Ceramic Sector: Embracing Manufacturing Processes, Materials & New Technology
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Transcript of Ceramic Sector: Embracing Manufacturing Processes, Materials & New Technology
Investing in our common future
Ceramic Sector:
Embracing Manufacturing Processes, Materials
and New Technology
by Bryan Thomas MA FRSA FHEA
University of Wales Trinity Saint David
Creative Industries Support Network
CISNET is led by Mayo County Council, Ireland, in partnership with WestBIC, Ireland; University of Wales Trinity Saint David, Wales; Eurocei, Spain; Technopole Quimper-Cornouaille, France and Adist, Portugal.
CISNET is supported by the European Regional Development Fund through the Atlantic Area Transnational Programme.
Investing in our common future
Creative Industries Support Network
About This Report
This report is a research output from the CISNET project. This report examines the manufacturing processes, materials and new
technologies emerging in the European ceramic sector. This report draws on the authors extensive knowledge of this field
combined with research carried out at Ceramitec 2012 trade fair held in Munich Germany in May 2012. The Ceramitec trade fair is a
renowned international exhibition showcasing ceramic technology and solutions; 2012’s event brought together 613 exhibitors from
42 countries and 16,733 trade visitors.1 The intention of this report is to make the authors expertise and the innovations uncovered at
the Ceramitec exhibition available to a wider audience through the CISNET network.
About CISNET
The CISNET project is a support service to the creative and cultural industries that involves five regions across the Atlantic Area. In
each region the work of CISNET is conducted by regional partners, of whom there are six in total: Mayo County Council and WestBIC
in Ireland, Eurocei-Centro Europeo de Empresas e Innovación in Spain, Technopole Quimper-Cornouaille in France, University of
Wales Trinity Saint David in Wales and Adist in Portugal. The lead partner in the project is Mayo County Council and the work is
coordinated by The European Consulting Company, TECC.
The Project is supported by the European Regional Development Fund, ERDF, with further support from each of the regional
partners. CISNET is an INTERREG IVB project that sits within the Atlantic Area Transnational Programme; in particular it is founded
within this programme’s priority one Innovation Networks.
Further information on the CISNET project can be obtained at www.cisnetwork.eu.
1 Ceramitec 2012 Final Report, http://www.ceramitec.de/en/press/finalreport
INTRODUCTION
This investigation seeks to highlight the potential for SME(s), Craft Makers, Designer and Artists to
engage with Industrial Ceramic Manufacturing processes / materials and the impact potential of NDT
(New Digital Technology) can offer. To pursue greater interaction and illustrate the creative potential
between Industry - Science - Engineering - Technology - Manufacturing - Craft - Design - Art,
embracing and encouraging industrial processes, manufacturing, greater scope for material
diversification and usage, automation and the hand made, with new digital technologies.
Substantial advancements and change have taken place in the Ceramic Industry with regard to
manufacturing processes and materials; additionally to these new digital technologies have created
further new opportunities for design, product development and potential for diversification in
manufacturing, especially water jet cutting, laser cutting, computer controlled milling machines, CNC
routing, 3D Printing, 3D Scanning and Digital Ceramic Printing.
Due to the breadth of the ceramic sector, new opportunities are possible, there are specialist ceramic
areas, with in some cases, unique and specific technical manufacturing processes and materials, such
as Technical Ceramics; Refractories; Tableware; Sanitary ware; Abrasives; Bricks and Tiles which
have to an extent been beyond the reach of many SME(s), Craft Makers, Designers and Artists.
Greater awareness, knowledge and understanding of such areas will substantially increase and assist
the potential for research and development, for the creation of new product(s) / artifact(s), material(s)
manipulation, new manufacturing processes and technology. This spirit of !risk", ambition, investigation
in conjunction with manufacturing technology, material diversification and new digital technology, such
as 3D Digital Production will indeed be a substantial and creative force.
Additionally this will also be of benefit for manufacturers, as the changing world order, with regard to
production will require producers to be more fluid, adaptable and responsive to world markets and
demands. This I believe must be developed collectively and not separately, taking lessons from our
own history by embracing the !creative energy" and !risk taking" spirit of the creative ceramic
innovators of the industrial revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries, to re-kindling this spirit in a
modern and contemporary context.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
There was a tradition in Britain, primarily in Staffordshire, the Midlands for farmers to additionally make
pottery to improve their standard of living, due to rich deposits of clay materials quite close to the
surface, this resulted for some as their primary source of business, initially for the trade of making
butterpots. Before 1700, potters were criticised for digging holes to get clay from the roads, this
practice created the term !potholes", thankfully this fact seems to have been forgotten over time.
The industrial revolution owes a great deal to the craft industries of Britain and the developing
skill, confidence and enterprise of that age. Their ability to share skills across different craft
industries, for example silversmithing - fine metalworking techniques and skills were adapted and
utilised by the emerging embryonic ceramic industry. Led by craftsmen / businessmen such as
John Dwight and the Elers brothers at the end of the 17th century. This creative interaction
underpinned the developing ceramic industry leading to industrial innovators such as Thomas
Whieldon, John Sadler and Guy Green (1755) transfer prints to decorate pottery, Josiah
Wedgwood, Josiah Spode 1st & 2nd, William Copeland, Thomas Minton, William Billingsley
(Nantgarw & Swansea), John Rose (Colport), Dr John Wells & William Davis (Worcester),
Duesbury & John Heath (Derby) and later individuals such as Henry Doulton and Thomas
Twyford. Yet the !Craft" ethos of working with materials, skill, creativity, experimentation,
manufacturing processes and techniques was at the heart of their success, placing Britain at the
forefront during the Industrial Revolution.
Their drive and appetite for success fueled their increasing demand for improved infrastructure,
innovation and engineering to be able to not only compete but to dominate the global market. The
industrialist Josiah Wedgwood for example actively encouraged the construction of roads and
canals, which he considered essential to the expansion of British Industry. He cut the first sod of
the Trent and Mersey canal in 1766, on completion this provided the main route for the transport
of raw materials and finished products in and out of the !Potteries" (Stoke-on-Trent) and placing it
at the centre of an International Trade. In 1782 following James Watts" patent rotary motion steam
engine, Wedgwood ordered one for his Etruria works and this was installed in 1783. By 1795
Staffordshire had installed more Watt steam engines than any other county in Britain.
The Eler brothers contribution to ceramic development was indeed substantial, but not widely
known; their significance was recognised by Josiah Wedgwood in a letter to his partner, Thomas
Bentley in 1777, highlighting their importance;
!The improvements Mr.Elers made in our manufactory were precisely these - glazing our common
clays with salt which produc"d Pot"d Grey or stoneware and after this they (the Elers) had left the
country was improved into White Stone Ware by using the white Pipe Clay instead of the common
clay of this Neighbourhood, and mixing with it Flint Stones calcin"d and reduced by pounding into
a fine powder.
The next improvement introduce"d by the Mr.E. was the refining of our common red clay by sifting,
and making it into Tea and Coffee ware in imitation of the Chinese Red Porcelain, by casting it in
plaster moulds, and turning it on the outside upon Lathes, and ornamenting it with the tea branch
in relief, the imitation of the Chinese manner of ornamenting this ware - for these improvements,
and very great ones they were for the time, we are indebted to the very ingenious Messrs. Elers,
and I shall gladly contribute all my power to honour their memories, and transmit to posterity the
knowledge of the obligations we owe them, but the some total certainly does not amount to
inventing the Art of Pottery in Britain".
By 1833, Enoch Wood"s factory was recorded as having over 1,000 employees. In the early 1840"s,
Copeland and Garrett employed 1,000 in a factory covering nearly 11 acres. By 1871 there were
seven potbanks (ceramic manufacturing factories) employing each between 500 – 1,000 workers. The
national average factory size at the time was 84.
Other regions of the United Kingdom were additionally fully embracing the Industrial Revolution,
such as the industrially concentrated region of South Wales. During the period of the Industrial
Revolution there were several industries of international significance, particularly copper and iron,
ceramics, tinplate manufacture and coal mining. The 1851 Census reveals that Wales was the
first country internationally to have more workers in industry than agricultural employment, making
the case for Wales to be identified as the world"s first industrial nation.
EUROPEAN CERAMICS SECTOR
Today the European Union (EU) ceramic industry is an integral part of the Community"s economics
structure, and is perhaps one of the area"s oldest industries. It covers a wide range of sub-sectors
ranging from the more traditional (tableware, wall and floor tiles) to the more high-tech (technical and
refractory ceramics).
The EU ceramic industry is a world leader in producing value added, uniquely designed high quality
ceramic products manufactured by flexible and innovative companies, mainly SMEs. The ceramics
industry represents an annual turnover of around # 30 billion, accounting for approximately 25% of the
global production (#120 billion), and around 350,000 jobs throughout the EU.$
The major producing$ countries in the EU are Italy, Spain, Germany, the UK and France. Production in
the new Member States$of the EU appears to be strongest in the Czech Republic, Poland and
Hungary, which all have strong ceramics sectors and have traditionally exported to other EU countries.
The EU ceramic industry is export oriented with 30% of its productions sold outside the EU market. It
is generally competitive both domestically and on international markets. However, since the last
decade the market situation has changed considerably with the rise of low-cost products from new
competitors in emerging and developing countries (China, Brazil, India, United Arab Emirates) while
persisting trade barriers prevent effective access to important new markets.
The European Ceramic Industry Association
European Ceramic Sector
Production Value 2005 - 2010
The European Ceramic Industry Association
There is an estimated 23,500 number of contemporary craft making businesses in the UK.
Multiplying the number of businesses by the average craft-related income gives an estimated total annual income
(value) for all contemporary craft making businesses of £475 million within the UK.
This estimate of total income can be broken down by nations, based on the estimated number of businesses:
England: £339 million from 17,500 businesses;
Northern Ireland: £20 million from 1,050 businesses;
Scotland: £70 million from 3,350 businesses;
Wales: £28 million from 1,500 businesses.
As points of comparison from other creative industries, total revenues for London West End Theaters were £512 million
in 2010, while spending on music downloads in the UK was £316 million in the same year.
Crafts Council
UK CONTEMPORARY CRAFT MARKET
INDUSTRIAL CERAMICS PRODUCTION PROCESSES, TECHNOLOGY, MATERIALS
I am not advocating that these areas replace existing making processes, materials and skills, but to be considered as a means to extend creative and production practices. To enable SME’s / Practitioners to develop and create work that otherwise would be either very difficult, impractical or impossible to make.To engage with new materials, processes and technology will indeed change the way Practitioners / SME’s perceive their practice and product, in addition to a different and possible better way of creating something.
It is common practice to consider manufacturing technologies as very functional processes, yet if you take a different viewpoint of technologies and materials, this will be very beneficial in the creative process. Through greater interaction with new materials, manufacturing processes and technologies, these can be developed, modified and adapted for the creation of other outcomes.
I embrace the fact that manufacturing processes, industrial materials, new technologies in marriage with what can be regarded as the historical - traditional processes, materials and tools can be utilised to the full by Practitioners / SME’s; to broaden the creative potential and to enable different ways of creating which will inevitably and positively lead to new original expansive work.
The examples highlighted are indeed just examples of some production processes, materials and technologies, that have the potential to be adopted and adapted by Practitioners / SME’s.
JIGGER AND JOLLEYING
Jigger and Jolleying have been used in the production of pottery since at least the 18th century, in
large scale factory production, jigger and jolleying is fully automated. Jiggering is the process of
bringing a shaped tool head profile into contact with the plastic clay which is housed within a rotating
plaster mould on the machine. The jigger tool shapes one face, while the mould shapes the other,
jiggering is used only in the production of flat wares, such as plates, but a similar process - jolleying is
used to produce hollow-wares such as cups.
ROLLER-HEAD MACHINE
This manufacturing process is similar to jigger and jolleying, except with a rotary shaping tool
replacing the fixed tool head profile. The rotary shaping tool is a shallow cone, with the same diameter
as the object being made, forming the back of the ware being made, with the plaster mould forming
the inside shape. It was developed in the UK just after World War II by the company Service
Engineers, roller-heads were quickly adapted by manufacturers around the world and they are a
popular method for producing flatware.
SLIP CASTING (LOW PRESSURE CASTING)
SLIP CASTING is used for mass
production of ceramics and is ideally
suited to the making of wares that
cannot be formed by other methods
of shaping. A liquid clay (SLIP) is
poured into plaster moulds and
allowed to cast for a casting period
of time to achieve the desired
thickness. Water from the slip is
absorbed by the moulds leaving a
layer of clay covering the internal
face of the mould, the excess slip is
poured out of the mould at the
desired casting time. After a short
period of time when the clay wall has
stiffened sufficiently, the mould is
split open and the cast object is then
removed.
Slip casting is widely used in
Tableware production, but especially
so in Sanitary ware manufacture,
where objects were traditionally
produced by the manual Bench
Casting process and by automated
Beam Casting and Pressure Casting
methods.
Bench Casting
SLIP CASTING (LOW PRESSURE CASTING)
Beam Casting Tableware Bench Casting
Above: “Shadow Of The Things You Know” sculpture, exhibited in Anya Gallaccio’s solo exhibition, at the Blum & Poe Gallery, Los Angeles, 2005 - 2006.
Right: “Who Can I Turn To If You Turn Away” sculpture, exhibited in the Anya Gallaccio “Comfort and Conversation” exhibition at the Annet Gelink Gallery, Amsterdam, 2008.
Since 2004 I have produced over 4,000 porcelain apples for several tree sculptures for the international & YBA Fine Artist, Anya Gallaccio. Produced by the slip casting process, new glaze development and Industrial Ceramics firing techniques.
HIGH PRESSURE CASTING
Pressure casting was developed in the 1970!s for the
production of Sanitary ware, although more recently,
it has been applied to tableware.
Pressure casting reduces the water content in the
green part and increases its density and its cohesion.
The mould sections are made of polymer with a
mechanical strength and porosity greater than
plaster, as well as an elasticity allowing water
tightness of the mould under low clamping force.
They do not require drying between the various
castings. This computerised process provides high
productivity. It is now quite widely used in the industry
for production of sanitary ware and steadily
increasing within tableware.
There are two other casting methods that require
mentioning as they also significantly reduce the
setting time compared to traditional casting: vacuum
casting and centrifugation casting. The first method is
similar to pressure casting, but here the suspension
is sucked through the porous mould. In the second
method, the particles are driven by centrifugation
resulting in a high density deposit. Centrifugation
casting is used in the field of technical ceramics.
RAM PRESSING
Ram Pressing was developed in the mid
1940"s by two ceramic engineering
graduates from Ohio State University,
USA.
This is a manufacturing process for
shaping ceramics, by pressing a bat of a
prepared clay body into a required shape
between two porous mould sections.
After pressing, compressed air is blown
through the porous mould sections
(halves) to release the shaped ware.
Firstly air is pumped into the lower
mould, pushing the clay onto the top
mould, the top mould die section then
moves up, a board is then placed under
the top mould die and compressed air is
introduced into the top die to release the
plastic clay object onto a board.
As illustrated.
Dust Pressing
In 1840, Richard Prosser of Great Britain took out a patent for a technology which could press buttons
from clay dust. Herbert Minton took a share in the patent and used the technology, a hand operated
flywheel press which compacted clay dust between metal dies to press tiles was produced.
The dust pressing process is suitable for many ceramic and non-ceramic products. Almost any
ceramic powder can be pressed and, if needed, binders can be added to achieve added dry hardness.
A high percentage of ceramic tile is made by dust pressing, the tile industry is one of the biggest user
of ceramic materials, and the process is increasingly being used for plate and flatware production. It is
possible to layer dusts of different formulations into a mould and press them as a layered matrix. Many
high-technology parts are made by this method. Some of the advantages of this process are:
• Parts of tighter tolerance can be made;
• Less drying equipment (and therefore less energy consumption) and floor space are needed,
ware can be fired soon after forming;
• Cleaner shapes with smoother surfaces can be made;
• Changes in body plasticity is not nearly as big an issue;
• Clay mixes with coarse particles can be still be employed to create objects with smooth surfaces;
• Pressed items have much better dimensional stability and produce flat true shapes that can be
fired with less warping.
EXTRUSION
In the ceramic extrusion process,
material is forced through a die, and
the designs, shapes, spaces (holes)
run in the direction of the extrusion.
The technique is widely used in Brick
and Roof Tile production and is also
used in Technical Ceramics.
Within Technical Ceramics the
forming process consists of forcing a
plastic mix of ceramic powder
through a constricting die to produce
elongated shapes that have a
constant cross-section. The powder
mix consists of a fine ceramic
powder with the appropriate addition
of binder(s) and plasticiser(s) to give
the desired flow properties
(rheology), either cold or when
heated prior to being forced through
the die.
CERAMITEC, Munich, May 2012
EXTRUSION
CERAMITEC, Munich, May 2012
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
Technical / Precision Ceramics uses a range of ceramic forming processes, such as die pressing, slip casting,
extrusion, cold isostatic pressing and new emerging processes such as injection moulding and tape casting.
Some traditional methods have additionally been refined to meet particular property requirements, such as hot
pressing, hot isostatic pressing and pressure casting.
Isostatic Pressing
Granular powder or die pressed compacts are loaded into a flexible air-tight container, typically polyurethane, then
placed in a closed pressure vessel filled with liquid and compacted by increasing the pressure within the vessel. The
pressure change takes place throughout the liquid, thus exerting a uniform applied pressure over the entire surface
area of the air-tight container. In this way, the material is uniformly compacted and will retain the general shape of the
flexible container, and any internal tooling profile.
Tape Casting
This process involves the casting of a slurry onto a flat moving carrier surface. The slurry usually consists of a ceramic
powder with the appropriate additions of solvents plasticisers and binders. The slurry passes beneath the knife edge as
the carrier surface advances along a supporting table. The solvents evaporate to leave a relatively dense flexible sheet
that may be stored on rolls or stripped from the carrier in a continuous process.
Hot Pressing
This forming technique is the simultaneous application of external pressure and temperature to enhance densification.
It is conducted by placing either powder or a compacted preform into a suitable die, typically graphite, and applying
uniaxial pressure while the entire system is held at an elevated temperature, e.g. 2000°C for SiC. Hot Pressing is only
suited to relatively simple shapes, with the components usually requiring diamond grinding to achieve the finished
surfaces and tolerances.
Die Pressing
This is by far the most widely used shaping technique for advanced ceramics and consists of the uniaxial compaction of
a granular powder during confined compression in a die.
INJECTION MOULDING
This is a forming process adopted for the
ceramic sector from the established
method used for the forming of
thermoplastic. It has been called
Porcelain Injection Moulding - PIM or
Ceramic Injection Moulding - CIM, a
plastic mix is prepared and heated in the
barrel of the moulding machine until it is
at the correct temperature at which the
mix has a sufficiently low viscosity to
allow flow if pressure is applied.
Suitable for the mass production of
complex-shaped forms, the feed to the
mould die is a mix of unfired body in
powder form, together with organic
binders, a plunger is pressed against the
heated mixture forcing it through an
orifice and on into the tool cavity. The
moulded part is removed from the die
and the organic binder slowly burnt out in
a controlled atmosphere by means of a
carefully controlled heating schedule,
prior to sintering.
CERAMITEC, Munich, May 2012
INJECTION MOULDING
CERAMITEC, Munich, May 2012
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
Low Pressure Injection Moulding
Technology has moved forward greatly in recent years, were high volume ceramic components can be made
using injection moulding techniques.
Injection moulding of ceramic components has several major benefits over more traditional manufacturing
techniques such as die pressing and green machining.
Excluding the obvious; that it is a good technique for very high volume parts, injection moulding has also proved
to be an excellent technique for making components such as turbo charger rotors and thrust bearings which
would be too expensive if the parts were machined.
Low pressure injection moulding (LPIM) provides an excellent option for producing ceramic components using
low cost tools in comparison to high pressure moulding techniques.
The LPIM process enables fabrication of very complex shapes as well as simpler components. The essence of
the process is that parts can be produced with a higher level of integrated function to meet the customers needs
then other process are able to achieve.
Hot Isostatic Pressing
This technique involves sintering a compact at high temperature in a pressurised gas atmosphere. The compact
must either be impermeable to the pressurising gas or be encapsulated in a gas-tight container. In the former
case, powder compacts are first sintered to remove surface connected porosity. The use of hot isostatic pressing
leads to additional densification and increased strength in Technox Zirconias.
Green Machining
This technique is commonly applied to as-pressed parts which are still in a "chalky" condition. Common
metalworking machines are used to machine the part in this "soft" condition as greater material removal rates are
possible than by post sintering operations such as diamond grinding. As fired green machined components are
subject to maximum tolerances of +/- 1%. To achieve tighter tolerances diamond grinding must be employed.
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
Sintering / Firing
Once the ceramic powder has been compacted and green machined (if required) the compacted ceramic powder is
usually around 50% of its final theoretical density. Full densification is achieved by sintering at temperatures up to
1800°C.
The sintering or firing process provides the energy to encourage the individual powder particles to bond or "sinter"
together to remove the porosity present from the compaction stages.
During the sintering process the "green compact" shrinks by around 40 vol %. However, this shrinkage is
predictable and can be accommodated.
Diamond Grinding
High levels of accuracy and surface finish can be achieved by diamond grinding. Tolerances of a few microns are
commonplace.
However, diamond grinding is a relatively expensive micro-machining process, consequently, if a design can be
produced to "as-fired" tolerances, the overall cost of the component is reduced.
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
MATERIALSThe term !technical ceramics" embraces a wide range of advanced ceramic materials, developed and produced for
their excellent mechanical, electrical and thermal properties. These materials are recognised for their hardness,
physical stability, heat resistance, chemical inertness, biocompatibility and superior electrical properties. They are
highly resistant to melting, bending, stretching,corrosion and wear. Today"s advanced ceramic material also lend
themselves to mass production, offering a cost-effective engineering solution to a wide range of design challenges.
ALUMINA
Alumina ceramic is the most mature of the engineering ceramics, offering excellent electrical insulation properties
together with high hardness and good wear resistance but relatively low strength and fracture toughness. Alumina
Ceramics are generally white but may also be pink (88% alumina), or brown (96% Alumina). The colour is derived
from either the sintering additives or impurities in the raw materials. High purity alumina ceramics are ideal for
environments where resistance to wear and corrosive substances are required. Alumina ceramic has excellent
thermal stability, which means that it is widely used in areas where resistance to high temperatures is essential.
Alumina ceramic is the material of choice for alumina wear parts. The proven wear and heat resistance of alumina
wear parts makes them ideal for the manufacture of wear-resistant components. Alumina has a high melting point,
high hardness,although mechanical strength is reduced at temperatures above 1000 C. Due to the relatively large
coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal shock resistance is reduced. Alumina is an electrically insulating material,
with a high electrical resistivity, increasing with purity.
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
SILICONE CARBIDE$
Silicon carbide is available in two forms, reaction bonded and sintered. Both materials are ultra hard and have a high
thermal conductivity. This has led to silicon carbide being used in bearing and rotary seal applications where the increased
hardness and conductivity improves seal and bearing performance.
Reaction bonded silicon carbide (RBSC) has good properties at elevated temperatures and can be used in refractory
applications. Silicon carbide materials exhibit good erosion and abrasive resistance, these properties can be utilised in a
variety of applications such as spray nozzles, shot blast nozzles and cyclone components.
Properties: High thermal conductivity; Low thermal expansion coefficient; Outstanding thermal shock resistance; Extreme
hardness;
Semiconductor; Refractive index greater than a diamond.
ZIRCONIA
'Zirconia – Ceramic steel" The title of the first scientific paper to highlight the possibilities offered by the "transformation
toughening" mechanism which occurs in certain zirconia ceramics. Since the publication of this seminal work in 1975,
considerable research, development, and marketing effort has been expended on this single material which offers the
traditional ceramic benefits of hardness, wear resistance and corrosion resistance, without the characteristic ceramic
property of absolute brittleness.
Mechanical and Physical Properties
The fundamental properties of zirconia ceramics which are of interest to the engineer or designer are: high strength, high
fracture toughness, high hardness, wear resistance, good frictional behaviour, non-magnetic, electrical insulation, low
thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance in acids and alkalis, modulus of elasticity similar to steel, coefficient of thermal
expansion similar to iron.
In common with all other engineering ceramics, the attainment of the above properties is largely dependent on both the
starting powders and the fabrication techniques.
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
SILICONE NITRIDE
Silicon Nitride, like Silicone Carbide, is also available in two main types, reaction bonded and sintered.
Silicon nitride is an electrical insulator and is resistant to attack by many molten metals. With low thermal
conductivity and excellent thermal shock resistance, silicon nitride is used in many RF heating applications
where the material is in contact with hot metal parts.
The high strength of sintered silicon nitride has found many applications in the automotive and machine tool
industries for bearing and wear parts which run in very arduous abrasive environments.
BORON CARBIDE
Hot-pressed boron carbide is one of the hardest materials available in commercial shapes, and gives
outstanding resistance to abrasive wear. Boron Carbide can be polished to a mirror finish and has good
resistance to acids. It is refractory and chemically inert, but less resistant to oxidation than silicon carbide.
Boron Carbide tends to contain second-phase graphite and it is this property which has a major influence on
the strength of the material.
Properties: Low thermal conductivity; Susceptible to thermal shock failure; Outstanding hardness; Extremely
brittle; Semiconductor; Good thermal-neutron capture.
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
Tape Ceramic Technology
CERAMITEC, Munich, May, 2012
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
Tape Ceramic Technology
CERAMITEC, Munich, May, 2012
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
Extruded Ceramic Technology
CERAMITEC, Munich, May,
2012
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic
Technology and Systems IKTS
CERAMITEC, Munich, May,
2012
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
Extruded and Pressed Ceramic Technology
CERAMITEC, Munich, May, 2012
TECHNICAL / PRECISION CERAMICS
Mould injected and Pressed
Ceramic Technology
CERAMITEC, Munich, May, 2012
NEW DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY
For more than 25 years computer based engineering and design systems have transformed product
design, research and development processes for the better. As a Product Designer for Stelrad Doultan
and MB Caradon during the 1980"s and 1990"s, I was part of a small group of designers and
researchers driving CAD-CAM and 3D surface meshing within the sanitary ware industry for
developing and creating new product. Since then systems have moved on at a pace, such as
advancements in 3-dimensional computer aided design (CAD), computer aided manufacturing (CAM),
rapid prototyping / manufacturing, image manipulation software, virtual prototyping, onscreen
visualisation, digital photography, digital ceramic printing, 3D and laser scanning, water jet cutting,
laser cutting, computer controlled milling machines and CNC routing. These have transformed
creativity, conceptualisation, visualisation, prototyping, product development, evaluations and
dramatically reduced and affected time scales for the better.
With regard to 3D Printing, which is another term for Rapid Prototyping (RD) or Rapid Manufacturing
(RM) or Additive Layer Manufacturing (ALM) or Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a method of creating
three dimensional objects using a specifically designed printer. In place of !ink" a continuous flow of
material, commonly polyamide or nylon is layered to create a 3D form based on a computer drawn
object / image. Early uses of 3D Printing were developed for creating prototypes as the process,
although costly, is quicker than producing a handmade model. Today the cost of 3D printing machines
are falling, recently a manufacturer has launched a 3D printer for £750. More recently, rapid
prototyping technology is being used to produce !finished", end products and designs. Printing
technologies now have the capacity to print a spectrum of materials, such as sand, plaster, ceramic
(clay) - that then can be fired in kilns, wax - for the lost wax casting process, metal - that can sintered
after printing.
With regard to Rapid Manufacturing, Dr Phil Reeves in his CERAM 2008 report “Rapid Manufacturing for the production of Ceramic Components” states that:
“Rapid Manufacturing is being championed by some as one of the most exciting emerging and enabling technologies of the 21st Century. It has even been postulated that RM may in-fact stimulate an industrial revolution for the digital age. Rapid Manufacturing (RM) is the name given to the production of ‘series’ or ‘end-use’ component parts made using ‘Additive Layer Manufacturing’ (ALM) processes. Traditionally (and historically), ALM processes were used to manufacture prototypes and casting patterns. However, recent advances in ALM technologies and materials, now allow us to manufacture parts for a variety of production applications in polymers, metals and progressively ceramics. RM is seen by many as one of the most important emerging technologies that will drive the future manufacturing economy. Because RM uses layer-wise manufacturing, many of the traditional Design for Manufacture (DFM) principles no longer need apply. Therefore, RM components can be manufactured with no split lines, or with complex internal and re-entrant features. RM also allows for significant part consolidation, reducing manufacturing, assembly and inspection costs. One of the most notable advantages of RM is the potential elimination of tooling. Without the constraints of tooling, jigs and fixtures, RM provides manufacturers the ability to produce cost effective batch sizes of ‘one’, or the ability to manufacture parts at multiple locations. Many business benefits can therefore be attributed to the adoption of RM, including the reduction or elimination of fixed assets such as mould tooling, jigs and fixtures and cutting tools, thus resulting in reduced capital investment. RM can also reduce or eliminate many stages of the traditional supply chain, which reduces risk, lead times, inventory and supply chain transaction and logistics costs. Additionally, RM allows for the manufacture of topologically optimized components, producing parts that are ‘manufactured-for-design’, as opposed to ‘designed-for-manufacture’, enabling the manufacture of high value products with improved performance characteristics. Because RM parts are made using additive manufacturing technologies, as opposed to subtractive machining or formative moulding processes, in some cases, little if any waste material is generated. Additive manufacturing processes are therefore lean, yet agile, allowing the manufacture of low volume batches of component parts, with little manual intervention. In recent years, there has been a sharp increase in the number of companies investigating the use of RM across a broad range of industrial sectors. Examples of RM applications include aerospace, motorsport and automotive components, packaging, medical implants, hearing aid shells and surgical guides, and consumer products such as light shades, furniture and even football boots. Although clearly of interest to the manufacturing community, RM remains a nascent technology that is being exploited by only a small number of companies globally. Moreover, the production of ceramic layer manufactured parts for end-use applications remains in its infancy. However, processes and materials are being developed that will see RM being used in the consumer goods and toy industries, the table and giftware industry, the construction industry, bio medical industry, the renewable energy sector and the aerospace and automotive sectors”.
Practitioners / SME’s will however be focusing on the materials in addition to the technology, as their product will be made in their chosen material, especially within ceramics and the numerous characteristics ceramic materials posses. It is their knowledge in unity with technology that will enable the successful creation of end product.
3D CERAMIC PRINTING
SAND TABLE
by Assa Ashuach
2011
The Sand Table is the first prototype from
the collaboration between Assa Ashuach
and Enrico Dini. 3D Printing using sand as
a material introduces several dramatic
benefits. Sand is a found material that
when mixed with adhesives becomes hard,
like concrete. Using 3D design and
software technology the table can be
customised by the user - so personalisation
of both form and function . It could become
a coffee table or scale up and transform to
be a bar or a dinning surface. The sand 3D
Printing technology is developed by Enrico
Dini of 3D Shape.
Send to Print / Print to Send Exhibition
The Aram Gallery, London.
January - February 2012
3D CERAMIC PRINTING
SOLAR SINTER EXPERIMENTS
by Markus Sinter
2011
These glass test pieces / experiments were produced in
the desert, using the raw material and the energy of the
sun to create them. Using a 3D printing process that
combined natural energy and material with high-tech
production technology.
Send to Print / Print to Send Exhibition
The Aram Gallery, London.
January - February 2012
3D CERAMIC PRINTING
SOLAR SINTER EXPERIMENTS by Markus Sinter, 2011
Send to Print / Print to Send Exhibition
The Aram Gallery, London.
January - February 2012
3D CERAMIC PRINTING
UNFOLD
L"Artisan Electronique
by Unfold and Tim Knapen
2010 - 2011
The printing process imitates the traditional coiling
techniques used by ceramicists, in which the form is built
up by stacking coils of clay. The virtual pottery wheel on
the other hand, is a digital, tool to !turn" forms and
objects in thin air.
Stratigraphic Cups by Unfold
To make ceramic objects, Unfold created a 3d-printer
which is based on the Open Source Reprap printer, with
the goal of turning it into a clay printer. These
Stratigraphic Cups are the first objects made on the 3d-
printer for real use. The cups were printed in a limited
edition, with a white porcelain transparent glaze inside.
Send to Print / Print to Send Exhibition
The Aram Gallery, London.
January - February 2012
3D CERAMIC PRINTING
Send to Print / Print to Send Exhibition
The Aram Gallery, London.
January - February 2012
3D CERAMIC PRINTING
The use of 3D Printing
to create a scaled down
model of a new sanitary
ware manufacturing
plant.
This manufacturing plant
was constructed in
2010-11 and is today in
full production in eastern
europe.
CERAMITEC, Munich,
May, 2012
3D CERAMIC PRINTING
CERAMITEC, Munich, May, 2012
3D CERAMIC PRINTING
CERAMITEC, Munich, May, 2012
TRADITIONAL AND DIGITAL TRANSFER PRINTING
John Sadler with Guy Green developed transfer printing onto pottery which effectively revolutionised the then
fledgling ceramic industry. Sadler and Green were newspaper proprietors in Liverpool and are credited with the
commercial introduction of transfer printing onto pottery and in particular, tiles. In 1756 they swore an affidavit
that they had printed 'upwards of twelve hundred earthenware tiles of different patterns' within the space of 6
hours. Soon after, other potteries introduced the technique, which made printed pottery easy and cheap to produce
for the mass market. Apparently the idea came from John Sadler watching local children playing in the potteries’
area in Liverpool and sticking bits of cast-off printing onto shards of pottery. From 1761 Josiah Wedgwood sent
blank pottery to Sadler and Green to be printed.
The process that they developed was such that a design / pattern is etched onto a copper plate, the plate is then
inked with ceramic pigments and the image transferred to a special tissue paper. The inked tissue is then placed on
the bisque fired ceramic object, fired to fix, then glazed and fired again.
This traditional and highly skilled hand decorating process is still being used by some practitioners, but most
notably by the manufacturer Burleigh Pottery, Stoke-on-trent, which is part of the Denby Group. At Burleigh the
tissue paper is printed from a hand-engraved copper roller and then carefully cut out, the tissue is then applied to
the biscuit ware, and is then rubbed on with a brush and soft soap. The tissue paper is then washed off leaving the
pattern transferred onto the biscuit ware, the piece is then fired to harden on the pattern, then glazed and fired for a
third time, leaving the pattern under the glaze.
Other ceramic printing processes such as silk screen and lithography are industry standard, however a new method
is quickly developing and establishing itself, which is digital transfer printing. This system uses converted laser
printers and based on a four colour printing system using ceramic pigments, cyan, magenta, yellow and black or
red, cyan, yellow and black. However, at this moment in time it does have limitations to produce certain colours.
Please refer to a companies such as CERAMICdigital, Digital Ceramics and FotoCeramic, Stoke-on-Trent for more
specific equipment and material information.
A Peasant Having his Tooth Extracted. The English Cook.
The tiles are printed from copper plates by Guy Green (d1799), John Sadler’s partner, after Sadler’s retirement in 1770.
British Museum
Tissue Paper Transfers
Salt-glazed stoneware, transfer-printed, English, Staffordshire, about 1770, printedby Sadler & Green, Liverpool.
British Museum
“The Huntsman and Hounds”, the Aesop’s Fables.Cream-coloured earthenware, moulded, transfer-printed, painted English, Staffordshire, Burslem, Josiah Wedgwood, about 1771-5, printedby Guy Green, Liverpool.
Tissue Paper Transfers
French Revolution & Napoleonic War Propaganda ware, transfer printed. 18th century.
British Museum
Tissue Paper Transfers
CONCLUSION
There is much potential for SME"s, artists, craftspeople and designers to collaborate with industry,
technology, science, engineering, manufacturers; to initiate and identify manufacturing and
production processes, new digital technologies and to investigate new product possibilities for the
development of new products / artifacts. Additionally to collaborate, influence and inform
manufacturers and make them further consider their decision-making capacity, product diversity,
product placement and character of their product range, to further broaden the creative economy
and encourage manufacturing growth. To expand awareness of manufacturing processes, the
potential for new different quality product and to increase links between creative individuals,
digital technology and the manufacturing sector.
There is substantial potential for new state of the art industrial manufacturing processes and New
Digital Technology, and a recognised value for both new and traditional materials and techniques
of the manufacturing sectors. We must embrace the possibilities of the creative process and to
enhance the potential for new product development, creating new markets when historically and
presently they have not been identified. Manufacturers need to note the positive outcomes of
working and interacting with other sectors, to embrace other technologies, manufacturing
processes, materials and skills; to encourage manufacturers to create new product through
collaboration by working across manufacturing sectors through catalysts such as creative
practitioners. Industry and manufacturers require to engage further with craftspeople, especially
with in many cases due to their unique and specific knowledge and understanding of material(s)
and their skill factor in working with and manipulating materials. The potential this knowledge, skill
and understanding will bring additional significant benefit to manufacturers, to influence
technology and production.
A quote from Keith Vasie MP, Minister for Culture, Communications and the Creative Industries at
the Crafts Council, Assemble 2012, September conference;
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).<'.B.1+'2$(#@#03/*#'2)6$,3&4$+(+/2.'<$+'($&).'<$,3&4$5'370#(<#$3%$2"#$FG)2$1#'2&4,$23$)24#21"$
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.''3@+2.3'6$#'<.'##4.'<6$)1.#'1#$+'($2#1"'303<,C$D'(&)24,$'##()$,3&4$&'(#4)2+'(.'<6$.2$.)$+$
<4#+2$2.*#$%34$/32#'2.+0$%34$.''3@+2.3'6$)1.#'1#6$2#1"'303<,$+'($#'<.'##4.'<$+'($D$"3/#$,3&$7.00$
/0+,$,3&4$%&00$/+42$.'$(4.@.'<$2"+2$%347+4(C$I
The changing face of world markets with manufacturers becomes less loyal to historical centers,
especially within an increasingly competitive sector such as ceramics, as observed with the very
recent manufacturing developments within countries such as India, China, Turkey, Egypt, Brazil.
Yet the accusation of new personal wealth, especially for the middle and upper classes of these
emerging developing countries, indicates a demand for more sophisticated and high end market
product and this factor must not be lost due to dithering.
The sad decline and demise of the UK"s historical and traditional ceramic centre, Stoke-on-Trent
as a world manufacturing force has the potential to allow the creation of new centers, however the
creative spirit and the adventure of risk must be embraced.
REFERENCES
REPORTS, DOCUMENTS, WEBSITES
• Anarkik 3D, Software, http://www.anarkik3d.co.uk/
• Assa Ashuach, 3D Printing, Product Design, http://www.assaashuach.com/ http://blog.assaashuach.com/
• Assemble 2012, The Crafts Council Conference, http://www.assemble.org.uk/
• Autonomatic, (2009), www.autonomatic.org.uk/team/index.html
• Bits from Bytes, UK, 3D Printers http://www.bitsfrombytes.com/
• Bridgeport Milling Machines, USA, http://www.bpt.com/
• CERAMICdigital, Ceramic Digital Transfers, Stoke-on-Trent, http://www.ceramicdigital.co.uk/
• Crafts Council, (2004), “Making it in the 21st Cenury Survey 2002-2003”
• Crafts Council, (2009), “The Craft Blueprint” www.ccskills.org.uk/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=6cMoZSldVOA%3D&tabid=97
• CERAM, Materials Technology, Stoke-on-Trent, http://www.ceram.com/
• Cerame-Unie / European Ceramic Industry Association www.ceramunie.eu/
• CeRamiCa project, http://ceramicaproject.eu/download/98/ceramica_FINAL_policy_recommendations.pdf
• Coherent Inc, USA, Laser cutting and machining tools, http://www.coherent.com/Products/index.cfm?1899/Laser-Cutting-and-Machining-Tools
• Cubify3D Systems, USA, 3D Printing Systems http://cubify.com/cube/index.aspx
• Digital Ceramics, Digital Ceramic Transfer Printing, Stoke-on-Trent. http://digitalceramics.com/
• DLR, Institute of Materials Research, Koln-Porz, Germany, http://www.dlr.de/wf/en/ http://www.dlr.de/wf/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-2741/4140_read-6151/
• Dynamic Ceramic, Precision Engineering Ceramics, Crewe. http://www.dynacer.com/
• European Ceramic Industry Association. www.ceramenuie.eu/
• FOTO Ceramic, Digital Ceramic Transfer Printing, Stoke-on-Trent, http://www.fotoceramic.com/
• FRAUNHOFER IKTS, Institute for Ceramic Technology and Systems, Dresden, http://www.ikts.fraunhofer.de/en/
• FWC Sector Competitiveness Studies -”Competitiveness of the Ceramic Sector” ec.europa.eu/enterprise/.../finalreport_ceramics_131008_en.pdf
• INMATEC, CIM / PIM- Ceramic / Porcelain Injection Moulding, Rheinbach, Germany, http://www.inmatec-gmbh.com/cms/index.php/en/shaping
• Larsen, P., Moss, R., Lewis, A., (2009) “The Use of New Design Technologies in Welsh Based Art & Craft Businesses” Final Report for the Academics for Business Expertise Grant funded by the Welsh Assembly Government, June 2010.
• Manor Architectural Ceramics UK, Architectural ceramics, digital printing on ceramics. www.manorceramics.co.uk
• Mantec Technical Ceramics, Stoke-on-Trent, http://www.mantectechnicalceramics.com/
• Markus Kayser, Solar Sinter / 3D Printing, http://www.markuskayser.com/work/solarsinter/
• Marshall, J., Bunnell, K. (2009) “Developments in Post Industrial Manufacturing Systems and their Implications for Craft and Sustainability”. In Making Futures: the Crafts in the Context of Emerging Global Sustainability Agendas, Vol 1 2009.
• Materials: Processes, Properties and Applications, edited by Philippe Boch & Jean Claude Niepce, 2008, ISTE Publishing.
REFERENCESREPORTS, DOCUMENTS, WEBSITES
• Mephisto 3D Pro, 3D Scanners, Belgium, http://www.4ddynamics.com/3d-scanners/
• Metropolitan Works, London Metrapolitan University http://www.metropolitanworks.org/
• Mike Smith Studio (MSS), Design and Fabrication http://www.mikesmithstudio.com/
• MIT Media Lab, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, http://www.media.mit.edu/research/groups/mediated-matter
• Morgan Technical Ceramics, http://www.morgantechnicalceramics.com/
• 3M NEXTEL, Ceramics Textiles and Composites, USA, http://www.3m.com/market/industrial/ceramics/
• PCL Ceramics, Ceramic Manufacturing Equipment & Systems, Norfolk, http://www.pclceramics.com/
• PDR, The National Centre for Product Design and Development Research, Cardiff, http://pdronline.info/
• Precision Ceramics, Birmingham, http://www.precision-ceramics.co.uk/
• Rapitypes, New Product Development, http://www.rapitypes.com/
• Reeves, P., (2008), “Rapid Manufacturing for the Production of Ceramic Components”. Research Report, CERAM, Stoke on Trent, UK.
• SACMI, Ceramics Manufacturing Machinery, HQ, Imola, Italy, http://www.sacmi.com/
• Unfold, Belgium, 3D Porcelain Printing www.unfold.be
• UWE & Denby Pottery Group, UK, 3D Ceramic Printing www.uwe.ac.uk/sca/research/cfpr
• ZCorp, 3D Printers, USA, http://www.zcorp.com/en/Products/3D-Printers/spage.aspx
REFERENCESREPORTS, DOCUMENTS, WEBSITES
CONFERENCES, TRADE FARES, EXHIBITIONS & MEETINGS
• CERAMIC PRACTICE AS RESEARCH - Symposium: British Ceramics Biennial Staffordshire University + Spode manufacturing site, Stoke-on-Trent - October 2011 http://www.britishceramicsbiennial.com/plan-your-visit/whats-on/event/research-practice-symposium/
• ASSEMBLE 2012 - TheCrafts Council Conference, RIBA, London - September 2012. http://www.assemble.org.uk/
• SPRING FARE INTERNATIONAL - Trade Fare, NEC, Birmingham - February 2012 www.springfair.com
• KBB - Kitchen, Bedrooms, Bathrooms - Trade Fare, NEC, Birmingham - March 2012 www.kbb.co.uk
• CERAMITEC 2012 - Trade Fare, Messe Munchen, Munich, Germany - May 2012 http://www.ceramitec.de/en
• MAISON & OBJET - Trade Fare, Paris Norde Villepinte, Paris, France - September 2012 http://www.maison-objet.com/
• SEND TO PRINT / PRINT TO SEND Exhibition, The Aram Gallery, London - January - February 2012 http://www.thearamgallery.org/2012/01/send-to-print-print-to-send/
• LAB CRAFT -Digital Adventures in Contemporary Crafts; Touring Exhibition, Oriel Myrddin, Carmarthen - March - April 2012 http://www.labcraft.org.uk/
• QUEENSBERRY HUNT: Ceramic Design; Ceramics Gallery, Room 146, Victoria and Albert Museum, London - April - September 2012 http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/exhibitions/exhibition-british-design/v-and-a-british-design-season-displays/
• Meeting with Design to Print, Stoke-on-Trent - Digital Ceramic Transfer Printing - April 2012
• Meeting with Design Director - Richard Eaton + Design Team, Denby Pottery Group - June 2012
• Meeting with Group (European) Manager for Innovation and Design - Simon Hopps, SANITEC Group- June 2012
• Meeting with Creative Director- David Sanderson of Flux - Staffordshire University, Maison & Objet Trade Fair, Paris - September 2012