows riskto be shared with the contractor. There is more control over the time factorand fewer personnel resources required; however, there is less control overthe project and long lead times may be required. Contractor development may be preferable when there is little or no in-house expertise, no infrastructure, or limited personnel;

c. Combination of contractor and in-house development. Examples of thisoption are: procuring a simulator from a contractor while producing theinstructional materials in-house; or procuring CBT from a contractor whiledeveloping pre-course reading materials in-house. Combining in-house and contractor development makes efficient use of resources; however, it requires comprehensive planning, careful coordination, and projectmanagement. Risks are high unless requirements and responsibilities are clearly defined. This option is recommended when developmentalcomponents can be clearly delineated and assigned; and

d. Avoiding development by purchase of instruction. Purchasing off-the-shelfproducts can be an attractive option when the instructional requirement has a civilian or industrial equivalent or those equivalents can be customizedeasily. Examples are commercially produced CBT packages for managementtraining, and computer training offered by local suppliers. Ready-madeinstructional programmes usually mean lower start-up costs. On the otherhand, off-the-shelf products may not be entirely appropriate in content or for the target learners. Such products may be difficult to modify for technical or legal reasons, and may lack technical support. Although buying off-the-shelfis a good way to avoid re-inventing the wheel, a thorough evaluation is needed to ascertain whether the product meets the requirement.

61. Purpose. The purpose of costing at this stage of the Design phase is to make preliminary estimates. These will indicate whether the recommendedstrategies are efficient and will permit a rough assessment of the relativeefficiency of each. This information is used to directly support the decision toselect and approve a particular strategy or as the basis for a detailed cost-benefit analysis, if necessary. The main question to be asked regarding costsis: What will the cost per student be for a particular instructional strategy fora given number of students over the expected life of the course?

Note: The Individual Training Management Information System (ITMIS) providesa module called Design Instructional Strategy which can be used for some costingof IT&E delivery.

Cost InstructionalStrategies


P A R T 6

20

62. Costing factors. The costs of an instructional strategy are made up ofdevelopment and operating costs. Development costs are those incurred inthe creation and start-up of a course or new version of a course. They donot vary with throughput. Operating costs are those that are incurred eachtime the course is conducted. These vary with throughput. Media are aparticularly important factor in the cost of an instructional program andvary widely in their ratio of development to operating costs. Figure 2shows this effect on overall costing. Note how the high development costof CBT affects the cost per student by sharply increasing the costs at lowthroughputs. Compare this to the video conference where the initialdevelopment cost is not as high, but the operating costs are higher.

63. Costing techniques. Generating a cost estimate involves determiningexpense categories, and generating estimates for each category. Tables oftypical development and operating costs are given in Annexes F and G.Costs may be estimated by:

a. using historical data from past projects to identify the cost categories;

b. using the actual costs of previous or similar projects to estimate costs; or

c. constructing estimates for each category based upon researching sourcesand potential costs.

Figure 2: Illustration of Comparative Costs of Media

CO

ST

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CO

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cbt

video conference

print


P A R T 7

21

Purpose

Selection Process

Review forEffectiveness

SS E L E C T / A P P R O V EI N S T R U C T I O N A L S T R A T E G Y

64. The selection of an instructional strategy must be based on a clearlyarticulated rationale so that the decision is defensible in terms of both the performance requirement and resource efficiency. If a range of viable options have been developed in the previous step (identify/cost instructional strategies), the selection process should lead to theimplementation of the optimum approach. Normally, the option that meets the need at the lowest cost will be selected. However, associatedadvantages or disadvantages may outweigh cost considerations in some cases.

65. In order to reach a decision, the following steps are recommended:

a. review the proposed strategies for their potential effectiveness in meetingthe performance requirement;

b. review costing for affordability and comparative efficiency;

c. consider risks and organizational impact; and

d. develop a business case if resource implications are substantial.

66. A checklist for reviewing proposed instructional strategies is given in Annex H.The "ACTIONS" checklist can be used to weigh options on the basis of access,costs, teaching, interactivity, organizational issues, novelty and speed.

Note: The greater the range and complexity of the issues, the stronger is therecommendation that a Training Development Officer be consulted beforeselecting and approving an instructional strategy.

67. The proposed strategies are first reviewed to confirm their potential forenabling the target learners to achieve the performance objectives (POs). Key considerations are the suitability of the approach to:

a. the types of learning outcomes;

b. performance testing; and

c. learner characteristics.

68. Affordability. It is possible that after all the work to identify strategies, theapproaches identified may simply be too expensive for the available budget.In this case it may be necessary to turn to alternatives that will maintain anacceptable level of effectiveness, but remain within budget. Or it may benecessary to prepare a business case to substantiate the allocation of a larger budget if that option is feasible.

Review Costs


P A R T 7

22

69. Comparative efficiency. Given a choice of affordable strategies, it should bepossible to identify the most efficient option: the strategy which will meet therequirement at the lowest cost, when both development and operating costsare considered. If there is no clear best choice, a more detailed cost-benefitanalysis, known as a business case, is needed.

70. Although decisions must be based primarily on effectiveness and efficiency, it is also important to take possible "side effects" into account by reviewingoptions from the broader perspective of the organization as a whole. This isparticularly important when a new or unfamiliar strategy is proposed. Inaddition to providing a feasibility assessment, this review may reveal issuesthat will need to be addressed during implementation or benefits thatincrease the desirability of the option. These findings should be included in the business case, should the need for one arise.

71. An impact analysis is an effort to predict the positive and negativeconsequences of adopting an instructional strategy on all units which may be affected, such as schools, units employing graduates and Commandheadquarters. Areas which should be considered in terms of potential impact include:

a. personnel — because of possible changes to employment and postings, or effects on morale;

b. organizational structure — in case of potential changes to roles andmission, infrastructure or equipment;

c. organizational culture — if changes to policies and practices are likely; and

d. related programmes — if there is overlap or changes to standardinstructional practices.

72. A business case is a detailed cost-benefit analysis, presented in written form,that establishes a clear rationale for a particular course of action. A model forpreparing one is provided in NDHQ Instruction ADM (Per) 4/94 IndividualTraining and Professional Development Management Framework. Informationgathered during the identification and costing of instructional strategies aswell as the results of impact analysis will provide a large part of the necessarydata. A business case should be prepared to support the selection of aninstructional strategy when:

a. resource implications are substantial, for example, proposals that involvemajor acquisitions or unusually large operating costs; or

b. there is no obvious best choice among options.

Analyze OrganizationalImpact

Business Case


P A R T 8

23

Purpose

Content

SS P E C I F Y C O U R S E C O N T E N TA N D L E S S O N G U I D A N C E

73. In this step, the results of the preceding steps of the Design phase arecompiled and integrated into a coherent plan that will specify what mustbe learned, how it will be learned and how learning will be assessed. Thisplan will guide the Development, Conduct and Evaluation phases and willprobably be revised and refined as work progresses on them. In addition todocumenting the outcomes of the preceding steps of the Design phase, thisstep involves:

a. integrating the course structure and instructional strategies into lessonspecifications;

b. estimating timings; and

c. estimating resource requirements.

Note: In CF occupational training, course content and lesson guidancehave traditionally been contained in a document known as the coursetraining plan (CTP).

74. The course content/lesson guidance document should contain the following information:

a. Aim. A general statement of the intended outcome of the program with reference to the qualification standard on which it is based. Forexample, "this course trains members to perform the duties of… inaccordance with qualification standard….";

b. Target Population Description. A summary of the relevant informationobtained in the first process of the Design phase, "define learnercharacteristics" (described in Part 2 of this volume);

c. Course content and structure. This is the result of instructional analysis (described in Part 3 of this volume). A detailed plan of thesubject matter, indicating performance objectives (POs), enablingobjectives (EOs), teaching points and their interrelationships. The recommended method of displaying this information is a scalar diagram;

d. Assessment guidelines. The assessment plan and test specifications asdescribed in parts 4 and 5 of this volume;

e. Instructional strategy. An overview of the approved instructionalstrategy with a brief rationale for its selection. Strategies that wereidentified, but not selected, should also be mentioned as alternativesthat may be revisited if circumstances change. Identifying, costing andselecting an instructional strategy are discussed in parts 6 and 7 of this volume;


P A R T 8

24

f. Lesson specifications. A sample is given in Annex I. To produce alesson specification, the design team applies the instructional strategyand assessment plan to the course structure, to prepare a detailed planfor each EO that includes:

(1) the performance, conditions and standard of the EO,

(2) supporting teaching points,

(3) references,

(4) learning activities (methods, media and environment),

(5) estimated timings,

(6) assessment directions, and

(7) any remarks that further clarify the design intent;

g. Resource Requirements. A list of the facilities, personnel, equipmentand materials required to implement the approved instructional strategy,estimated from the lesson specifications; and

h. Implementation Plan. New and unfamiliar instructional strategies run a high risk of failure if implementation is not carefully managed. Animplementation plan must be developed to minimize this risk. Many of the issues that may be raised by the introduction of a new learningtechnology can be identified through impact analysis (discussed inparagraphs 70 and 71). Consultation with stakeholders should identifyany previously unknown concerns. A sound implementation plan will define:

(1) project management requirements: activities, resources, responsibilities and timings,

(2) a communications strategy to address concerns, inform users andpromote the advantages of the new system, and

(3) provision of technical and learner support to deal with technicalproblems and unforeseen learning difficulties.


A1

A N N E X A

DepartmentalReferences

DepartmentalResources

RR E F E R E N C E S A N D R E S O U R C E S

NDHQ Instruction ADM(Per) 4/94 Individual Training and Professional Development Management Framework, 31 May 1994

The policy document on IT&E at the time of publication. To be replaced by a Departmental Administrative Order and Directive (DAOD) in the near future.

BNH Expert Software, Advisor 3.0An instructional strategy decision support tool, Advisor analyses an instructional program and recommends the most effective method/media or a combination for the delivery of instruction. Available through MA IT&E staff or through NDHQ/DRET 3.

Canadian Forces Training Development Centre, CFB Borden, Analysis, Design and Evaluation Course (qualification code: AIDD)

A ten day course designed to train officers and NCMs to analyze job performance, prepare a qualificationstandard, design a training plan and evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of a training program.

Canadian Forces Training Development Centre, CFB Borden, Distance Learning Technologies for Managers Course, (qualification code: 07040)

A three day course designed to enable personnel to evaluate distance learning proposals in terms oflearning factors, media characteristics, project management issues, and learning management issues.

Matrix Support Office at NDHQ/DRETThe Matrix Support Office DRET 3-2, provides instructional development services to major and minorequipment or system acquisition projects, specifically through the review of the types of instructionalrequirements that are associated with the introduction of any new equipment, systems, or software.

The Training Development Services Program (TDSP) managed by NDHQ/DRETProviding short-term consultancies or long-term studies in support of human performance issues, the TDSP supports any organization within the CF or DND which does not have its own TrainingDevelopment Officers. (DRET 3-2)


A N N E X A

A2

Clark, Ruth C. Developing Technical Training, San Diego: Buzzards Bay Press, 1994

Provides, in a practical format, some of the more recent instructional design research and models forproducing effective technical training. The book is written primarily for technical experts chargedwith the development of effective technical training.

Dick, Walter and Lou Carey. The Systematic Design of Instruction, Glenview, Illinois: Harper Collins, 1990

A basic text on implementing a systems approach to instructional design.

Gagné, Robert M. et al. Principles of Instructional Design, Fort Worth, Texas:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1992Aimed at the specialist reader, this text describes current learning theory and links it to the processesof instructional design.

External References


B1

A N N E X B

DD E V E L O P I N G S C A L A R D I A G R A M S F O R I N S T R U C T I O N A L A N A L Y S I S

1. The following scenario illustrates the instructional analysis (IA) process.When a new surveillance vehicle was acquired a DND/contractor teamdeveloped the occupation specifications and qualification standards. Atraining plan writing board, composed of contractor, school and operationalunit members, was convened to do the IA. The subject qualification standardcontained a PO (Conduct Surveillance Operations) that was based on fivetasks in the parent specification (see scalar below), of which task CT010“Operate System Y” will be the focus for this scenario.

2. Using the PO, PO scalar and occupation specification, the board identifiedthe PO tasks, skills and knowledge. Other related skills, knowledge andattitude indicators were determined from contractor knowledge of theequipment, unit operational experience, school experience instructing similarcourses, and the new equipment manuals. The resulting enabling objectives(EOs) were constructed by:

a. extending the PO scalar by breaking down tasks into their components and sub-components that needed to be learned (see Figure A):

(1) Task CT010 was extended by adding the PO listed skills “HandleSystem Y” (CS001) and “Maintain System Y” (CS002) in that logicalsequence,

AT001Establish an Observation Post

AT004Maintain surveillance on target

CT010Operate System Y

CT009Operate System X

CT011Operate System Z

Figure A: PO 402 (Conduct Surveillance Operations)


A N N E X B

B2

(2) the unit member’s recommendation was accepted to add a skill“Deploy System Y” and its six sub-components, sequenced in alogical priority of environment, combat and detectionconsiderations,

(3) sub-components for “Handle System Y” were broken out by thecontractor member in a work sequence with “stow system”depending upon the PO listed knowledge of “Vehicle EquipmentStowage” (K008), “disassemble system” depending upon “assemblesystem,” and “terminate system” depending upon “initiate system,”

(4) both sub-components for “Maintain System Y” were broken outfrom the maintenance manual and listed in a logical sequence, and

(5) it was found that “Handle System Y “, “Maintain System Y” and “Deploy System Y” depended upon knowing the system’s“Safety precautions” (CK003), functions, characteristics (CK001),components and operation (CK002), all of which were placed under and linked to these components as common supportingknowledge; and

b. once the task breakdown was complete, grouping and sequencing thecomponents and sub-components into separate scalars (see Figure B) to support learning progress through a series of EOs:

(1) to emphasize work safety and learning first what was common to all components, safety and system knowledge were made a groupcalled “Observe System Y Safety Precautions” and made the first(EO) group for this task,

(2) to focus learning on the primary activity of system operation, thesub-components of “Handle System Y,” except troubleshooting,were kept as a group called “Operate System Y” and made thesecond (EO) group for this task,

(3) because of learning associations, troubleshooting was grouped with“Maintain System Y” sub-components, which became a sub-groupalong with similar sub-groups for systems X and Z in a group called“Maintain Surveillance Systems” and was made the third (EO)group for this task as it depended on system operation being learnedfirst, due to logical and learning associations,

(4) the similar sub-components for deploying systems X, Y and Z werecombined to make one group called “Deploy Surveillance Systems”that became the final (EO) group for this task as it depended on theothers being learned first, and

(5) keeping these groups in their sequence, they were placed among theother groups to create a learning sequence for all (EO) groups of thisPO.


B3

A N N E X B

1. During this process, it is common for components and sub-components to bere-organized completely within a group, re-assigned to other groups, set asideto form new groups, merged into fewer groups, and even re-assessed as notrequiring instruction.

2. It is normal to revise previous groups as each new group of components andsub-components are organized.

3. Once all the groups of a PO are organized into scalars, placed in sequenceand assigned performance statements, it is possible to proceed to the nextstep, Writing EOs.

Notes on the IA scalarprocess:

DisassembleSystem

StowSystem

PerformSystem

Functions

TroubleshootSystem

AssembleSystem

K008Vehicle

EquipmentStowage

NBCthreats andprotection

Optical detection andconcealment

AT001Establish an Observation Post

AT004Maintain surveillance on target

CT010Operate System Y

CT009Operate System X

Similar Scalarto CT010

Scalar of AT001skills and knowledge

Scalar of AT004skills and knowledge

Similar Scalarto CT010

CT011Operate System Z

CS002MaintainSystem

Y

CS001HandleSystem

Y

CK003Safety

Precautions

Deploy System

Y

TerminateSystem

InitiateSystem

Clean and inspectSystem

Performperiodicservicing

Environmentalthreats andprotection

Combatthreats andprotection

CK001System

functions andcharacteristics

CK002System

componentsand operations

Thermaldetection andconcealment

E-Mdetection andconcealment

Figure B: Extending a PO Scalar through Task Breakdown


A N N E X B

B4

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C1

A N N E X C

II N S T R U C T I O N A L M E T H O D S

DESCRIPTION

Learners observe the performance of thetarget task and rehearse it under controlled conditions.

Learners listen to an oral presentation andparticipate by asking questions,commenting, or responding to instructorquestions.

Learners discuss issues to share knowledge,opinions and feelings about the subjectmatter. A facilitator guides and mediates theexchange.

METHOD

Demonstration-performance

Interactive lecture

Guided discussion

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

manual procedures such as operating equipment

introducing a subject

providing an overview

reviewing teaching points

supplementing lectures

reinforcement of comprehension of concepts

Learners read prepared material, completeaccompanying exercises and receive feedback.

Learners receive instructional materials and work through them independently.Feedback is provided within theinstructional package.

A participative and challenging activity fora single participant or a group of learners.Games include conflict, rules and a meansfor determining a winner or winners.

Learners interact with a simplified anddynamic representation of a system. A simulator is an apparatus built to run the simulation.

Study assignment

Self-study

Game

Simulation

intellectual skills

remedial instruction

make-up exercises for late arrivals

background material

recalling facts

review and practice

distance learning

practicing skills associated with asocial system or human interaction

realistic practice with a complexsystem — physical or social


A N N E X C

C2

DESCRIPTION

A type of simulation in which learners respond to avariety of memos, directives, messages that re-create ajob-specific scenario. Interruptions, emergencies andrandom events are usually factored into the exercise.

Learners play defined roles in a scenario designed to reflect the conditions of the target performance. An observer provides feedback.

METHOD

In-basket exercise

Role play

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

decision making

prioritizing

skills associated with a social system or human interaction

language training

attitudinal objectives

attitudinal objectives

interpersonal skills

practicing the application ofconcepts and principles

Learners acquire new behaviours by observing live orvideo models and then rehearsing the behaviours.

Learners respond to the description of a scenariorelated to the target performance, examining the factsand incidents of the case, to critically analyse themand develop solutions.

Instructor works directly with an individual to ensurethe successful completion of learning activities.

remedial instruction

highly complex skills

reinforcement of learning

provide variety

understanding concepts

recall of facts

Course members observe actual performance of tasksthat were learned in class.

Structured materials are provided to learners whothen teach their peers using the materials

Learners receive objectives and guidelines from thetraining group and are released to the job. Jobsupervisors monitor their progress and ensure skilledworkers are available to provide guidance.

physical and intellectual skills (when other forms ofinstruction are impractical)

Behaviour modelling

Case study

Tutorial

Field trip

Peer learning

On jobtraining (OJT)


D1

A N N E X D

Cognitive Domain:

Psychomotor Domain:

II N S T R U C T I O N A L T A X O N O M I E S

An instructional taxonomy helps identify the appropriate levels of skills,knowledge and attitudes needed by an EO, its lessons and tests. Thetaxonomies for the cognitive and affective domains are hierarchical, that is, each level includes the ones preceding it.

Knowledge and thinking skills (based on Bloom’s taxonomy)

1. Knowledge: recall information.

2. Comprehension: interpret information and generalize it.

3. Application: use information or a generalization in new or different situations.

4. Analysis: breakdown related information or a generalization into its logical parts.

5. Synthesis: relate information or generalizations in new ways and use it in common or new situations.

6. Evaluation: assess information or a generalization based upon specific criteria.

Physical skills (based on Simpson’s taxonomy)

1. Perception: use senses to obtain cues that guide performance.

2. Set: show readiness to perform a particular action.

3. Guided response: perform under supervision or following a model (usually a learning stage for a complex skill).

4. Mechanism: perform with confidence and proficiency (learned responses have become habitual).

5. Complex Overt Response: perform complex actions skilfully in situations that tolerate little or no error.

6. Adaptation: alter actions to suit new, different or unusually complex situations.

7. Origination: create new ways to perform.


A N N E X D

D2

Interests, attitudes and values (based on Krathwohl’s taxonomy)

1. Receive: attend to activity or information.

2. Respond: react or participate in some way.

3. Value: accept, commit, or attach to a particular concept, value or perception, indicated by behavior.

4. Organization: compare, relate and create values, resolving conflicts amongthem, and build an internally consistent value system, indicated bybehavior.

5. Characterization: have a value system that is consistent, predictable andinfluences behavior.

Bloom, Benjamin S. and David R. Krathwohl. Taxonomy of EducationalObjectives, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain, New York: David McKay, 1972

Krathwohl, David R., et al. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: TheClassification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain, New York:David McKay, 1972

Simpson, J.S. The Classification of Educational Objectives, Psychomotor Domain,Office of Education Project No. 5-85-104, Urbana IL, University of Illinois, 1966

Sources

Affective Domain:


E1

A N N E X E

II N S T R U C T I O N A L M E D I A

DESCRIPTION

Learning activities areconducted in person, usually in a classroom, lab or other suitablyequipped facility.

Refers to textual and/orgraphical materialdesigned to both transmitcontent and initiatelearning activities

MEDIUM

Instructor

Print

BENEFITS

• effective when complexinteraction betweeninstructors and learnersis critical

• effective for highly variable, complexcontent, and forfeedback that requiresan expert

• accommodates role modelling

• accommodates learner-to-learner interaction

• accommodates lecture,simulations and roleplays

• competent instructorcan overcomeinstructional andlogistics errors

• accommodates a widevariety of teaching aids

• may be transmitted onpaper or electronically

• excellent for self-pacedmanuals anddocumentation

• excellent for graphics

• portable

• relatively inexpensive to produce

• can be widely distributed

CONCERNS

• tends to ignore needs ofslower or faster learners

• risk of reliance onlecture to the detrimentof more active learning

• possible lack ofconsistency amonginstructors

• uneven instructor delivery can result inuneven performanceresults across learnerpopulations

• requires good readingskills

• cannot analyze complexlearner responses

• cannot provide precise,individualized feedback

• requires well-motivatedlearners


A N N E X E

E2

DESCRIPTION

Provides sound and moving images in a linearformat. Usually moreeffective when short andproduced at commercialquality levels.

Instruction deliveredthrough a computerprogram, includes textand graphics, and may run on PCs used in office environments.

MEDIUM

Videotape

ComputerBased Training(CBT)

BENEFITS

• can be motivational forshort periods of time

• effective for overviewsand explaining complexmessages

• can model complexinterpersonalbehaviours or visuallycomplex subject mattersuch as equipmentrepair

• allows drill and practice

• can provide tutorial

• can present some simulations (model of an object, process or procedure)

• allows practice of high level skills such as problem solving

• consistent delivery

• self paced, any time

• may reduce trainingtime over conventionalclassroom instruction

• can be distributed

CONCERNS

• rarely a stand-alonemedium

• cannot analyse learnerresponses

• does not allow quickaccess to specificcontent items

• development cost forcommercial qualityvideo may be high

• not easy to update, best for stable content

• development can becomplex and costly

• cannot analyze or judgecomplex humaninteractions

• requires reading skills

• requires computers

• requires computer skills

• high life cyclemaintenance costs

• not easy to update, best for stable content

• requires technical support

• requires learner support


E3

A N N E X E

DESCRIPTION

Computer mediatedtraining that also includesaudio, high levelanimation, and video.

MEDIUM

Multimedia

BENEFITS

• same advantages as for CBT

• effective for overviewsand explaining complexsubject matter

• can model complexinterpersonal behavioursor visually complexsubject matter(equipment repair)

• accommodates learnerswith lower reading skills

• offers a greater variety of learning activities and resources than CBT

• same advantages as CBT

• timely and transparentupdates

• wide distribution

• no-cost distribution ifexisting infrastructure is used

• relatively inexpensiveand easy to use

• can permit real timeinstructor/learner and learner/learnerinteraction

• good supplement toother forms ofinstruction

• useful when discussionand consensus buildingis part of theinstructional strategy

CONCERNS

• same as for CBT

• requires high end PCswith appropriatecapabilities andperipherals such as CD-ROM player

• greatly increaseddevelopment time and costs

• high fixed costs

• cannot analyse or judge complex humaninteractions

A variation on CBT inwhich instructionalmaterials are accessedthrough the Internet or anintranet.

Web BasedTraining(WBT)

Also known asteleconferencing, refers to digital voice-basedcommunications in whichparticipants are linked bytelephone.

AudioConference

• delivery speed can be slow

• may conflict with operational use ofintranet

• access constrained byaccess to Internet/intranet

• instructor and learnerscannot see each other

• no visuals (unless pre-packaged anddistributed)

• scheduling over timezones may be difficult


A N N E X E

E4

DESCRIPTION

Refers to the transmissionof video and voice bytelevision signal. Can beone-way or two-way.

A teleconferencing technology that supportscomputer-based textualcommunications,including e-mail; maybe either synchronous or asynchronous, widelyused in education.

MEDIUM

VideoConference

ComputerConference

BENEFITS

• two-way mode comes as close as possible to face-to-face in a distance setting.

• realistic presentations of people objects andprocesses

• can be used forconsulting and coaching

• combines the disciplineof writing with theflexibility ofconversation

• powerful tool for groupcommunication and co-operative learningacross distance

• maintains writtenrecords

• can accommodate inputfrom “visiting” expertsthat would be otherwiseimpossible

• suited to instruction that contains a lot of illustrations ornotational information

• maintains written record

CONCERNS

• risk of learners avoidingparticipation

• interaction can berestricted by technicalaspects

• infrastructure, hardwareand technical supportrequirements result inhigh start-up costs

• two way limited to asmall number of sitesand participants

• requires computer andInternet access

• requires common software

• requires facilitation andmanagement by experts

A teleconferencing technology that supportstwo-way transmission of graphics and audio inreal time, using personalcomputers.

Audio graphics • instructor and learnerscannot see each other

• infrastructure, hardwareand technical supportrequirements result inhigh start-up costs

• scheduling over timezones may be difficult


E5

A N N E X E

DESCRIPTION

A special purpose devicewhich allows the learnerto interact in a realisticmanner with a dynamicrepresentation of a system.

Refers to the use of actual equipment such as weapons, vehicles and combat systems fortraining.

MEDIUM

Simulator

RealEquipment

Three dimensionaldevices that represent real equipment.

Models/mockups/ cut aways

BENEFITS

• provides realistic practice.

• avoids risks to learner,environment, equipment,public

• provides physical andsystem feedback

• can capture informationfor instructional feedback

• can have jump, freeze,record, replay capabilities

• can provide high physicalfidelity and sufficientsystem fidelity forinstruction at a fraction ofthe cost of real equipment

• full physical fidelity

• full system fidelity

• presents a threedimensional view

• can provide hands onpractice

CONCERNS

• not a stand-alone medium: requiresinstructional overlay

• usually requires expertfeedback from instructor

• requires hardware, software and simulationmaintenance

• may require specializedfacilities

• not a stand-alone medium: requires expertinstructors for feedback

• high maintenance costs

• difficult to incorporateinstructional featureswithout modification

• high fixed cost in most cases

• only capable of low throughputs

• difficult to schedule ifweather and availabilityare issues

• not a stand-alonemedium: requirespresentation andexplanation byinstructor

• requires interaction andfeedback by instructor

• static representation


A N N E X F

F1

DD E V E L O P M E N T C O S T F A C T O R S

DEVELOPMENT COSTS FOR:

infrastructure

hardware and software

maintenance of hardware and software

development or productionof learning material

maintenance of learning material

Validation

MAY INCLUDE:

• new facilities, such as buildings, upgrades or renovations

• project management

• upgrades to communications systems

• student computers and applications

• development systems and software

• maintenance systems and software

• personnel costs

• rentals/leases

• maintenance contracts

• training of technicians

• personnel costs

• contractor costs

• purchase costs

• licensing

• project management

• travel

• training of developers

• upgrades, replacement, updating

Note: Maintenance costs of material varies widely. For CBT/multimedia maintenance can range up to 20% of development cost per year.

• collection and analysis of data

• production of reports


G1

A N N E X G

OO P E R A T I N G C O S T F A C T O R S

OPERATING COSTS FOR:

reproduction of materials

instructors

facilitators, counsellors

technical support to students

administration

learner facilities/ overhead

licensing

tuition fees

rentals

travel and accommodation

student time

communications

MAY INCLUDE:

• print materials, such as instructor guides, student handbooks,handouts, overheads

• other materials such as CD-ROMs and videos

• salaries and overhead for contact and preparation time

• salaries and overhead of instructors during their training

• tuition/fees for instructor training

• same costs as for instructors

• on site or remote technical support

• student management

• administration of instructional staff

• overhead for classrooms, learning centres, base facilities

Note: These may be development or operating costs, depending on the arrangements

• per student licensing/royalties

• per student fees for tuition

• equipment

• facilities

• student travel and accommodation

• instructor travel and accommodation

• associated administrative travel and accommodation

• time on course

• travel to course

• telephone, mailings, line rentals, etc.


A N N E X H

H1

AA C T I O N S C H E C K L I S T

CATEGORY/ SOMECRITERIA YES WHAT NO

Access Are the media accessible for users?

Is the strategy suitable for the target group?

Will all learners have access to the instruction when they require it?

Costs Are the per-student costs acceptable?

Are operating costs acceptable?

Is the strategy affordable?

Are there less expensive options?

Teaching and Does the strategy provide appropriate methods Learning for learning?

Does the strategy enable the conduct of performance checks?

Interactivity and Does the strategy provide adequate interaction User Friendliness and feedback?

Are the media easy to use?

Does the strategy encourage active learning?

Is the strategy likely to engage the learners?

Organizational Are the resources available to develop Issues high quality instructional materials?

Are there resources to maintain the strategy?

Will this strategy cause changes in the organization?

Does the strategy meet organizational needs?

Does the strategy meet environmental policy needs?

Novelty Does the strategy involve a new technology?

Will the new technology be sustainable?

Are there financial risks?

Will the new technology be available when required?

Speed Can content be created and updated quickly and easily if needed?

Are the production lead times satisfactory?

Is there enough lead time to develop the instruction?


I1

A N N E X I

S1. PERFORMANCE. Service Turret Optical Sights

2. CONDITIONS. Given:

a. L2 surveillance vehicle, per checklist L002;

b. 25mm boresight and boresight screen;

c. 10 rounds 25mm TPDS;

d. 20 rounds 4B1T 7.62mm linked;

e. cleaning materials, per checklist L005;

f. Turret Operating Instructions, B-5; and

g. 1000mm visibility in daylight conditions.

3. STANDARD. The operator shall:

a. inspect desiccators, controls and lenses for all turret sights IAW Part 5, B-5;

b. clean lenses IAW Part 6, B-5, so that the optics are free of visible debris and moisture;

c. boresight the coax MG and 25mm gun IAW Parts 7 and 8, B-5;

d. zero the coax MG and 25mm gun IAW Parts 9 and 10, B-5;

e. converge all turret sights and the Laser Range Finder on the 25mm point of aim at 1000m IAW Part 12, B-5;

f. observe safety precautions for handling turret sights and weapons systems IAW Parts 2 and 4, B-5 and for performing servicing tasks IAW Parts 11 and 13, B-5.

S A M P L E L E S S O N S P E C I F I C A T I O N


A N N E X I

I2

DESCRIPTION METHOD TIME REFERENCE

TP1 Observe safety precautions Demo 25 Parts 2, 4, 11 & 13, B-5

TP2 Boresight: Demo 25 Parts 7 & 8, a. 25mm gun; and Perform 25 B-5b. coax MG.

TP3 Zero: Demo 50 Parts 9 &10, a. 25mm gun; and Perform 100 B-5b. coax MG.

TP4 Converge: Demo 25 Part 12, B-5a. thermal sights; Perform 225b. day sight;c. laser range finder; andd. I2 sight.

TP5 Converge: Demo 25 Parts 5 & 6, a. thermal sights; B-5b. day sight;c. laser range finder; andd. I2 sight.

4. TEACHING POINTS.

5. TIME REQUIRED.a. lecture/demonstration 150b. Performance 350c. Test 200

Total 700 min or 14 X 50 min periods

6. RESOURCES REQUIRED.a. L2 surveillance vehicle, per checklist L002;b. 25mm boresight and boresight screen;c. 10 rounds 25mm TPDS per student;d. 20 rounds 4B1T 7.62mm linked per student;e. cleaning material per checklist L005; andf. Turret Operating Instructions, B-5.

7. TEST DETAILS. TPs 1 to 4 constitute EC 403.02, conducted on the firing point in preparation for live firing of the 25mm gun(EO 401.06).

8. REMARKS. It is critical to operations that all sights be kept serviced and accurate.It is critical to the safety of personnel and equipment that all precautions and procedures be followed when zeroing weapons systems.

CFITES Vol 4 e

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Transcript of CFITES Vol 4 e