Certification Study Group Groups and Teams. Groups in Organizations Definitions Group Two or more...

Certification Study Group

Groups and Teams

Groups in OrganizationsDefinitions

Group Two or more people interacting to accomplish a

common purpose or goal

Groups & Teams in OrganizationsTypes of Groups

Functional group A group created by the organization to

accomplish a number of organizational purposes with an indefinite time horizon

Informal or interest group Created by its members for purposes that may

or may not be relevant to the organization Task group

A group created by the organization to accomplish a relatively narrow range of purposes within a stated time horizon

Groups and Teams

in Organizatio

ns

Cross-functional team(form of task group)

Functional group

Informal group

President

Vicepresident

Vicepresident

Vicepresident

Executivecommittee

Legaladvisor

Projectmanager

Projectmanager

Projectmanager

Types of Groups in Organizations

Teams in OrganizationsDefinitions

Team A group of workers who function as a unit, often with

little or no supervision, to carry out work-related activities

Organizations create teams to give more responsibility to workers, to empower workers, to allow the organization to capitalize on the workers’ knowledge and motivation, and to shed bureaucracy and promote flexibility

Sometimes are called self-managed teams, cross-functional teams, or high performance teams.

Groups & Teams in OrganizationsTypes of Teams Problem solving team

Comprises knowledge workers who gather to solve a specific problem, then disband

Management team Consists mainly of managers from various

functions, who coordinate work among other teams

Groups & Teams in OrganizationsTypes of Teams…continued

Work team Responsible for the daily work of the

organization and, when empowered, are self-managed teams

Virtual team Members interact via computer

Quality circle Consists of workers and supervisors,

who meet to discuss workplace problems

Groups & Teams in OrganizationsWhy People Join

Interpersonal attraction People are attracted to one another

Group activities Activities of the group appeal to them

Group goals Group’s goals motivate them

Need satisfaction Satisfies an individual’s need for affiliation

Instrumental benefits Membership provides other benefits

Stages of Group

Development

Slowevolution

to nextstage

Slowevolution

to nextstage

Burst ofactivityto nextstage

FormingMembers get acquainted test interpersonal behaviors

StormingMembers develop groupstructure and patterns ofinteraction

PerformingMembers enact roles, directeffort toward goal attainmentand performance

NormingMembers share acceptanceof roles, sense of unity

Stages of Group Development

Forming includes: Attempting to define the task and how the

task will be accomplished Abstract discussions of task-related

concepts/issues, frustrates some members Storming includes:

Defensiveness, competition, and factions Arguing among members, even when they

agree

Stages of Group Development Norming includes:

Establishing and maintaining team ground rules

More friendliness and confiding in one another

Performing includes: Ability of the group/team to prevent

or work through problems Close attachment to the team

Stages of Group Development

Source: Van Fleet, David D., and Tim Peterson, Contemporary Management, Third Edition. Copyright © 1994 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.

Characteristics of Teams Role

The part an individual plays in helping the group reach its goals.

Task-specialist—role concentrating on getting the group’s tasks accomplished.

Socioemotional role—providing social and emotional support to others on the team.

Characteristics of Teams

Role Structures The set of defined roles and

interrelationships among those roles that the group or team members define and accept.

A result of role episodes in which the expected role is translated and defined into the enacted role.

Role ambiguity—occurs when the sent role is unclear.

Characteristics of Teams The Development of a Role

The first two stages of role development are group processes as the group members let the individuals know what is expected of them.

The other two parts are individual processes as the new group members perceive and enact their roles.

Expectedrole

Sentrole

Perceivedrole

Enactedrole

Characteristics of Teams Role Structures

Role conflict—occurs when the messages and cues comprising the sent role are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive.

Interrole conflict is the result of a conflict between roles. Intrarole conflict is caused by conflicting demands from

different sources. Intrasender conflict arises when a single source sends

contradictory messages. Person-role conflict is the discrepancy between role

requirements and an individual’s values, attitudes, and needs.


Role Structures Role ambiguity – When

the sent role is unclear Role overload—

occurs when role expectations exceed an individual’s capacities.

Characteristics of Teams Implications

Avoid role ambiguity, conflict, and overload by:

Having clear and reasonable expectations of employees.

Sending clear and straightforward role cues. Taking into account the employee’s other

roles and personal value system. Recognizing an individual’s

capabilities and limits.


Behavioral Norms Norms are standards of behavior that a group

accepts and expects of its members. Norms define the boundaries between

acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Norm generalization—the norms of one

group cannot always be generalized to another group.

Norm variation—norms and their application vary within a group or team.

Characteristics of Teams Behavioral Norms

Norm conformity — individuals conform as response to:

Group or team pressure to conform to group behavior.

An initial (ambiguous) stimulus prompting group behavior.

Individual traits that reflect their propensity to conform.

The influence of situational factors (e.g., group size and unanimity).

Characteristics of Teams Behavioral Norms

Individual responses to norm conformity:

Adopt the norms of the group. Try to obey the “spirit” of the norms

while retaining individuality. Socialization

Norm conformity that occurs when a person makes the transition from being an outsider to being an insider in the organization.

Group Cohesiveness

Factors increasing cohesiveness Intergroup competition Personal attraction Favorable evaluation Agreement on goals Interaction

Factors reducing cohesiveness Group size Disagreement on goals Intragroup competition Domination Unpleasant experiences

Cohesiveness – The extent to which members are loyal and committed to the group; the degree of mutual attractiveness within the group.

Characteristics of Teams Consequences of Cohesiveness

The interaction between cohesiveness and performance norms

The best situation is high cohesiveness

combined with high performance

Cohesiveness

Lowperformance

Lowestperformance

High

Low

Low High

Highperformance

Moderateperformance

Per

form

ance

no

rms

Characteristics of Teams Formal and Informal Leadership

Informal leader A person who engages in leadership activities

but whose right to do so has not been formally recognized by the organization or group.

An informal leader, ideally, may also be the formal leader for the group or he may supplement the formal leader in fulfilling leadership roles.

Informal leaders draw on referent or expert power to establish themselves as leaders.

Characteristics of Teams (cont’d)

Formal and Informal Leadership Formal leader

A person who has been elected or designated to engage in leadership activities by the group members

A person who has been formally appointed or recognized by the organization as the leader for the group.

Group and Team Decision Making in Organizations The most common method of

group and team decision making are: Interacting groups Delphi groups Nominal groups.

Group Decision Making

Advantages More information & knowledge are available

More alternatives are likely to be generated

More acceptance of the final decision is likely

Enhanced communication of the decision may result

Better decisions

DisadvantagesThe process takes longer, so it is more costly

Compromise decisions due to indecisiveness may emerge

One person may dominate the group

Groupthink may occur

Groupthink

Source: Gregory Moorhead, Group & Organizations Studies (Vol. 7, No. 4), pp. 429-444. Copyright © 1982 by Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.

A situation that occurs when a group or team’s desire for consensus and cohesiveness overwhelms its desire to reach the best possible decision.

Managing Group and Team Decision-Making Processes

Be aware of the pros and cons of having a group or team make a decision.

Set deadlines for when decisions must be made.

Avoid problems with dominance by managing group membership.

Hold a follow-up meeting to recheck the decision.

Have each group member individually and critically evaluate all alternatives.

As a manager, do not make your position known too early.

Appoint a group member to be a “devil’s advocate.”

Promoting the Effectiveness of Group and Team Decision Making:

Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict The Nature of Conflict

Conflict A disagreement between two or more

individuals, groups, or organizations.

Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict

The Nature of Conflict There is an optimal level of conflict in an

organization: Too little conflict and the organization becomes complacent

and apathetic, and lacks innovation and underperforms. Too much conflict creates a dysfunctional organization

where hostility and non-cooperation dominate, and the organization suffers from low performance.

A moderate level of conflict in an organization fosters motivation, creativity, innovation, and initiative and can raise performance.


The Nature of Organizational Conflict

Conflict

High

Low

Low High

Optimal level of conflict

Pe

rfo

rma

nc

e


Interpersonal Conflict Personality clash Differing beliefs or

perceptions Competitiveness

Intergroup Conflict Interdependence Different goals Competition for scarce

resources

Conflict Between Organization and the Environment Conflict with

competition Conflict with

consumer groups Conflict with

employees

Causes of Conflict

Causes and Consequences of Conflict


Managing Conflict in Organizations Methods for Managing Conflict

Stimulating conflict Increase competition among individuals and teams Hire outsiders to shape things up Change established procedures

Controlling conflict Expand resource base Enhance coordination of interdependence Set supraordinate goals Match personalities and work habits of employee

Resolving and eliminating conflict Avoid conflict Convince conflicting parties to compromise Bring conflicting parties together to confront and negotiate conflict

Certification Study Group

Communication

Communication Communication

The process of transmitting information from one person to another

Effective communication The process of sending a message so

that the message received is as close in meaning as possible to the message intended

Managing the Flow of Information in Organizations

Source: Barney, Jay B. and Ricky W. Griffin, The Management of Organizations. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.

Information and the ManagerKey Concepts...

Data Raw figures and facts reflecting an aspect

of reality Information

Data presented in a form that has meaning Information Technology (IT)

The resources used by the organization to manage information to achieve its mission

Characteristics of Information

Accurate A valid and reliable reflection of reality

Timely Information delivered in time for managerial

action Complete

Information that tells a complete story, rather than being incomplete or distorted

Relevant Meets the needs and circumstances of the

individual manager

The Communication Process

Start Noise

Noise

2Encoding

Sender Receiver

Receiver Sender

3Transmissionthrough channels

7Transmissionthrough channels

Noise

1Meaning

8Decoding

4Decoding

5Meaning

6Encoding

The numbers indicate the sequence in which steps take place.

The Communication Process

Steps in the Communication Process Deciding to transmit a fact, idea, opinion, or other

information to the receiver. Encoding the meaning into a form appropriate to the

situation. Transmitting through the appropriate

channel or medium. Decoding the message back into

a form that has meaning to the receiver.

“Noise” is anything disrupting the communication process.

The Communication Process Feedback

The receiver becomes the sender and the sender becomes the receiver. This is required to verify meaning and complete the effective communication process

Interpersonal Communication

Oral Communication Face-to-face conversations, group discussions,

telephone calls, and other situations in which the spoken word is used to express meaning.

Advantages of oral communication Promotes prompt feedback and interchange in the

form of verbal questions and responses.

Is easy to use and can be done with little preparation.


Oral Communication Disadvantages of oral communication

Suffers from problems with inaccuracy in meaning and details.

Leaves no time for thought and consideration and no permanent record of what was said.


Written Communication Memos, letters, reports, notes, email, and other

methods in which the written word is used to transmit meaning.

Advantages of written communication Is accurate and leaves a permanent record

of the exchange. Leaves for thought and consideration,

can be referenced. Is easy to use and can be done with

little preparation.


Written Communication Disadvantages of written communication

Inhibits feedback and interchange due to burden of the process of preparing a physical document.

Considerable delay can occur in clarifying message meanings.

Forms of Communication in Organizations

Choosing the Right Form The situation determines the most

appropriate medium Oral communication and email is preferred for

personal, nonroutine, or high priority communications.

Formal written communication (e.g., memos, letters, reports, and notes) are used for messages that are impersonal, routine, and lower priority.

Forms of Communication in Organizations

Communication in Networks and Teams Communication network—the pattern through

which the members of a group or team communicate.

Research suggests: When the group’s task is simple and routine, centralized

networks perform with the greatest efficiency and accuracy.

When the group’s task is complex and nonroutine, decentralized networks with open communications that foster interaction and exchange of relevant information tend to be most effective.

Forms of Communicationin Organizations

Types of Communication Networks

2

1

5

3

4

Wheel3

4 5

1

2

Y

3 24 521 2

Chain

2

1 3

45

All channel

2

1 3

45

Circle

Communication Networks Wheel – all communication flows

through one central person (i.e., the leader).

The Chain – offers a more even flow of information among members (although the two people on each end interact with only one other person.

The Y – slightly less centralized – two people are close to the center.

Communication Networks The Circle – the chain closed in The All Channel network – The

most decentralized allows a free flow of information among all group members. Everyone participates equally.

Organizational Communication Vertical Communication

Communication that flows up and down the organization, usually along formal reporting lines.

Takes place between managers and subordinates and may involve several levels of the organization.

Upward communication Consists of messages from subordinates to superiors

and is more subject to distortion. Downward communication

Occurs when information flows down the hierarchy from superiors to subordinates.

Organizational Communication Horizontal Communication

Communication that flows laterally within the organization; involves persons at the same level of the organization.

Facilitates coordination among independent units.

Useful in joint problem solving. Plays a major role in communications among

members of work teams drawn from different departments.

Vertical and Horizontal Communication


Forms of Communicationin Organizations

Formal Communication in Organizations Follows the official reporting relationships and/or prescribed

channels.

Vertical communication

Horizontal communication

Electronic Communication Information Technology (IT)

The resources used by the organization to manage information that it needs to carry out its mission.

Electronic Communication Formal information systems

Transaction-processing systems Management information systems (MIS) Decision support systems (DSS) Executive information systems (EIS) Intranets Expert systems

Personal electronic technology

Formal Information Systems Transaction processing system

System designed to handle routine and recurring transactions

Management information system (MIS) System that gathers more

comprehensive data, organizes it in a form of value to managers

Formal Information Systems Decision support system (DSS)

System that automatically searches for, manipulates, and summarizes information needed by managers for specific decisions

Executive Information Systems (EIS) A quick-reference, easy-access application of

information systems specially designed for instant access by upper-level managers.

Formal Information Systems Intranets

Firewall-protected private networks for internal company use by employees.

Expert Systems Information systems designed to

imitate the thought process of human experts.

Electronic Communication Personal Electronic Technology

Technological advances (e.g., fax machines, cellular telephones, copiers, and personal computers) have created opportunities for quickly disseminating and contacting others in the organization.

Corporate intranets and the Internet have made possible teleconferences and the rapid retrieval of information from all corners of the globe.

Electronic Communication Personal Electronic Technology

Telecommuting allows people to work at home and transmit their work to the company by means of a telephone and a modem.

Disadvantages are the lack of face-to-face contact, strong personal relationships, falling behind professionally, and losing out in organizational politics.

Electronic Communication

Problems: Individuals fall behind in their professional

field Persons can be victimized by

organizational policies…cannot protect themselves

Telecommuters miss out on organizational grapevine

Difficult for organization to build strong culture without face-to-face interaction

Informal Communication in Organizations Informal Communications

May or may not follow official reporting relationships and/or prescribed organizational channels and may have nothing to do with official organizational business.

Common forms of informal communications are the grapevine, management by wandering around, and nonverbal communication.

Informal Communication in Organizations

Informal communication

Formal communication

Informal Communication

Informal Communication is on the rise in organizations because: Increase in merger, acquisition, and

takeover activity Facilities being spread from

downtown areas to suburbs, which results in employees talking more to each other


Grapevine – an informal communication network that can permeate an organization. The Gossip Chain

One person tells manyThe Cluster ChainMany people tell a few

Source: Adapted from Human Behavior at Work: Organizational Behavior, Eighth Edition, by Keith Davis and John W. Newstrom. Copyright © 1989 by McGraw-Hill. Reprinted by permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies.

Informal Communication in Organizations Management by Wandering Around

Managers keep in touch with what’s going on by wandering around and talking to people on all levels in the organization


Nonverbal Communication Any communication exchange that does not use

words, or uses words to carry more meaning than the strict definition of the words themselves.

Much of the content of a message may be transmitted by facial expression alone; other message content is derived from inflection and tone of the voice. Only a small portion of the message content is due to the words in the message.

Facialexpression55%

Inflectionand tone38%

Words inthe message7%


Nonverbal Communication Kinds of nonverbal communication

practiced by managers: Images—the kinds of words people elect to use

to give emphasis and effect to what they say. Settings—boundaries, familiarity, home turf

(e.g., office location, size, and furnishings) are symbols of power and influence how people choose to communicate in organizations.


Nonverbal Communication Kinds of nonverbal communication

practiced by managers: Body language—how people of different

cultures and backgrounds physically position themselves and react to the stance and body movements of others has a strong influence on communications between individuals.

Barriers to Communication

Individual barriers Conflicting or

inconsistent cues Credibility about the

subject Reluctance to

communicate Poor listening skills Predispositions about

the subject

Organizational barriers

Semantics Status or power

differences Different perceptions Noise Overload

Barriers to Effective Communication


More and Less Effective Listening Skills

Stays active, focused

Pays attention

Is passive, laid back

More Effective Listening Less Effective Listening

Is easily distracted

Asks questions

Keeps an open mind

Asks no questions

Has preconceptions

Assimilates information Disregards information

Improving Communication Effectiveness

Individual skills Encourage two-way

communication Be aware of language

and meaning Be sensitive to

sender’s and receiver’s perspective

Develop good listening skills

Organizational skills Follow up Regulate

information flow Understand the

richness of media

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