Meiosis, crossing over and linked genes Dr.Aida Fadhel Biawi 2013.
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Dr.Aida Fadhel Biawi, October 2013.
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Transcript of Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Dr.Aida Fadhel Biawi, October 2013.
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Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
Dr.Aida Fadhel Biawi , October 2013
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Enzymes in DNA replication
Helicase unwinds parental double helix
Binding proteinsstabilize separatestrands
DNA polymerase III binds nucleotides to form new strands
Ligase joins Okazaki fragments and seals other nicks in sugar-phosphate backbone
Primase adds short primer to template strand
DNA polymerase I (Exonuclease) removes RNA primer and inserts the correct bases
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Proofreading and Repairing DNA
• DNA polymerases proofread newly made DNA, replacing any incorrect nucleotides
Nuclease
DNApolymerase
DNAligase
A thymine dimerdistorts the DNA molecule.1
A nuclease enzyme cutsthe damaged DNA strandat two points and thedamaged section isremoved.
2
Repair synthesis bya DNA polymerasefills in the missingnucleotides.
3
DNA ligase seals theFree end of the new DNATo the old DNA, making thestrand complete.
4
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Accuracy of DNA Replication
• The chromosome of E. coli bacteria contains about 5 million bases pairs
– Capable of copying this DNA in less than an hour
• The 46 chromosomes of a human cell contain about 6 BILLION base pairs of DNA!!
– Takes a cell a few hours to copy this DNA
– With amazing accuracy – an average of 1 per billion nucleotides
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Protein Synthesis
• The information content of DNA is in the form of specific sequences of nucleotides along the DNA strands
• The DNA inherited by an organism leads to specific traits by dictating the synthesis of proteins.
• The process by which DNA directs protein synthesis, gene expression includes two stages, called transcription and translation.
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Transcription and Translation
• Cells are governed by a cellular chain of command– DNA RNA protein
• Transcription– Is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of
DNA– Produces messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Translation– Is the actual synthesis of a polypeptide, which
occurs under the direction of mRNA– Occurs on ribosomes
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Transcription and Translation• In a eukaryotic cell the nuclear envelope separates transcription
from translation• Extensive RNA processing occurs in the nucleus
Eukaryotic cell. The nucleus provides a separatecompartment for transcription. The original RNAtranscript, called pre-mRNA, is processed in various ways before leaving the nucleus as mRNA.
(b)
TRANSCRIPTION
RNA PROCESSING
TRANSLATION
mRNA
DNA
Pre-mRNA
Polypeptide
Ribosome
Nuclearenvelope
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Transcription
• RNA synthesis– Is catalyzed by RNA
polymerase, which Separates the DNA strands and hooks together the RNA nucleotides.
– Follows the same base-pairing rules as DNA, except that in RNA, uracil substitutes for thymine
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RNA
• RNA is single stranded, not double stranded like DNA• RNA is short, only 1 gene long, where DNA is very long and
contains many genes• RNA uses the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose in DNA• RNA uses the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) in DNA.
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Synthesis of an RNA Transcript
• The stages of transcription are– Initiation– Elongation– Termination
PromoterTranscription unit
RNA polymerase
Start point
53
35
35
53
53
35
53
35
5
5
Rewound
RNA
RNA
transcript
3
3Completed RNA transcript
Unwound
DNA
RNA
transcript
Template strand of DNA
DNA
1 Initiation. After RNA polymerase binds to
the promoter, the DNA strands unwind, and
the polymerase initiates RNA synthesis at the
start point on the template strand.
2 Elongation. The polymerase moves downstream, unwinding the
DNA and elongating the RNA transcript 5 3 . In the wake of
transcription, the DNA strands re-form a double helix.
3 Termination. Eventually, the RNA
transcript is released, and the
polymerase detaches from the DNA.
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• Promoters signal the initiation of RNA synthesis
• Transcription factors help eukaryotic RNA polymerase recognize promoter sequences
TRANSCRIPTION
RNA PROCESSING
TRANSLATION
DNA
Pre-mRNA
mRNA
Ribosome
Polypeptide
T A T AAA AATAT T T T
TATA box Start point TemplateDNA strand
53
35
Transcriptionfactors
53
35
Promoter
53
355
RNA polymerase IITranscription factors
RNA transcript
Transcription initiation complex
Eukaryotic promoters1
Several transcriptionfactors
2
Additional transcriptionfactors
3
Synthesis of an RNA Transcript - Initiation
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• Sense strand, or coding strand, is the segment of double-stranded DNA running from 5' to 3' that is complementary to the antisense strand of DNA, which runs from 3' to 5'. The sense strand is the strand of DNA that has the same sequence as the mRNA, which takes the antisense strand as its template during transcription, and eventually undergoes translation into a protein.
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Promoter, a regulatory region of DNA usually located upstream of a gene, providing a control point for regulated gene transcription .
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Synthesis of an RNA Transcript - Elongation
Elongation
RNApolymerase
Non-templatestrand of DNA
RNA nucleotides
3 end
C A E G C A AU
T A G G T T AA
CG
U
AT
CA T C C A A T T
G
G
3
5
5
Newly madeRNA
Direction of transcription(“downstream”) Template
strand of DNA
• RNA polymerase synthesizes a single strand of RNA against the DNA template strand (anti-sense strand), adding nucleotides to the 3’ end of the RNA chain
• As RNA polymerase moves along the DNA it continues to untwist the double helix, exposing about 10 to 20 DNA bases at a time for pairing with RNA nucleotides
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• Specific sequences in the DNA signal termination of transcription
• When one of these is encountered by the polymerase, the RNA transcript is released from the DNA.
Synthesis of an RNA Transcript - Termination
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Transcription Overview
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• Most eukaryotic mRNAs aren’t ready to be translated into protein directly after being transcribed from DNA. mRNA requires processing.
• Transcription and RNA processing occur in the nucleus. After this, the messenger RNA moves to the cytoplasm for translation.
• The cell adds a protective cap to one end, and a tail of A’s to the other end. These both function to protect the RNA from enzymes that would degrade
• Most of the genome consists of non-coding regions called introns
1- Non-coding regions may have specific chromosomal functions or have regulatory purposes.
2- Introns also allow for alternative RNA splicing
• Thus, an RNA copy of a gene is converted into messenger RNA by doing 2 things:
– Add protective bases to the ends
– Cut out the introns
Post Transcriptional RNA Processing
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RNA Processing - Splicing
• The original transcript from the DNA is called pre-mRNA.
• It contains transcripts of both introns and exons.
• The introns are removed by a process called splicing to produce messenger RNA (mRNA)
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Alteration of mRNA Ends
• Each end of a pre-mRNA molecule is modified in a particular way– The 5 end receives a modified nucleotide cap– The 3 end gets a poly-A tail
A modified guanine nucleotideadded to the 5 end
50 to 250 adenine nucleotidesadded to the 3 end
Protein-coding segment Polyadenylation signal
Poly-A tail3 UTRStop codonStart codon
5 Cap 5 UTR
AAUAAA AAA…AAA
TRANSCRIPTION
RNA PROCESSING
DNA
Pre-mRNA
mRNA
TRANSLATIONRibosome
Polypeptide
G P P P
53
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1 - Capping - the 5’ end of the pre-mRNA is capped with a 7-methyl guanosine nucleotide.
Capping is required to:
1- Protect the RNA transcript from degradation 2-Plays an important role in mRNA transport to the cytoplasm 3- Initiation of protein synthesis.
CAP5’ 3
’
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2- Polyadenylation - the 3’ end of the pre-mRNA is cleaved and a stretch of adenosines are added to the end of the molecule.
Use of alternative polyadenylation sites can result in :
1- Insertion or deletion of sequences that control the stability of the mRNA.
2-The polyA tail is also involved in translation termination.
CAP5’ 3’
An
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3- Pre-mRNA splicing - intron-exon junctions (also referred to as splice sites) in the pre-mRNA, the intronic sequences are excised and the exons are ligated to generate the spliced mRNA.
AnCAP5’ 3’
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The enzyme that catalyzes intron excision is a ~ 3 MDa complex
pre-mRNA spliced mRNA
spliceosome
Assembly and structural dynamics of the spliceosome, one of the most complex molecular machines in the cell
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However, multiple introns may be spliced differently in different circumstances, for example in different tissues.
3 541 2
1 2 3 5Heart muscle
1 43 5Uterine muscle
Thus one gene can encode more than one protein. The proteins are similar but not identical and may have distinct properties.
This is important in complex organisms
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mRNA mRNA
Splicing
mRNA
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Typical human gene structure: 90-95% intron / 5-10% exon average Intron 3500bp / average exon 150
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Thus expression of a gene with an intron requires an extra step to remove the intron
protein
translation
DNA GE
transcription
NE
mRNA
RNA splicing
intron
pre-mRNAintron
exon 1 exon 2
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The human genome sequencing project (Venter et al., 2001) estimated the number of human genes to be between 30,000-40,000, which is much less than the previous estimates .
There are 130 thousands types of proteins.
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Types of RNA
Genetic information copied from DNA is transferred to 3 types of RNA:
mRNA
Copy of information in DNA constitutes ( 2%) , 100,000 KINDS.
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rRNA
Most of the RNA in cells is associated with structures known as ribosomes, the protein factories of the cells.(80%), FEW KINDS
It is the site of translation where genetic information brought by mRNA is translated into actual proteins.
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Types of rRNA :
In prokaryotic :( 23S,16S,5S)In Eukaryotic: ( 28S,18S, 5.8S and 5S).
Note: S ( Svedberg) is a unit refers to the molecular weight and shape of the compound .
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tRNA
Brings the amino acid to the ribosome that mRNA coded for. (15%), 100 KINDS.
It has 4S in molecular weight.
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Structure of tRNA
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