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Further copies can be obtained from:

Center for Global Environmental Research (CGER)

National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES)

16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan

Phone: +81-29-850-2349

Facsimile: +81-29-858-2645

E-mail: [email protected]

Copyright

Center for Global Environmental Research, 2000

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form

or by any means, electric or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information

retrieval system, without permission in writing from CGER.

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CGER-REPORT ISSN 1341-4356 CGER-D025-2000

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海面上昇データブック2000 序

地球環境研究センターの機能の一つは、国内外の地球環境研究者や行政担当者に、地球環境に関わるデータや情報を提供することである。地球環境研究センターは、1990年に設立されて以来、地球環境に関する最新の知見を提供するため、様々な出版物を作成してきた。現在、様々な地球環境問題の中でも地球温暖化による地球規模の海面上昇

は、居住・非居住地域のいずれに対しても甚大な影響を及ぼすものとして、広く認識されている。地球環境研究センターは、地球温暖化に関して、関連の調査・研究報告を編集・出版してきたが、その一環として、1996年に「海面上昇データブック」を完成させた。この初版は、IPCC第二次評価報告書など、当時の最新の知見を盛り込むよ

う努めるとともに、温暖化や海面上昇に関する知見や情報を、図表を駆使して分かりやすく解説したことから好評を博し、広く活用されている。今回、初版以降に進展の見られた気候変動の影響や適応策の研究などの成

果を取り込むべく、各分野の第一線の専門家による編集委員会を設置し、改訂版の編集を行った。本データブックが、地球温暖化の影響分野の専門家の方々のみでなく、広く一般の方の有用な情報となれば幸いである。最後に、本データブックの作成、編集に当たってご教示をいただいた、編

集委員会の各委員の方々をはじめ、多くの方々に厚くお礼申し上げる。

平成12年1月国立環境研究所地球環境研究センター総括研究管理官井上 元

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Preface Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000

Preface

One of the functions of the Center for Global Environmental Research (CGER) is

to provide data and information on the global environment to researchers, as

well as to administrators all over the world. CGER has published various

publications since its establishment in 1990, for the purpose of disseminating

the latest knowledge on the global environment.

Among the various global environmental issues, it is now widely recognized that

global sea level rise, attributed to global warming, can have tremendous impacts

on both inhabited and uninhabited areas. In relation to global warming, CGER

has published several research and survey reports. As a part of this ongoing

work, the "Data Book of Sea-Level Rise" was published by CGER in 1996.

The First Edition was compiled in order to achieve better understanding of the

various aspects of the sea level rise issue, using plain language and informative

tables and figures. In addition, the editors and authors took considerable effort

to incorporate as much as possible of the latest findings, such as those reported

in the IPCC Second Assessment Report. As a result, the First Edition was

acknowledged as a useful reference and has been widely used.

In order to integrate the increased understanding of the impacts of, and

responses to, climate change that has occurred since the publication of the First

Edition, CGER established an Editorial Committee consisting of leading experts

in each related field. Their task was to produce a revised edition of the "Data

Book of Sea-Level Rise". I hope this data book will be of great use to researchers

in related fields, as well as to the general public who are interested in global

warming and sea level rise.

Completion of this data book was made possible by the cooperation of many

individuals, including the Editorial Committee. I would like to express my

sincere appreciation for their important contribution.

January 2000

Gen Inoue

Director

Center for Global Environmental Research

National Institute for Environmental Studies

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海面上昇データブック2000 共同委員長より

共同委員長より

地球温暖化の予想される影響のうち、もっとも懸念されているものの一つが、海面上昇である。1995年12月に公表されたIPCC第2次報告書では、このまま何も対策をとらない「なりゆきシナリオ(Business As Usual)」の場合、21世紀末に海面が15~95cm、概ね50cm上昇すると予想されている。アジア・太平洋地域では、海沿いの国土の大部分が低地にあるバングラデシュ、低地に大都市を抱える中国、タイ、ベトナム、さらに、ツバル、キリバスなどの南太平洋の島嶼国にとって、温暖化の影響としての海面上昇は生存環境の破壊につながる深刻な問題になるであろう。温暖化対策の進展を図るためにも、こうした情報を、広く国内外に伝えたい。このような気持ちで「海面上昇データブック(初版)」を編集したのは、

4年前の1996年2月であった。専門的な知識の羅列になりがちな温暖化や海面上昇に関する知見や情報を、分かりやすく紹介するという趣旨が理解されて、この初版「海面上昇データブック」は、講演会、国際会議、セミナー、JICA研修コースなど多くの機会に利用された。その後、京都議定書が締結されて国際的に温暖化防止対策の具体化が図ら

れつつある。同時に、気候変動の影響の研究に関しても一層の広がりと進展が見られるので、適応策の研究など最新の知見を折り込み、「海面上昇データブック」の改訂版を編集することにした。本データブックが、専門家のみでなく一層多くの方々に使われ、温暖化問題の解決にむけて有効な情報源となれば幸いである。本データブックの改訂に当たっては、各分野の第一線の専門家による編集

委員会を設立して編集作業を行い、質量ともに内容の充実を期した。また、その他にも多くの方々のご協力を頂いた。末筆ながら、ここに記して心からの感謝の意を表したい。

2000年1月茨城大学広域水圏環境科学教育研究センター三村 信男

国立環境研究所社会環境システム部原沢 英夫

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000From Co-Chairpersons

From Co-Chairpersons

One of the most serious impacts induced by climate change is the rise in global

mean sea level. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

indicated in its Second Assessment Report, published in December of 1995, that

by 2100 an increase in the global mean sea level might range from 15 cm to 90

cm, with 50 cm as the most probable value, assuming the Business-As-Usual

scenario. In the Asian and Pacific regions, the anticipated sea-level rise may

cause serious damage to human living conditions as well as the natural

environment, in Bangladesh where a large area of the country is below 1 meter

in elevation, in China, Thailand, and Vietnam which have large cities in low

coastal areas, and in many small island nations such as Tuvalu and Kiribati. In

order to promote measures to deal with global warming, this type of information

should be made widely available.

Based on an awareness of the importance of this issue, we published "Data Book

of Sea-Level Rise" (First Edition) in February 1996. It has been welcomed and

used on many occasions including symposiums, international conferences,

seminars, and JICA training courses.

After publication of the First Edition, progress has been made in developing

international mechanisms to arrest global warming, as agreed in the Kyoto

Protocol in 1997, and in studies about the impacts of and responses to climate

change. This new edition of the Data Book was designed to incorporate new

information acquired during recent years. We hope this Data Book will be of

great help for researchers in related fields as well as for the general public.

This Data Book was completed by an Editorial Committee consisting of leading

experts in each related field, with the cooperation of many others. We would

like to express our sincere thanks to the members of the Editorial Committee

and the people who worked together to produce this publication.

January 2000

Nobuo Mimura

Center for Water Environment Studies

Ibaraki University

Hideo Harasawa

Social and Environmental Systems Division

National Institute for Environmental Studies

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海面上昇データブック2000

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000海面上昇データブック 2000

海面上昇データブック2000の目的及び構成Objectives and Structure of the Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 .....9

地球温暖化・海面上昇のメカニズムおよび将来予測Mechanisms and Projections of Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise 132.1 地球温暖化のメカニズム

Mechanisms of Global Warming ............................................................................................14

2.2 過去の気候変動と現状Past and Present Climate Change ..........................................................................................16

2.3 地球温暖化の将来予測Projections of Global Warming..............................................................................................18

2.4 海面上昇のメカニズムMechanisms of Sea-Level Rise ................................................................................................20

2.5 過去の海水準変動と現状Sea-Level Change – Past and Present .....................................................................................22

2.6 海面上昇の将来予測Projection of Sea-Level Rise ...................................................................................................24

沿岸域への影響Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones.......................................273.1 地球温暖化の沿岸域への影響

Impacts of Global Warming on Coastal Zones.......................................................................28

3.2 自然・生態系に対する影響Impacts on Natural Resources and Ecosystems .....................................................................30(1) 砂浜海岸 Sandy Beaches ...............................................................................................30(2) デルタ その1 Deltas, Part1 ..........................................................................................32(3) デルタ その2 Deltas, Part2 ..........................................................................................34(4) マングローブ Mangroves ...............................................................................................36(5) サンゴ礁 その1 Coral Reefs, Part1 ..............................................................................38(6) サンゴ礁 その2 Coral Reefs, Part2 ..............................................................................40(7) 湖沼・汽水域 その1 Coastal Lagoons, Part1 ...............................................................42(8) 湖沼・汽水域 その2 Coastal Lagoons, Part2 ...............................................................44(9) 水資源 Water Resources ................................................................................................46

3.3 社会・経済に対する影響Impacts on Human Society ....................................................................................................48(1) 人間居住 Impacts on Human Settlements ....................................................................48(2) 社会基盤施設 Infrastructure ...........................................................................................50(3) 産業・経済活動 Industry and Economic Activities .......................................................52

3.4 影響評価手法Methodologies for Impact Assessment ..................................................................................54(1) さまざまな影響評価手法 Overview of Methodologies for Impact Assessment ...........54(2) 経済的評価手法 その1 Methodologies for Impact Assessment of Economic Aspects, Part 1 ...........56(3) 経済的評価手法 その2 Methodologies for Impact Assessment of Economic Aspects, Part 2 ...........58

目次

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000

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影響評価・カントリースタディImpact Assessment Studies and Country Studies...............................614.1 影響評価・カントリースタディの概観

Overview of Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies..............................................62

4.2 アジア地域の研究Impact Assessment Studies in the Asian Region ....................................................................64(1) バングラデシュ Bangladesh...........................................................................................64(2) 中国 China......................................................................................................................66(3) インド India ...................................................................................................................68(4) タイ Thailand.................................................................................................................70(5) ベトナム Vietnam...........................................................................................................72

4.3 南大平洋島嶼国の研究Impact Assessment Studies in South Pacific Island Countries ...............................................74(1) 取り組みの概要 Overview of Impact Assessment Studies............................................74(2) フィジー Fiji ...................................................................................................................76(3) キリバス Kiribati ............................................................................................................78(4) サモア Samoa.................................................................................................................80(5) トンガ Tonga .................................................................................................................82(6) ツバル Tuvalu ................................................................................................................84

4.4 日本の研究Impact Assessment Studies in Japan ......................................................................................86(1) 災害ポテンシャル Potential Risk....................................................................................86(2) 東京湾に対する台風の被害 Impacts of Typhoons on Tokyo Bay.................................88(3) 砂浜海岸の侵食 Erosion of Sandy Coastlines................................................................90(4) 海岸構造物の対策費用 Protection Costs of Coastal Infrastructures ..............................92

4.5 世界及び地域規模の影響評価Global and Regional Impact Assessment ...............................................................................94

国際的な取り組みInternational Programs and Activities................................................975.1 国際的な取り組みの全体像

Overview of International Activities on Global Warming......................................................98

5.2 IPCCの取り組みIPCC Activities .....................................................................................................................100

5.3 気候変動枠組条約と京都議定書、COP4The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol, and COP4 .......102

対応戦略と適応策Response Strategy and Adaptation...................................................1056.1 対応戦略の基本的な考え方

Basic Concept of Response Strategies .................................................................................106

6.2 適応策Adaptation............................................................................................................................108

6.3 適応技術-ハード技術とソフト技術Adaptation Technology - Hard and Soft Technologies ........................................................110

6.4 適応策の例Examples of Adaptive Measures ..........................................................................................112

6.5 総合的沿岸域管理計画Integrated Coastal Zone Management .................................................................................114

引用文献・索引・略語一覧 References • Index • Abbreviations............................................117

Contents

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海面上昇データブック 2000 編集委員会Editorial Committee for Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000

海面上昇データブック2000 編集委員会 Editorial Committee for Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000

三村 信男 共同委員長、茨城大学広域水圏環境科学教育研究センターNobuo Mimura Co-Chairperson, Center for Water Environment Studies, Ibaraki University

原沢 英夫 共同委員長、国立環境研究所社会環境システム部Hideo Harasawa Co-Chairperson, Social Environmental Systems Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies

磯部 雅彦 東京大学大学院新領域創成科学研究科Masahiko Isobe Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, University of Tokyo

海津 正倫 名古屋大学文学部Masatomo Umitsu Department of Geography, Nagoya University

大野 栄治 名城大学都市情報学部Eiji Ohno Faculty of Urban Science, Meijo University

茅根 創 東京大学大学院理学系研究科Hajime Kayane Department of Geography, University of Tokyo

小島 治幸 九州共立大学工学部Haruyuki Kojima Faculty of Civil Engineering, Kyusyu Kyoritsu University

筒井 純一 電力中央研究所環境科学部Junichi Tsutsui Environmental Science Department, Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry

平井 幸弘 愛媛大学教育学部Yukihiro Hirai Faculty of Education, Ehime University

水谷 法美 名古屋大学大学院工学研究科Norimi Mizutani Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University

宮城 豊彦 東北学院大学文学部Toyohiko Miyagi Department of Geography, Tohoku-Gakuin University

横木 裕宗 茨城大学広域水圏環境科学教育研究センターHiromune Yokoki Center for Water Environment Studies, Ibaraki University

事務局 Secretariat山形 与志樹 国立環境研究所地球環境研究センター(1999年4月~)Yoshiki Yamagata Center for Global Environmental Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (April 1999~)

布井 敬二 国立環境研究所地球環境研究センター(~1999年5月)Keiji Nunoi Center for Global Environmental Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (~May 1999)

酒向 健 国立環境研究所地球環境研究センター(1999年5月~)Ken Sakou Center for Global Environmental Research, National Institute for Environmental Studies (May 1999~)

山田 和人 パシフィックコンサルタンツ株式会社環境部Kazuhito Yamada Environment Department, Pacific Consultants Co., Ltd.

藤森 眞理子 パシフィックコンサルタンツ株式会社環境部Mariko Fujimori Environment Department, Pacific Consultants Co., Ltd.

町田 聡 パシフィックコンサルタンツ株式会社情報技術部Satoshi Machida Information Technology Department, Pacific Consultants Co., Ltd.

翻訳者 Translator/Proof Readerランダル・ヘルテンRandal Helten

デザイン/イラスト Design/Illustration河口 昌司 パシフィックコンサルタンツ株式会社環境部Shoji Kawaguchi Environment Department, Pacific Consultants Co., Ltd.

青木 健太郎 パシフィックコンサルタンツ株式会社環境部Kentaro Aoki Environment Department, Pacific Consultants Co., Ltd.

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海面上昇データブック2000の目的及び構成Objectives and Structure

of the Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000

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海面上昇データブック2000の目的及び構成Objectives and Structure of the Data Book ofSea-Level Rise 2000

1目的及び構成

1.

海面上昇データブック2000の目的

ヤシの木陰に続く白い砂浜。行き交うヨット。あるいは、客船や貨物船が並ぶ港の喧噪。威勢の

いい声の飛び交う漁港の朝。氷に閉ざされた極域の海岸線。マングローブやサンゴ礁の続く熱帯の

海岸……。

世界の海岸は、実にダイナミックで多様な魅力に満ちている。こうした魅力は、人類の歴史の最初

から人々を海岸に惹きつけ続けてきた。現在では、世界の約50%の人が、海岸線から100kmの地域に

暮らしている。

海岸や沿岸域の環境は、自然の営みと人間の活動の微妙なバランスの上で揺れているが、地球温暖

化による気候変動と海面上昇によって新しい脅威が加わろうとしている。こうした地球規模の環境変

動によって、海岸の低地やそこで暮らす人々、あるいはサンゴ礁の小さな島国は大きな影響を被ると

予想されている。

地球温暖化と気候変動問題の将来予測には、まだ断言し切れない点が残っている。また、断片的な

ニュースから気候変動問題の全体像を理解するのは難しい。しかし、1990年代を通じて、予測の精度

を高め、影響の実態を明らかにすべく研究に多大な努力が注がれてきた。その結果、「気候変動問題は

どこまで解明されているのか」、「世界の対応策はどこまで進んでいるのか」といった問に答えること

が可能になってきている。この海面上昇データブック2000は、こうした関心と疑問に答えるべく、最

新の知見をまとめて海面上昇・気候変動問題の全体像を分かりやすく示すことを目的に編集されたも

のである。この本が、豊かな資源と多様な魅力をもつ世界の海岸の保全に役立つことを願っている。

海面上昇データブック2000の構成

海面上昇・気候変動問題の全体像を示すという目的に沿って、このデータブックは、以下のような

内容で構成されている。

・地球温暖化・海面上昇のメカニズム及び将来予測

・海面上昇・気候変動の沿岸域への影響

・影響評価研究とカントリースタディの現状

・気候変動問題に対する国際的な取り組み

・対応戦略と適応策

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 11

Objectives and Structure

Objectives of the Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000

A white shiny beach under a line of palm trees. Boats coming and going. The din and bustle of a

busy port. The voices in a harborside fish market. Ice-covered coastlines in the Arctic. Tropical

coastlines fringed with mangroves and coral reefs . . .

The coastal zones of the world are filled with dynamism and many attractions. People have been

drawn to the coasts since the beginning of history, and today, about a half of the world's

population is said to live within 100 kilometers of the coastline.

The environment in the coastal zones exists in a fragile balance of natural processes and human

activities. But a new threat is emerging. If climate change and sea-level rise induced by global

warming progress as predicted, the consequences will be serious, especially for small coral

island states and people living in low-lying coastal areas.

Predictions of global warming and climate change still involve uncertainty. In addition, it is

difficult to understand the issue of climate change completely, based only on fragmented news

reports. However, tremendous efforts have been made during the past decade to narrow the

level of uncertainty and to reveal the impacts of climate change. This "Data Book of Sea-Level

Rise 2000" is an attempt to answer common questions by presenting the whole picture of

climate change and sea-level rise issues, based on the latest information. To what extent can we

understand the phenomenon of climate change? To what extent have international efforts made

progress to develop responses to climate change? This Data Book is designed to answer

questions such as these. We hope that it can contribute to preserving the world's rich resources

and the vibrant diversity of its coasts.

Structure of the Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000

The Data Book consists of 44 items with the following structure.

• Mechanisms and projections of global warming and sea-level rise

• Impacts of sea-level rise and climate change on the coastal zones

• Present status of the impact assessment studies and country studies

• International programs and activities

• Response strategies and adaptation

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地球温暖化・海面上昇のメカニズム及び将来予測Mechanisms and Projections of Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise

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1地球温暖化・海面上昇のメカニズムおよび将来予測

2. 地球温暖化のメカニズムMechanisms of Global Warming

Greenhouse effect

The Earth absorbs radiation from the sun, including ultraviolet, visible, and other rays. After warming the

atmosphere, the land and oceans, this energy is re-radiated to space at longer wavelengths (infrared rays).

Normally the thermal budget of the Earth is balanced, with the radiation from the Sun equal to the thermal

radiation from the Earth. However, when greenhouse gases (GHGs) are present in the atmosphere, more

of the thermal radiation is absorbed by these gases. The absorbed energy is eventually radiated to space

from higher, colder levels in the atmosphere, after repeated absorption and re-radiation by GHGs between

the atmosphere and the surface of the earth (Figure 2-1-1). As a result of this greenhouse effect, the global

mean surface temperature is already approximately 33°C warmer than the Earth would be without GHGs.

GHGs include water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),

ozone (O3) etc., each of which has a different level of "radiative forcing". The Global Warming Potential

(GWP) is defined as the radiative forcing caused by a unit mass of gas emitted, expressed relative to that of

CO2. The GWP is used for discussions on the reduction of GHG emissions. (Table 2-1-1).

Global warming/Climate change

The changes in the radiative balance of the Earth due to an increase in GHGs will alter atmospheric and

oceanic temperatures and circulation (the jet stream and ocean currents etc.), and weather patterns. Global

warming and climate change are the general terms for these changes. Since the Industrial Revolution, the

atmospheric concentrations of GHGs have been increasing dramatically, caused by accelerated

consumption of fossil fuels, and land-use and land-cover change, etc. (Figure 2-1-2). The Inter-

governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that the average concentrations of CO2 before the

Industrial Revolution were approximately 280 ppmv, that the recent observed rate of increase was 1.8

ppmv/yr, and that global mean surface temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6°C over the last 100 years

(IPCC, 1996).

温室効果

地球は、太陽からの放射(紫外線、可視光線など)を吸収する。このエネルギーは、大気や陸地、

海洋を暖めた後、より長い波長(赤外線)で宇宙空間に再放射される。地球全体の熱収支は、太陽か

らの放射と地球からの熱放射とがバランスすることによって保たれる。しかし、大気中に「温室効果

ガス(GHGs)」が存在すれば、この熱放射の一部は、「温室効果ガス」に吸収される。温室効果ガスに

吸収されたエネルギーは、地表面との間で吸収、放射を繰り返した後、最終的に大気上層部から宇宙

空間に放射される(Figure 2-1-1)。つまり、大気層は、日射は容易に透過させるが、地表面からの熱

放射の一部の流出を妨げ、熱エネルギーを地表面付近に保持する。この「温室効果」の結果、すでに

地表面は、大気層の温室効果ガスがないと仮定した場合に比べて約33℃も高くなっている。温室効果

ガスには、水蒸気(H2O)、二酸化炭素(CO2)、メタン(CH4)、フロン(クロロフルオロカーボン;

CFCs)およびオゾン(O3)などがあり、それぞれ温室効果の強度が異なっている。このため、単位排

出量当たりの温室効果を二酸化炭素を基準として算定した温暖化ポテンシャルが定義され、削減量の

議論などに使われている。(Table 2-1-1)。

地球温暖化・気候変動

温室効果ガスの濃度増加による地球の放射バランスの変化は、大気や海洋の温度や、大気、海洋の

循環(ジェット気流、海流など)、気象パターンを変化させる。地球温暖化・気候変動は、これらの変

化の総称である。産業革命以降、化石燃料の燃焼量増大、土地利用・被覆の変化等の原因により、大

気中の温室効果ガス濃度は著しく増大している(Figure 2-1-2)。IPCCは、産業革命前のCO2濃度を

280ppmv、近年の増加速度を約1.8ppmv/yrと見積もり、「地球の平均気温は、過去100年間に0.3~

0.6℃上昇している」と報告している(IPCC, 1996)。

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 15

Mechanisms and Projections of Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise 2

Table 2-1-1Global Warming Potential referenced to the updated decayresponse for the Bern carbon cycle model and future CO2

atmospheric concentrations held constant at current levels.Source:IPCC (1996)

Figure 2-1-2CO2 concentrations over the past1000 years from ice core records(D47, D57, Siple and South Pole)and (since 1958) from Mauna Loa,Hawaii, measurement site. All icecore measurements were taken inAntarctica. The smooth curve isbased on a hundred year movingaverage. The rapid increase in CO2

concentration since the onset ofindustrialisation is evident and hasfollowed closely the increase inCO2 emissions from fossil fuels(see inset of period from 1850onwards).Source: IPCC (1996)

Figure 2-1-1A simplified diagram illustrating the greenhouse effect.Source: IPCC (1990)

Species

ChemicalFormula

Lifetime(years)

Global Warming Potential(Time Horizon)

20 years 100 years 500 years

CO2 CO2 variable** 1 1 1Methane* CH4 12±3 56 21 6.5Nitrous oxide N2O 120 280 310 170HFC-23 CHF3 264 9,100 11,700 9,800Sulphur hexafluoride SF6 3,200 16,300 23,900 34,900Perfluoromethane CF4 50,000 4,400 6,500 10,000* The GWP for methane includes indirect effects of tropospheric ozone production and stratospheric water vapour

production, as in IPCC(1994).** Derived from the Bern carbon cycle model.

D57D47SipleSouth PoleMauna LoaFossile CO2 emissionsOne hundred yearrunning mean

380380

6

4

2

0

360

340

320

300

2801850 1900 1950 2000

360

340

320

300

280

260800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

CO

2 co

ncen

trat

ion

(ppm

v)

CO

2 co

ncen

trat

ion

(ppm

v)

Foss

il C

O2

emis

sion

s (G

tC/y

r)

Year

Year

Some of the infra-redradiation is absorbedand re-emitted by thegreenhouse gases.The effect of this is towarm the surface andthe lower atmosphere.

ATMOSPHEREATMOSPHERE

EARTH

SUNSolar radiationpasses throughthe clear atmosphere

Some solarradiation is reflectedby the earth andthe atmosphere

Infra-red radiation is emitted fromthe earth's surface

Most radiation is absorbedby the earth's surfaceand warms it.

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2地球温暖化・海面上昇のメカニズムおよび将来予測

2. 過去の気候変動と現状Past and Present Climate Change

The Quaternary period, the present geological age, has been experiencing global climate

change, with repeated glacial and interglacial epochs. According to analysis of traces of climate

change, an era of rapid warming ended a cold period about 150,000 years ago, and lasted until

the warmest period in the last inter-glacial epoch, about 120,000~130,000 years ago.

Temperatures then decreased gradually, despite repeated warming and cooling, until the last

glacial period. After the coolest part of this period, about 20,000 years ago, warming started

rapidly, leading to the post-glacial era (Figure 2-2-1), which has been continuing from about

10,000 years ago to the present. Six thousand years ago, during the "climatic optimum", the

middle latitudes experienced higher temperatures compared to the present.

Regarding the present global warming, IPCC (1996) reported that "The mean global surface

temperature has increased by about 0.3~0.6°C since the late 19th century, and by about

0.2~0.3°C over the last 40 years, the period with most reliable data. The warming occurred

largely during two periods, between 1910 and 1940 and since the mid-1970s." As shown in

Figure 2-2-2, according to IPCC (1996) the rise in surface temperature has not been globally

uniform.

This warming has continued into the in 1990s. Japan's Meteorological Agency reported that

"the average global surface temperature in 1998 showed the highest record since 1880,

overtaking the former highest record in 1995 (0.6°C warmer than average). As a result of the

rise in temperatures, various phenomena related to global warming have been observed

recently, such as retreating glaciers, an increased number of icebergs in the Arctic zone, and

bleaching of coral reefs.

現在は地質時代の最も新しい時期である第四紀にあたっている。この時期は氷期・間氷期の繰り返

しによって気候が大きく変動した時代である。過去15万年間についてみると,15万年前頃の寒冷な時

期から急激に温暖化が進行し,12~13万年前頃に最も温暖になる最終間氷期を迎える。その後,寒暖

の変化を繰り返しながら気温は次第に低下し,最終氷期となる。最終氷期の最も寒冷な時期は約2万年

前であり,その後は再度の急激な温暖化によって後氷期とよばれる時期に至る(Figure 2-2-1)。後氷

期は約1万年前から始まり現在まで続いているが,急速な気温の上昇によってすでに約6000年前の気

候最適期(climatic optimum)には中緯度地方における気温が現在より若干高くなったことが知られて

いる。

IPCC(1996)は、「地表面の平均温度は、19世紀後半から0.3~0.6℃上昇し、最も信頼し得るデ

ータのある過去40年では、0.2~0.3℃上昇した。温暖化は1910~1940年及び1970年以降に生じ

ている」と報告している。また、温暖化は、地球上に一様に生じているわけではなく、地域的な偏り

がある(FIgure 2-2-2)。

1990年代は、更に温暖化が進行しており、気象庁は「1998年の世界の年平均地上気温は、これま

で最も高かった1995年(平年差+0.60℃)を抜いて、1880年以降で最高となった」と報告している

(Figure 2-2-3)。その結果として、氷河の後退、北極圏の氷山の増加など、気温の上昇に関連した現

象が観測されている。

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 17

Mechanisms and Projections of Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise 2

Figure 2-2-3Annual surfacetemperature anomaliesfrom 1880 to 1998 worldwide (land only).Source: JapanMeteorological Agency(www.date.kishow.go.jp/climate/cpdinfo/20th/1_2_1.htm, in Japanese)

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.51880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

anom

aly

(°C)

Year

Figure 2-2-2Change (from 1955-74 to 1975-94) ofannual land-surface airtemperature and seasurface temperature.Source: IPCC (1996)-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2°C

120E 180 120W 60W 0 60E 120E

90N

60N

30N

0

30S

60S

90S

Figure 2-2-1Reconstructed climaterecords showing rapidchanges in the NorthAtlantic and Greenland; thecorresponding events(indicated by thin dashedvertical lines) aresuppressed in the Antarcticrecord. Temperaturechanges are estimatedfrom the isotopic contentof ice (Greenland andAntarctica) and from faunalcounts (North Atlantic).HL1 to HL5 indicatesedimentary "Heinrich"layers.Figure adapted from Jouzelet al. (1994)Source: IPCC (1996)140 120 100 80

AGE(kyr)

~5°C

~10°C

~10°C

HL5 HL4 HL3 HL2 HL1

60 40 20 0

Heinrich Layers

North Atlantic Ocean

Greenland

Antarctica

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3地球温暖化・海面上昇のメカニズムおよび将来予測

2. 地球温暖化の将来予測Projections of Global Warming

General Circulation Model (GCM)

Global changes in temperatures and precipitation can be predicted using a general circulation

model (GCM), which is a numerical representation of dynamics and physical phenomena in

the atmosphere over the entire earth. In GCMs, the globe is represented by a computational

grid system as shown in Figure 2-3-1, and three-dimensional patterns of winds, temperatures,

and other parameters are calculated using super computers.

Prediction resulting from a GCM simulation

For global warming projections, coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation models are

used to take into account the large heat storing capacity of the ocean. Figure 2-3-2 shows the

changes in annual mean surface temperatures when atmospheric CO2 concentrations are

doubled, as predicted by the latest coupled model developed by the U.S. National Center for

Atmospheric Research, using a CO2 emission scenario of 1 percent per year transient increase.

In this result, larger temperature increases are observed over land areas and in polar regions.

Predictions resulting from a regional model

Global climate models provide only limited regional-scale information because of their coarse

spatial resolutions. Thus, regional modeling techniques have been developed, applying high-

resolution models to particular regions, with boundary conditions from a global simulation.

Figure 2-3-2 shows a comparison between the results of a GCM experiment and a regional

model experiment for June precipitation over Eastern Asia. The regional model can simulate

the Asian seasonal rain front (known as baiu in Japan) realistically, whereas the GCM cannot.

大循環モデル(GCM)

地球規模の気温や降水量の変化は、地球全体の大気の運動およびその中で起こる物理現象を数値的

に表現した大循環モデル(GCM)を用いて予測される。GCMでは、全球はFigure 2-3-1に示すような計

算格子で表現され、風や気温の3次元的な時間変化がスーパーコンピュータによって計算される。

GCMによる予測結果

温暖化の予測には、熱容量の大きな海洋の効果を考慮した、大気・海洋結合大循環モデルが利用さ

れる。Figure 2-3-2に、米国大気研究センターの最新の結合モデルによって予測されたCO2倍増時の

地表面温度の変化を示す。ここでは、CO2濃度が年1%の割合で増加するという排出シナリオが使われ

ている。この結果では陸域や極地方で大きな気温上昇が見られる。

地域モデルによる予測結果

GCMは空間分解能が粗いため、地域的な変化を精度良く予測するには限界がある。そこで、GCMの

結果を境界条件として、特定の地域に対して高分解能地域気候モデルを適用する手法が開発されてい

る。Figure 2-3-3に、東アジア地域の6月の降水量について、GCMと地域モデルで計算された結果を

比較する。地域モデルでは、GCMでは表現されない梅雨前線が現実的にシミュレートされている。

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 19

Mechanisms and Projections of Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise 2

Figure 2-3-1Grid for General Circulation Model (GCM).

Figure 2-3-2Changes in annualmean surfacetemperatures in a CO2-doubled climate.Source: Revised fromMaruyama et al. (1997)

CONTOUR FROM -2 TO 6 BY .5

-1 0 1 2 3 °C

Precipitation : June, Y95 Precipitation : June, Y95

CSM RegCM

0 100 200 300 400mm

0 100 200 300 400mm

Figure 2-3-3June precipitationspredicted by a GCM(left) and a regionalmodel (right).Source: Revised fromKato et al. (1998)

0° 60°E 120°E 180° 120°W 60°W 360°

60°N

30°N

EQ

30°S

60°S

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海面上昇のメカニズムMechanisms of Sea-Level Rise4

地球温暖化・海面上昇のメカニズムおよび将来予測

2.

Factors of sea-level rise

The global mean sea level will gradually rise as a result of global warming, over a period of decades to a hundred years.

There are four major factors related to this phenomenon (Figures 2-4-1, 2-4-2, Table 2-4-1):

1) Thermal expansion of the oceans: The volume of seawater in the mixing layer of the oceans (from the surface to

about 200 m in depth) expands as a result of an increase in the water temperature. The sea-level rise due to the

thermal expansion has recently been examined by several types of models, including the Box-upwelling-diffusion

Models, Subduction Models, and Coupled Ocean General Circulation Models.

2) Mountain glaciers and small ice caps: The amount of ice stored in mountain glaciers and small ice caps is only a

fraction of the total amount of land ice. However, because they have shorter response times than the large ice sheets

of Greenland and Antarctica, they are thought to be important for sea-level rise. Oerlemans and Fortuin (1992)

reported that the rate of rise in sea level due to the melting of mountain glaciers and small ice caps would be 0.58

mm/yr for a temperature increase of 1°C.

3) Greenland ice sheet: Melting of the Greenland ice sheet during summer is likely to contribute to a rise in sea level.

IPCC (1990) reported that the rate of rise in sea level due to melting of the Greenland ice sheet was 0.3 ± 0.2 mm/yr.

4) Antarctic ice sheet: According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the melting of the Antarctic ice

sheet is unlikely to contribute to sea-level rise. It is estimated that the effects of melting of the periphery of the

Antarctic ice sheet in the course of global warming will be nearly balanced with those of increasing snowfall on its

center, which becomes compressed and forms the ice sheet (IPCC, 1996). Contrary to this equilibrium-state ice sheet

model, it has been pointed out that abrupt collapses of shelf ice at the unstable edge of the west Antarctic ice sheet

may accelerate sea-level rise (although the melting of that ice shelf itself will not cause sea-level rise). A rapid

breakdown of the edge of the ice sheet has been observed by satellites. In addition, evidence exists that rapid melting

of the western Antarctica ice sheet has occurred in the past.

In addition, it is noted that significant amount of water is stored in man-made reservoirs and ground water aquifers.

海面上昇の要因

地球温暖化によって長期間、徐々に海面の平均水位が上昇すると考えられている。その時間スケールは数

10年~100年程度であり、主に以下の4つの要因が関係しているといわれている(Figure 2-4-1、2-4-2、

Table 2-4-1)。

1) 海洋の熱膨張:海水温の上昇に伴い、とくに海洋表層の混合層(表面から水深200m程度)の海水の体積

が膨張し、海面が上昇する。現在、海洋の熱膨張による海面上昇は、Box-upwelling-diffusion Model、

Subduction Model、Coupled Ocean General Circulation Modelなどの数種類のモデルにより検討されて

いる。

2) 山岳氷河および氷冠:山岳氷河および氷冠の氷の蓄積量は、地球上の総量の一部分にすぎない。しかし、

グリーンランドや南極の巨大な氷床に比べて気温上昇に対する反応が早いため、10年~100年のスケー

ルにおける海面変動に対して重要であると考えられている。Oerlemans and Fortuin(1992)は、1℃

の温度上昇に伴う山岳氷河の溶解による海面上昇速度を0.58mm/yrと報告している。

3) グリーンランドの氷床:グリーンランドの気温上昇が、夏季の氷床の溶解を引き起こし、海面上昇に寄

与すると考えられている。IPCC(1990)は、グリーンランドの氷床の溶解による海面上昇速度を

0.3±0.2mm/yrと報告している。

4) 南極の氷床:IPCC(1996) によれば、来世紀の海面上昇に南極氷床はほとんど寄与しないとされている。

これは、南極氷床末端で温暖化によって消耗(融解)する量と、氷床中央部で降雪量の増加によって涵養

される量とがほぼ釣り合うと予測されるからである.こうした定常的な氷床の収支モデルに対して、とく

に西南極氷床は不安定で末端の棚氷の急激な崩壊によって(棚氷自身の融解では海面は上昇しないが)、

海面上昇が加速する可能性も指摘されている。衛星によって末端の棚氷の急激な崩壊が観測されている。

また過去にも西南極氷床が急激に融解した証拠もある。

この他に最近では、ダム湖や地下水としての水の貯蓄の効果も注目されている。

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 21

Mechanisms and Projections of Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise 2

BESTESTIMATE

HIGH

LOW

Thermalexpansion

Glaciers/small ice

caps

GreenlandIce Sheet

AntarcticIce Sheet TOTAL OBSERVED

2

4

6

1.5

4

7

1

2.5

4

-5

0

5

-0.5 10

10.5 15

22 20

Table 2-4-1Estimated contributions to sea-level rise over the last 100years (in cm).Source: IPCC (1990)

Figure 2-4-2A composite global meansea-level curve over the lastcentury (reference period is1957-70) with 5 yearsmoving average representedby the solid line.Source: Adopted fromGornitz and Lebedeff (1987)

Figure 2-4-1Mechanisms of sea-level rise.Source: Revised from IPCC (1990)

OCEAN LAND

Antarctic Ice Sheet = 0cm

Greenland Ice Sheet 2.5cm

Mountain glaciers/small ice caps 4.0cm

Thermal expansion 4.0cm

* Indicated figures are from the best estimateover the last 100 years in Table 2-4-1.

8.0

4.0

0

-4.0

-8.0

-12.0

Sea

leve

l (cm

)

1880 19801900 1920 1940 1960Date

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過去の海水準変動と現状Sea-Level Change – Past and Present5

地球温暖化・海面上昇のメカニズムおよび将来予測

2.

大規模な気候変化にともなって氷床(大陸氷河)や氷河が拡大・縮小する。その結果、氷期には氷

床の拡大にともなって地球上の水が大規模に陸上に蓄積され、海面が低下する。これに対して間氷期

には陸上に蓄積されていた氷が融けだして海洋に流入して海面が上昇する.第四紀末期の最終氷期最

盛期には120m程度海面が低下したとされ、世界各地の大陸棚や内湾などが陸化し、陸上の河川が海側

に延長し、陸化した内湾の底や大陸棚上に谷地形を形成した。最終氷期最盛期に続く晩氷期から後氷

期には海面が急激に上昇し、約6000年前には、多くの地域で海水準が現在とほぼ同じか現在より若干

高い位置にまで達した。

Gornitz et al.(1987)は、130ヵ所の検潮器のデータを解析し、過去100年間の海面上昇速度を

1.2mm/yrと見積もっている。また、IPCC(1990)は、過去100年間の海面上昇を10~20cm、平

均速度を1.0mm~2.0mm/yrと報告している。

In connection with climate changes have taken place on a global scale, ice sheets (continental

glaciers) and mountain glaciers have changed in volume and area. Thus, with the expansion of

the ice sheets during the glacial periods, the Earth's water was, to a greater extent stored as ice

on land, resulting in lower sea levels. Conversely, ice that had formed on land melted and

flowed into the oceans in the course of interglacial periods, causing the sea level to rise. It is

thought that the sea level dropped by about 120 meters during the last glacial maximum

(approximately 20,000 years ago), and continental shelves and inner bays emerged then in

various regions of the world. Also, continental rivers extended further seaward and formed

incised valleys on the bottoms of inner bays and continental shelves. Later, during the late and

post glacial periods, the sea level rose rapidly, and was up to the same level as at present by

6,000 years ago.

Gornitz et al. (1987) estimated that the rate of sea-level rise during the past 100 years was 1.2

mm/yr, based on the analysis of tidal records at 130 sites. IPCC (1990) reported that the mean

sea level rose by 10 to 20 cm in the past 100 years, equivalent to an average rise of 1.0 to 2.0

mm/yr.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 23

Mechanisms and Projections of Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise 2

Figure 2-5-1Processes controlling the factors givingrise to the three different types of eustasywhich together with crustal movementsdetermine the relative sea level changes(besides some local factors of minorimportance).Source: Mörner (1980)

Climate Earth Movements Gravity, Rotation

Glacial Eustasy

MeteorologicalHydrologicalOceanographic

localchanges

Ocean-LevelChanges

"EUSTASY"

LocalCompaction

CrustalMovements

Tectono-Eustasy

RelativeSea-LevelChanges

Geoidal Eustasy

Ocean-WaterVolume-Changes

Ocean-BasinVolume-Changes

Ocean-LevelDistribution

Changes

SEA

LAND

1 2 3

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24

海面上昇の将来予測Projection of Sea-Level Rise6

地球温暖化・海面上昇のメカニズムおよび将来予測

2.

将来の海面上昇

将来の海面上昇は、海水の熱膨張や氷河・氷床の融解といった海面水位の変化に寄与する個々の要

因に対して、それぞれ独立した数値モデルを適用することによって予測される。温室効果ガスの排出

に関するシナリオIS92a-fによる将来の海面上昇の予測をFigure2-6-1に、IS92aの最小値、中間値お

よび最大値をFigure 2-6-2に示す(Wigley and Raper, 1992)。IS92aによる1990-2100年の海面

上昇は、15cm-90cm(最適値48cm)と予測されている。

温暖化は海洋や氷床の変化に対しては時間的な遅れを伴って波及する。したがって、Figure2-6-1に

示されるように、21世紀前半の予測値は温室効果ガスの排出シナリオにはあまり依存しない。一方、

予測モデルの不確実性は大きく、Figure2-6-2に示されるように、モデルや気候感度などの違いによっ

て予測結果に大きな開きが生じる。

海面変動の地域差

将来の気温変化に顕著な地域差が見られるように、海面上昇も全球で一様に起こるわけではない。

例えば、Gregory(1993)は、英国気象局の大気・海洋結合大循環モデルを用いたCO2漸増シミュレ

ーションから、Figure 2-6-3のようなCO2倍増時の地域的な海面上昇の分布を示している。こうした

海面上昇の地域差は、主として、地表面温度や海水の鉛直混合が場所によって異なることに起因する。

この他、地質学的な原因などによる地盤高の変動や、極端な高潮や波浪の温暖化による変化といった

ことも、地域的な海面上昇の影響の度合に関係してくる。

Future projection of sea-level rise

Future sea levels are predicted using models representing relevant factors such as thermal

expansion of the oceans, melting of mountain glaciers, etc. The resulting future projections are

shown in Figure 2-6-1 and Figure 2-6-2 for GHG emission scenarios IS92a-f (Wigley and Raper,

1992). Sea-level rises by 2100 for IS92a are projected to be from 15 cm to 90 cm with a best

estimate of 48 cm. The extent of sea-level rise predicted for the first half of the 21st century

does not vary much with the different emission scenarios, as one can see in Figure 2-6-1. This

is because of the time lag between the increase of atmospheric temperatures and the rise in

sea level. It must be noted that predictions can vary greatly as a result of the high level of

uncertainty of the models, as well as differences between and climate sensitivity of the

models(Figure 2-6-2).

Regional differences in sea-level rise

Sea-level rise is not expected to occur uniformly on the earth. Figure 2-6-3 shows a regional

distribution of sea-level rise in the case of a doubling of CO2 concentrations, calculated by a

simulation of the UKMO Atmosphere-Ocean Coupled GCM (Gregory, 1993). Regional

differences are mainly caused by differences in surface temperatures and vertical mixing in the

ocean. Other factors that may affect the speed of sea-level rise include changes in elevation by

geological action, and changes in extreme tides and storm surges caused by global warming.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 25

Mechanisms and Projections of Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise 2

90N

60N

30N

0

30S

60S

90S180 150W 120W 90W 60W 30W 0 30E 60E 90E 120E 150E 180

Contours at 50mm intervals, shaded where negative

0 0

0

-50

00

-50

-1000

0 50

0

0

0

-500

0

0

0

0

0

0

50

0

0

0

00

000

0

050 0

-50

0

-100

-50

-0

Figure 2-6-3Relative changes ∆h in sea surface topography, years 66-75.Source: Revised from Gregory (1993)

Figure 2-6-1The projections of future sea-level rise for IS92a-f.Source: Revised from Wigley and Raper (1992)

Figure 2-6-2Low, middle and high sea-level rise projections forIS92a.Source: Revised from Wigley and Raper (1992)

2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100Year

Sea

-leve

l cha

nge

(cm

)

A

BCD

ae f

b

cd

100

80

60

40

20

0

* Corresponding results for 2100 for the four emissions scenariosconsidered by IPCC90 are included on the right (A, B, C, D).

100

80

60

40

20

0

Sea

-leve

l cha

nge

(cm

)

A(H)

A(M)

A(L)

2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100Year

* For comparison, the equivalent 2100 low, middle and high estimatesof temperature and sea level change for the IPCC90 Business as Usualscenario (SA90) are shown in the right (denoted A(L), A(M) and A(H)).

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沿岸域への影響Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

3

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沿岸域への影響

Sea-levelrise

Change ofcyclonepatterns

Change of precipitationand hydrologicalpatternsChange of atmosphericand water temperature

Inundation oflowlands and wetlands

Coastal erosion

Storm surge andflooding

Salt water intrusion intoriver and ground water

Increase of riverwater level

Changes in tide and waves

Changes in sedimentdeposition

Climate Change Changes in PhysicalEnvironmentClimate Change Changes in PhysicalEnvironment

Impacts on Coastal Zones

13. 地球温暖化の沿岸域への影響Impacts of Global Warming on Coastal Zones

IPCC(1990)は、沿岸域が受ける海面上昇の物理的影響について以下の項目を挙げている。

1)低地及び湿地の水没・変化

2)海岸侵食

3)沿岸域の洪水の激化

4)河口部での塩分濃度増大、淡水帯水層への塩水の侵入、水質の低下

5)河川及び湾内での潮汐の変化

6)河川による堆積物の堆積パターンの変化

海面上昇は、Figure 3-1-1に示す影響フローに示すとおり、単に沿岸域の水没による影響にとどま

らず、海岸地形、自然生態系などの沿岸域の自然環境(物理、生物システム)に対して、幅広く、し

かも深刻な影響を及ぼすと考えられる。さらに人間生活に対しては、港湾・海岸施設に代表される社

会基盤施設に対する影響に加えて、沿岸域の産業や人間の伝統的生活様式や文化にまで影響を及ぼす

ことが推測される。

また沿岸域は、降水・水文パターンやサイクロンの頻度・強度の変化など気候変動による影響を直

接的、間接的に受けるため、海面上昇とともに気候変動に対しても最も敏感な地域の一つである。

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 29

IPCC (1990) listed the following physical impacts of sea-level rise on the coastal zones:

1) inundation and displacement of lowlands and wetlands;

2) coastal erosion;

3) intensification of coastal storm flooding;

4) increase in salinity of estuaries, salt water intrusion into freshwater aquifers, and

degradation of water quality;

5) change of tide in rivers and bays;

6) change of sediment deposition patterns.

Sea-level rise has great impact on physical and biological systems such as coastal morphology

and natural ecosystems, as shown in Figure 3-1-1. Moreover, it is predicted that sea-level rise

will affect port and coastal infrastructure as well as industries, traditional lifestyles and cultures

in the coastal zones.

Because coastal zones are affected directly and indirectly by the impacts of climate change

such as changes in precipitation, hydrological patterns, and the frequency and intensity of

cyclones, coastal zones are among the most vulnerable areas to global warming and climate

change.

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Figure 3-1-1Flowchart of impacts of sea-level rise on coastalzones.

coastalmorphology

naturalecosystems

humansettlements

waterresource

coastalinfrastructureClimate Change Changes in Physical

Environment

Impacts on Coastal ZonesImpacts on Coastal Zones

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自然・生態系に対する影響Impacts on Natural Resources and Ecosystems2

沿岸域への影響

3.

砂浜海岸(1)Sandy Beaches

砂浜への影響

地球温暖化による海面上昇の影響として、ほとんどすべての海岸地形に共通に考えられるのは、海

岸侵食である。

日本の海岸線総延長約35,000kmのうち、約4分の1を砂浜海岸が占めている。この砂浜海岸は近年

著しい侵食傾向にあり、砂浜侵食はすでに重大な問題と認識されている。現在起きている砂浜侵食の

主な原因は、河川上流のダム建設による河口からの土砂供給量の減少や、海岸構造物の建設に伴う沿

岸漂砂の変化などである(Plate 3-2-1-1, 2)。

これに加えて、温暖化が生じると、海面上昇による汀線の後退や異常波浪の発生頻度の増大によっ

て侵食量が激化する可能性がある。また、現在とは異なる波浪パターンが生じて沿岸漂砂の量ならび

に卓越方向が変化したり、地上降水量が変化して土砂供給量の増減が生じることも考えられる。

砂浜侵食の予測モデル

Bruunが提案した平衡海浜地形の考え方を用いて、平均海面の上昇量から汀線後退量を予測するモデ

ルとしてBruun Rule(Bruun, 1962)がある。このモデルを用いると比較的簡便に汀線後退量を計算

できるので、砂浜侵食の予測計算に多く用いられている(Figure 3-2-1-1)。例えば、Mimura and

Kawaguchi(1996)は、このモデルを用いて、日本では、30cm、65cm、100cmの海面上昇に対し

て、現存する砂浜の、56.6、81.7、90.3%が消失すると予測している。

Impacts on sandy beaches

Erosion is the most common impact of sea-level rise on coastal morphology. In Japan, the total

length of coastline amounts to about 35,000 km, with a quarter being sandy beaches. As these

beaches have been eroding significantly, coastal erosion is already recognized as a serious

problem. The main causes of this problem are a decrease in sediment supply due to the

construction of dams along rivers, and a change in the longshore drift related to the

construction of coastal structures (Plate 3-2-1-1,2).

In addition, global warming could make the erosion more intense as a consequence of

shoreline retreat due to sea-level rise and the increase in frequency of extreme storm waves.

Different patterns of waves will change the rate and direction of the longshore sediment

transport. A change in precipitation will cause a change of sediment supply.

Predictive model of coastal erosion

The Bruun Rule model, which uses a concept of equilibrium beach profile, predicts the

shoreline retreat due to sea-level rise (Bruun, 1962). As this model is simple but useful in

estimating shoreline retreat, many studies have been done using this model. For example,

Mimura and Kawaguchi (1996) estimated that for 30, 65 and 100 cm rises in sea level, 56.6%,

81.7% and 90.3%, respectively, of existing beaches would be eroded in Japan.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 31

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Figure 3-2-1-1Erosion of beach (Bruun Rule).Source: Revised from Mimura etal. (1995)

Plate 3-2-1-2Coastal protection on a sandybeach (Shizuoka, Japan).Source: Ministry of Construction

Plate 3-2-1-1Sandy beach in Fiji.

W*

S

h*

yShorelineRetreat

Topography afterSea-level Rise Present Topography

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自然・生態系に対する影響Impacts on Natural Resources and Ecosystems2

沿岸域への影響

3.デルタ その1(2)Deltas, Part1

世界各地の河川下流部には、さまざまな規模のデルタ(三角州)が発達する。これらのデルタは一

般にきわめて低平で、古くから稲作の行われてきた東アジアや南アジアではデルタが人々の居住・生

産の場として重要な役割を果たしてきた。一方、これらの地域は、きわめて低平であるため、水害や

高潮などさまざまな自然災害を受けやすく、わずかな自然環境の変化がさまざまな問題を引き起こす

可能性のある地域でもある。

デルタ地形の基本的な共通点は起伏がなく、低平であることだが、このような土地では地表水の排

水が困難で、広大な排水不良地が出現しやすい。また、臨海地域のデルタでは、台風やサイクロンの

襲来に伴う高潮の被害を受けやすい。

また、タイのチャオプラヤデルタ南部のように、本来低平な排水不良地で農業生産や人々の居住が

困難な土地を大規模に開発した地域では、海水準の上昇によって地下水位が上昇し、排水不良地や沼

沢地が再び出現する可能性がある。このような土地では、配水設備や堤防の増強の必要性に加えて、

河川水への塩水侵入、地下水の塩水化等による農業への影響が深刻化する可能性がある。

なお、海面上昇の影響を助長する現象として、地盤沈下の問題がある。多くのデルタ地域は0m以下

の土地が広い面積を占めているが、中には過剰な地下水の揚水に伴う地盤沈下による低地も多い。日

本の沖積低地においても、多くの平野で地盤沈下が過去に生じている。

Deltas of various sizes have formed in many places around the world. These areas are

generally low-lying and have played important roles as human habitats and the base of

agriculture especially in east and south Asia, which have depended on rice farming since

ancient times. On the other hand, low-lying deltas are vulnerable to the impacts of extreme

climatic events such as flooding and storm surges, and thus are susceptible to even slight

changes in natural condition.

Because deltas are commonly low-lying and flat areas, their drainage is generally poor, and

they can convert to vast water-logged areas. In addition, coastal deltas are susceptible to the

impacts of typhoons and tropical cyclones.

Furthermore, in low-lying and poorly drained areas not originally suited to human dwellings

and agriculture, such as the lower Chaophraya delta in Thailand, where the land was

developed for those purposes, it is possible that the land will revert to vast swampy and poorly

drained areas as a result of sea-level rise. These areas will have to strengthen the power of

drainage pumps and reinforce dikes. In addition, serious impacts on agriculture are likely from

salt water intrusion to river water and salinization of ground water.

Land subsidence is another problem which would worsen with the impact of sea-level rise.

Some deltas have large areas already below the present-day sea level, and many of these have

been caused by land subsidence induced by excess pumping of ground water. Many cases of

alluvial land subsidence in deltaic plains exist in Japan.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 33

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Plate 3-2-2-1Inundated area except telegraphpoles by coastal erosion (Coastalarea in central Thailand).

Plate 3-2-2-2Roots of mangroves exposed bycoastal erosion (Coastal area incentral Thailand).

Plate 3-2-2-3Mangrove forests and buildingsdestroyed by coastal erosion(Coastal area in central Thailand).

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自然・生態系に対する影響Impacts on Natural Resources and Ecosystems2

沿岸域への影響

3.デルタ その2(3)Deltas, Part2

ガンジスデルタ

メグナ川(ガンジス・ブラマプトラ川)の河口付近では洪水のたびに泥土が堆積し、海面とほぼ同

じレベルの土地が形成されている。人口圧の強いバングラデシュでは、このような新しい土地であっ

てもすぐに人々が生活を営みはじめる。そこに台風やサイクロンが襲来すると、人々は逃げ場を失う

ことになり、過去には多数の犠牲者を生じさせている。台風やサイクロンの頻度の増大は、このよう

な犠牲者を更に増大させる可能性がある。

また、ガンジスデルタでは、臨海部の感潮クリークの発達する地域の大部分が自然保護地域として

未開拓のまま残されてきたが、その背後地では広範囲にわたる乾季の塩害が問題となっていた。海面

上昇により、感潮域は内陸側に拡大し、河道への塩水侵入、地下水の塩水化はさらに著しく進行する。

その結果、河川水も地下水も利用できない地域が拡大する可能性がある。

チャオプラヤデルタ

タイのチャオプラヤデルタ南部に位置するバンコクでは、人為的な地盤沈下が進行しており、深刻

な問題となっている。チャオプラヤデルタ南部は、後氷期の海進に伴って拡大した内湾が埋め立てら

れて形成された極めて軟弱な地盤をもつ地域である。ここに1万2千本を超える深井戸から多量の地下

水が汲み上げられ、顕著な地盤沈下が進行した。最近では、雨季の洪水時の排水が十分でないために、

洪水が頻発し、被害地域が拡大している。このような地盤沈下は、海面上昇に極めて深刻な相乗効果

を引き起こすと考えられるため、早急に対策を立てる必要がある。

Ganges River Delta

Accumulation of sediments around the river mouth of Meghna River (Ganges, Brahamaputra

Rivers) create new low-lying land almost at the same height as sea level. In Bangladesh, such

new land is immediately occupied by new inhabitants, due to the country's high population

pressure. Each time a tropical cyclone occurs, many people become victims as they have no

land to escape to. It is possible that an increase in the frequency of typhoons and tropical

cyclones will result in more victims in deltas.

In the Ganges delta, most areas of the tidal plain along the coast are preserved as the natural

environment protection areas. The hinterlands of these areas have been troubled with

extensive salinization in dry seasons. Since the inter-tidal zone is likely to expand inland by

sea-level rise, saltwater intrusion to river channels and ground water could become more

prevalent, reducing the availability of river water and groundwater for drinking or irrigation.

Chaophraya Delta

Land subsidence has become a serious problem in Bangkok, situated in the southern part of

Thailand's Chaophraya delta, which was formed during the retreat of tidal plain after the post

glacial transgression. As the sediments of the delta are very soft and thick, serious land

subsidence has occurred as a result of pumping of a large amount of ground water from more

than 12,000 deep wells. Recently, damage has increased from flooding which occurs frequently

because the capacity of the drainage facilities are insufficient to handle the rainy season.

Urgent countermeasures are needed, because the combined effects of land subsidence and sea-

level rise could be serious.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 35

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Plate 3-2-3-1Coastal dike at the tip of theGanga delta facing to Bengal Bay(a part of the dike was destroyedby high tides).

Plate 3-2-3-2The coastal area of SandwipIsland, southeastern part ofBangladesh, eroded by high tideinduced by tropical cyclone (Thecoastline has retreated by2,300m. The irrigation ponds androads have been eroded).

Plate 3-2-3-3The wreckage of house destroyedby storm surge (Disaster ofcyclone in April 1991).

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自然・生態系に対する影響Impacts on Natural Resources and Ecosystems2

沿岸域への影響

3.マングローブ(4)Mangroves

潮間帯の中・上部に森林を作るマングローブは、陸域からの土砂とマングローブ泥炭の堆積速度、

水位(冠水時間)に敏感に反応して生育している。藤本ら(1989)は、Table 3-2-4-1に示すように、

海面上昇と堆積速度の関係から、マングローブ林の模式的な変化を予測している。Miyagi et

al.(1995)は、マングローブ堆積物の最大堆積速度は5mm/yr.程度であることを見積もっている。

Miyagi et al.(1999)は、上記の条件に潮差を勘案して、マングローブ生態系の具体的な立地変動予測

を行った。最大潮差が1m以上になるような環境では、海面上昇速度が5mm/yr.程度であれば、群落構

造に変化が生じるが、全体としての立地は維持され、むしろ地下部への泥炭の蓄積が促進されること

が予測された。この一方で、最大潮差が50cm程度では、群落の大半が失われることが予測された。な

お、現在予測されている程度の海面上昇に際して、マングローブ植林は、地上部のバイオマス蓄積に

よるCO2削減効果とともに、塩水に浸る地下部の泥炭蓄積によるCO2蓄積効果が注目される。

Mangroves which grow in the upper and middle areas of tidal zones are sensitive to the rate of

sedimentation from terrestrial zones, to the rate of accumulation of mangrove peat, and to tide

levels. Table 3-2-4-1 shows predictions by Fujimoto et al. (1989) about typical changes in

mangrove habitats in relation to rates of sea-level rise and sedimentation. Miyagi et al. (1995)

estimated that the maximum rate of accumulation of sediment in mangroves was about

5mm/year. A study by Miyagi et al. (1998) also estimates quantitative change of mangrove

habitats taking into account tide levels, in addition to the above-mentioned factors. It predicts

that mangroves where the maximum difference between high and low tide exceeds 1 meter

will maintain their habitats if the rate of sea-level rise is about 5mm/yr., although the structure

of the plant community will change. In this case, accumulation of sediment would accelerate in

the bottom layer. On the other hand, it predicts

that mangroves would disappear where the

maximum difference between high and low

tide does not exceed about 50 cm.

Mangrove afforestation attracting attention for

its CO2 sequestration effects, not only of above

ground biomass but also of peat accumulation.

Plate 3-2-4-1Submerged mangrove inAndaman Sea. Thisspecies, grown at themiddle of tide level inintertidal zone, would beaffected first by sea-levelrise.Source: Toyohiko Miyagi.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 37

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Plate 3-2-4-3Inside of mangrove forest.Source: Toyohiko Miyagi

Plate 3-2-4-2Primeval mangrove forest(Irianjaya, Indonesia).Source: Kozo Izumo

Table 3-2-4-1Predicted effects of sea-levelrise on mangrove habitats.Source: Fujimoto et al. (1989)

RP : Sedimentation rate (sedimentary rate of river transport load + accumulation rate of mangrove peat)SL : Rate of sea-level riseBB : Growth rate of barrier or beach ridgeP : Accumulation rate of mangrove peat

Types of mangrove habitats Predicted effect

RP > SLRP = SLRP < SL

AdvanceStagnationRetreat

BB SL P SLP < SL

ExpansionReduction ~ extinction

P SLP < SL

Retreat inlandReduction ~ extinction

P SLP < SL

MaintenanceExtinction

P SLP < SL

Expansion inlandReduction ~ extinction

BB < SL

The front of scarp

The front of lowland

Type 1Estuary of delta

Type 2Back marsh or lagoonbehind barrier orbeach ridge

Type 3Tidal flats excludingType 1 and Type 2

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38

自然・生態系に対する影響Impacts on Natural Resources and Ecosystems2

沿岸域への影響

3.サンゴ礁 その1(5)Coral Reefs, Part1

サンゴ礁の特徴

サンゴ礁は、光合成による高い生産、石灰化によるサンゴ礁地形の構築、生物種の多様性という、

他に類をみない3つの特徴をあわせもつ生態系である。こうした特徴によってサンゴ礁は、CO2濃度上

昇、地球温暖化、海面上昇という地球環境変動のシナリオのそれぞれと密接な関係があり、しかもそ

の応答は単純ではない。

温暖化のサンゴ礁への影響

1)CO2濃度上昇:サンゴ礁における光合成はCO2吸収過程であるが、その逆反応である呼吸はCO2放

出過程である。石灰化は、海水を酸性にして海水中のCO2濃度を上昇させる。サンゴ礁における

CO2吸収/放出は、これらの過程のバランスによって決まる。一方、大気中のCO2濃度の上昇によ

って海水の炭酸イオン濃度が減少して、石灰化が阻害される可能性も指摘されている。

2)水温上昇による白化現象:造礁サンゴの生育最適水温は18~28℃である。30℃以上の高水温が

続くと、サンゴが体内の共生藻を放出し、やがて死にいたる白化現象が起こる。1997~1998年

のエルニーニョとその前後に、異常高水温域が地球上の様々な地点に現れたため、太平洋、インド

洋、カリブ海など地球上のほとんどのサンゴ礁で、これまでに観察された中でもっとも規模の大き

い白化が起こった。温暖化によって熱帯域の水温が現在より1~2℃上昇すると、こうした白化が

より頻繁に起こり深刻化することが危惧される。

Coral reef characteristics

Coral reefs ecosystems have three main features: high productivity by photosynthesis, the

construction of coral reef features by calcification, and high biodiversity. They are considered

to be vulnerable to global environmental change scenarios such as higher CO2 concentrations,

global warming, and sea-level rise.

The impacts of global warming on coral reefs

1) Higher CO2 concentrations: The coral reef's photosynthesis is a process of absorbing CO2,

but the opposite reaction, respiration, is a process of discharging CO2. The reef's

calcification acidifies seawater and raises CO2 concentrations in the water. The balance of

CO2 absorption and discharge is determined by these processes. However, it has been

pointed out that higher CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere reduce carbonate ion (CO32-)

concentrations in seawater, hindering the process of calcification.

2) Bleaching at high water temperatures: The optimum growing temperatures for coral reefs

are between 18-28°C. If temperatures continue at 30°C or above, the coral discharges algae

which coexist in the coral and suffers bleaching which eventually leads to death of the

coral. During the El Niño event which occurred between 1997 and 1998, sea water

temperatures rose above normal levels in many places, including the Pacific and Indian

oceans and the Caribbean Sea, where the majority of coral reefs exist. The impacts of this

weather phenomenon were tremendous, with bleaching of coral reefs to the greatest extent

ever observed. It is expected that bleaching may happen more frequently and become a

more serious problem if water temperatures in tropical areas rise by 1-2°C above present

temperatures as a result of global warming.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 39

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Plate 3-2-5-1Bleaching of Porites in Kabira, IshigakiIsland.

Figure 3-2-5-2Reaction process of carbon and photosynthesis/calcification.

CO2

CO2 H2O

H2O

H2CO3

Atmosphere

Ocean

CH2O O2

+

+

+

CaCO3

+ +

hydrogencarbonate

ion

carbonateion

respirationrespiration photosynthesisphotosynthesis calcificationcalcification

prevention of calcificationby increase of CO2 concentrationprevention of calcificationby increase of CO2 concentration

HCO3 H+ + H+

2+

2CO3

Organicmatter

Calciumcarbonate

Oxygen

Ca

60°N

0° 0°60°W 60°E 60°E60°W120°E 120°W180°

30°N

30°S

60°S

apron reef fringing reef barrier reef atoll table reef isolated reef

marginal areasevere bleachingrecognized bleachingno recognition core area

cross section ground plan coral reef

Figure 3-2-5-1Bleaching of coral reefs reported from 1997 to 1998.Source: Revised from Wilkinson (1998), Hori (1980)

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40

自然・生態系に対する影響Impacts on Natural Resources and Ecosystems2

沿岸域への影響

3.サンゴ礁 その2(6)Coral Reefs, Part2

温暖化のサンゴ礁への影響

3)海面上昇による沈水:温暖化により海面が上昇する場合、サンゴ礁がそれにおいついていけるかど

うかが、過去のサンゴ礁の成長速度から予測された(Kayanne,1992)。それによれば、サンゴが

積み重なってできるサンゴ礁海側の高まり(礁嶺:reef crest)の上方堆積速度は最大4m/1000年

以下で、来世紀の海面上昇が40cm以上になるとサンゴ礁の頂面はこれに追いつくことができない。

さらに環礁の島々(サンゴ洲島:cay)は、サンゴ礁の背後にサンゴなどの礫が打ち上げられて作

られた地形で、これが海面上昇にどのように応答するかについては不明な点が多い。

日本のサンゴ礁への影響

日本のサンゴ礁とサンゴ群集は、世界のサンゴ礁分布の北限域に分布する。北ほど水温が低く、見

られるサンゴの種数も減少する。このため、とくに本州南岸のサンゴ群集は、これまでにも冬季の異

常低水温によって壊滅的な打撃を受けてきた。温暖化による水温の上昇は、これら北限域のサンゴ群

集によりよい生育条件を提供することになる。しかし、これらのサンゴは低水温に適応した種組成を

持っている可能性がある。実際、1998年7月から8月にかけて琉球列島全域で異常高水温が発生し白

化が大規模に起こった時、水温は30℃をこえなかったにも関わらず本州南岸でも白化が起こった。こ

の場合は急激な温暖化にサンゴ群集が対応できないことも考えられる。

Impact of global warming on coral reefs (continued)

3) Further submergence of coral reefs by sea-level rise: Based on data about past growth rates

coral reefs, they are predicted to be unable to grow at the same rate as the sea-level rise

under global warming scenarios (Kayanne, 1992). This hypothesis indicates that the reef

crest, made up of coral layers, rises by 4 meters or less per thousand years. Thus, the crest is

unlikely to keep up with the rate of sea-level rise, which is expected to rise by 40

centimeters or more during the twenty-first century. It is unknown how "cays",

topographical features made up of coral debris on coral reefs, will respond to sea-level rise.

Impacts on coral reefs in Japan

Japan's coral reef communities inhabit the northernmost limit of the world's coral reef

distribution. They have fewer species than tropical corals because of the lower water

temperatures. Abnormally lower water temperatures in past winters have so far caused severe

damage to the coral reefs, particularly on the southern Honshu coast. A rise in sea

temperatures would be expected to provide better growth condition for coral reefs at the

northern limits. However, as these reefs appear best adapted to low temperatures, during July

and August of 1998, the abnormal rise of the water temperature resulted in extensive bleaching

in the Ryukyu archipelago. Bleaching also occurred on the southern coast of Honshu although

the water temperature remained below 30°C, possibly an indication that coral reefs are unable

to adapt to rapid warming.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 41

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Figure 3-2-6-2Distribution of coral reefs alongcoast of Japan.Source: Veron and Minchin(1992)

125°E

25°N

29

28

27

26

30°N 35°N

400

300

200

100

0

130°E 135°E

Tateyama

Izu Peninsula

Shirahama

Kushimoto

Tosashimizu

Tanegashima Island

Amami Islands

Okinawa Islands

Yaeyama Islands

Amakusa Islands

Averagesurface

watertemperature

of thewarmest

month

Number ofspecies

Number of speciesSurface water temperature

°C

Plate 3-2-6-2Global distribution of coral reefswith contours of generic diversityof corals.Source: Veron (1995)

Plate 3-2-6-1Coral cays on an atoll.

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42

自然・生態系に対する影響Impacts on Natural Resources and Ecosystems2

沿岸域への影響

3.湖沼・汽水域 その1(7)Coastal Lagoons, Part1

海跡湖での影響メカニズム

海跡湖の湖岸には標高数m以下の湖岸低地やデルタ、砂州などの低平地が広がり、海とつながってい

る。そのため、海面上昇によって湖岸低地やデルタ地帯が水没し、軟弱な堆積物で構成された湖岸で

は浸食によって湖岸線が後退する。これに加え、湖岸地帯では洪水位の上昇、湛水期間の長期化など、

洪水が激化する。

また海跡湖では、海水~汽水~淡水にわたって多様で豊かな生態系が形成されており、海面上昇に

ともなって湖水の塩分濃度が上昇し、湖岸・湖内の生態系の変化、汽水域の縮小による生物多様性の

減少、また地下水への塩水侵入や水質悪化などが起こる。

一方海跡湖の湖岸は、古くから人々の居住・生産の場であり、湖内での漁労のほか農業や養殖業、

湖水および地下水の利用も盛んである。近年では、湖口を締め切って湖水を淡水化し、大規模な水資

源開発も進んでいる。したがって海面上昇の影響は、単に自然・生態系だけでなく、社会・経済的な

面も大きい(Figure3-2-7-1)。

Impacts on coastal lagoons

Low-lying land, deltas, and sand bars are often found close to coastal lagoons, and have a

height of only a few meters above sea-level. As the coastal lagoons are connected to the sea,

and made of soft sediments, a rise in sea level is likely to increase erosion, and the height and

duration of floods. In addition, sea-level rise will increase salinity in water, thus causing the

changes the lagoon's ecosystem, such as the depletion of biodiversity in the brackish zone, the

intrusion of the salt water into the fresh water, and the deterioration of the water quality. In

addition, sea-level rise will have profound impacts on human communities living near coastal

lagoons. Since long ago these areas have provided their residents food, shelter and clothing,

and many communities rely on the local area for fisheries, agriculture and farming, as well as

lagoon and ground water. Some communities have blocked water flow between the lagoon

and the sea, to allow the large-scale development of water resources (Figure 3-2-7-1). Clearly

the impacts of sea-level rise on these areas will not be limited to the natural environment and

ecosystems, but will be also felt by human society.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 43

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Figure 3-2-7-1Mechanism of impacts on coastallagoons.

Change of Ecosystem

Reduction of Biodiversity

Degradation of UndergroundWater Quality

Intensification of Flooding

Impacts on LittoralInfrastructure

Impacts on Fisheries andAquaculture

Impacts on Water Use

Inundationof Lacustrine

Lowlandsand Deltas

LittoralErosion

SaltwaterIntrusion intoUnderground

Water

Shrinking ofBrackish

Water Area

Change of Water Quality

Sea-Level Rise

Coastal Lagoon

Impacts on Natural Resourcesand Ecosystems

Impacts on Socio-economicSystems

Lake-Level Rise Increase inSalinity of Lake

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44

自然・生態系に対する影響Impacts on Natural Resources and Ecosystems2

沿岸域への影響

3.湖沼・汽水域 その2(8)Coastal Lagoons, Part2

日本の海跡湖への影響

北海道のクッチャロ湖のように自然湖岸が多く残っている湖や、サロマ湖のように汽水環境を生か

した漁業が盛んな湖では、塩分濃度の上昇による自然生態系への影響が大きい。

一方霞ヶ浦のように、流域の土地利用が高度化し、人為的に淡水化されて湖水が重要な水資源と位

置づけられた湖では、高さ2m以上の湖岸堤防が築かれているため、湖岸低地での内水氾濫や地震液状

化の危険性が高い。また、各種の取水・排水施設、港湾、下水処理施設など社会基盤への影響も大き

い(Fig3-2-8-1)。

タイ・ソンクラー湖における影響予測

タイ国最大のソンクラー湖は、平均水深が1.1~1.8mときわめて浅く、湖とタイランド湾との間の

浜堤列平野や、西岸・南岸のデルタ地帯の標高も数m以下で非常に平坦である。そのため、雨季の増水

時には湖水位が1~2mも上昇し、湖岸では毎年のように洪水が起こっている。ここでは最近20年ほど

の間、デルタ地帯での洪水の頻発、浜堤列平野での海岸浸食が顕著である(Plate3-2-8-1)。

将来海面が上昇すれば、さらに湖岸での洪水や浸食の激化が予想される。また季節的・空間的に微

妙に異なる湖水の塩分濃度は、降雨条件にもよるが、その変動・分布パターンが大きく変化し、湖

岸・湖内の生態系や地下水利用に大きな影響が懸念される。

Impacts on coastal lagoons in Japan

A rise in salinity will have significant impacts on ecosystems in Hokkaido's lakes and lagoons

which have brackish zones suitable for fisheries. In addition sea-level rise may cause flooding

of lowlands or increase the danger of liquefaction in the event of an earthquake. These threats

are especially cause for concern where land use in a watershed is highly developed, such as at

Kasumigaura in Japan where the lake has been artificially converted into a freshwater lake, and

dikes higher than 2 meters have been constructed, making it an important lake as a fresh water

resource. The rise may also have significant impacts on infrastructure such as waterworks,

harbors, and sewage treatment facilities (Figure 3-2-8-1).

Predicted impacts on Lake Songkhlah in Thailand

Lake Songkhla, the largest lagoon in Thailand, is very shallow, with an average depth of 1.1 to

1.8 meters. The beach ridge plain between the lagoon and Gulf of Thailand and the delta on

the west and south lacustrine has an average height of only a few meters. The lagoon's water

level goes up by 1 to 2 meters during the rainy season, resulting in flooding almost every year.

The frequency of floods on the delta and the extent of erosion in the beach ridge plain have

increased in the past 20 years (Plate 3-2-8-1), and this is expected to become worse with sea-

level rise. In addition, there is concern about major impacts on the lagoon ecosystem and

groundwater use, as a result of subtle seasonal and local changes in salinity, water movement

and distribution patterns, which will also be affected by possible changes in precipitation.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 45

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Plate 3-2-8-1Littoral erosion on theshore of Songkhla Lake,Thailand.

Figure 3-2-8-1Relationship between "artificiallittoral shoreline" and"intensive land use in littorallowland" of lagoons in Japan.Source: Hirai, Sato andTanavud (1999)A

B

C

D

E

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

00 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Rat

e of

Lan

d U

se fo

r ur

ban

Are

a an

d Fa

rmla

nd in

Litt

oral

Low

land

(%)

Rate of Artificial Shoreline (%)

Type A, B : almost natural without any artificial structure or land use.Type C, D : partly artificial and urban or industrial land use.Type E : almost all artificial embarkment and urban land use.

L. Kasumigaura

L. Saroma

L. Kucharo

L. Nakaumi

L. Shinji

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46

自然・生態系に対する影響Impacts on Natural Resources and Ecosystems2

沿岸域への影響

3.水資源(9)Water Resources

水資源への影響

海面上昇と気候変動による降雨パターンの変化が重なると、陸域の水資源に大きな影響を与える可

能性がある。例えば、海水位の上昇に伴い、塩水が現在の河川の感潮域の上流まで進入するために、

既設の取水口から取水される飲料水や工業用水に塩分が混入する頻度が高くなる可能性がある。また、

大河川デルタの農業地域では、沿岸地下水への塩水浸入による水質低下や土壌の塩類化による生産力

の低下が生じるおそれがある。

さらにサンゴ礁からなる島嶼国は、生活水を雨水に依存している場合が多い。これらの地層は透水

性の高い石灰岩で形成されているため、降雨は河川となって流出せずに、図に示すように、地下に淡

水レンズを形成する。海面上昇により水位が上昇すれば、この淡水レンズの厚さが縮小し、利用可能

な淡水量が減少する。加えて、気候変動に伴う降雨パターンの変化により、降水量が減少した場合は、

これらの国々の水資源は致命的な影響を受けることになる。

例えば、バハマでは、淡水レンズは唯一の淡水源となっており、ポンプによる過剰揚水や蒸発散の

増加による塩水の浸入によって現在でも悪影響を被っており、気候変動はさらに利用可能な淡水源の

量・質に影響を与えると予測されている。

Impacts on water resources

Sea-level rise and changes in precipitation patterns may affect water resources on land. A

higher sea level will bring more salt water further upstream in rivers, increasing the frequency

with which salt water is mixed with fresh water at intake pipes for drinking and industrial

water supplies. In addition, one can expect a deterioration of the quality of ground water and

salinization of agricultural land on large river deltas, thus lowering productivity.

Many coral island countries depend mainly on precipitation for their freshwater. These islands'

geological strata consist of limestone, which allows rain to permeate the surface and form

freshwater lens underground (see picture). If the groundwater level rises, it will reduce the

freshwater lens and subsequently reduce the availability of freshwater. In addition, if

precipitation patterns change as a result of climate change, and the amount of precipitation

falls, the impacts on the water resources of these countries could be catastrophic.

For instance, in the Bahamas, residents depend solely on the island's groundwater reserves for

freshwater. In recent years, due to excess pumping of freshwater reserves and increased

evaporation, these islands are already experiencing negative impacts from salt water intrusion.

Climate changes are expected to further affect available freshwater resources in both quantity

and quality.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 47

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Figure 3-2-9-1Impacts of sea-level rise on groundwatertables.Source: Revised from IPCC (1990)

Upperlimit of water table

Upperlimit of water table

Upper limit of water table

Sea-level

Sea-level

Sea-level

FreshwaterSaltwater

Operating Well

Abandoned Well

Figure 3-2-9-2Distribution of salinity in ground water asindicated by electrical conductivity.Source: IPCC CZMS (1992)

February (Wet season)

MAY (Dry season)

0 5

N

km

500 - 10001000 - 15001500 - 20002000 - 2500

Conductivity

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48

社会・経済に対する影響Impacts on Human Society3

沿岸域への影響

3.

人間居住への影響(1)Impacts on Human Settlements

沿岸低地の多くは、人口、産業が集中し、人間活動が最も活発な地域である。IPCC(1994)は、

現在、世界の総人口約53億人の内、50~70%が沿岸域に居住していると報告している。Figure 3-3-

1-1に示すとおり、世界の大都市の多くが沿岸域に集中しており、これらの大都市への人口集中は将来

ますます進むことも予測されている。とくに発展途上国の沿岸域は、護岸や堤防など気象災害時の防

災施設の整備が十分でない都市も多い。これらの地域では、将来も高い伸び率で人口集中が続くと予

測されており、海面上昇・気候変動にともなう高潮やサイクロンの頻度・強度の増大による気象災害

に対してより脆弱になるといわれている。

IPCC CZMS(1994)は、高潮に対して脆弱な地域について以下のように述べている。「高潮の影響

は地域差があるが、海面上昇による洪水の危険性の増大は、アジア地域のとくにアジアのインド洋沿

岸域、南地中海沿岸域、アフリカ大陸沿岸域、カリブ海その他の小島嶼国の沿岸域において平均より

大きい。」

Population, industry, and human activity are concentrated in the coastal lowlands of the world.

According to IPCC (1994), 50 to 70 percent of the world human population at the time of

about 5.3 billion lived in coastal zones, and as shown in Figure 3-3-1-1, and many of the

world's big cities are located in coastal zones. It is predicted that people will be increasingly

concentrated in these cities in the future, especially in developing countries. As many cities do

not have adequate seawalls and other disaster prevention facilities, they will be vulnerable to

increases in storm surges and the frequency and intensity of cyclones caused by sea-level rise

and climate change.

IPCC CZMS (1994) reported on areas vulnerable to storm surges as follows: "Although there are

regional differences in regimes of storm surge events, the increase of flooding risk due to sea-

level rise is greater than average for Asia, especially the Indian Ocean coast of Asia, the South

Mediterranean coast, the African coast, and the coasts of the Caribbean and other small island

states."

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 49

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Figure 3-3-1-1The worlds largest cities.Source: IPCC (1994)

Tokyo/Yokohama

Osaka/KobeLos Angeles

Mexico City

New York

Rio de Janeiro

Sao Paulo

Buenos Aires

Manila/Quezon

Shanghai

Jakarta

Bangkok

Delhi

Moscow

Tehran

London

Cairo/Giza

Calcutta

DhakaKarachi

Seoul

Beijing

Bombay

Plate 3-3-1-1People's life along the river mouth ofthe tributary of the Mekong River.

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社会・経済に対する影響Impacts on Human Society3

沿岸域への影響

3.社会基盤施設(2)Infrastructure

社会基盤施設とは、道路や港湾、水道、電気、防災施設などの、社会における基盤的な施設であり、

生産・生活活動を支える役割を持つ。そのため、その大部分が都市にあったり、発電所やダムのよう

に都市生活を支えるために利用されている。もし、これらの社会基盤施設が温暖化・海面上昇によっ

て被害を受けた場合には、それ自身の被害のみならず、施設を利用できなくなってしまうことによる

波及的被害も大きいと考えられる。

沿岸域の社会基盤施設に対する影響予測の結果、地球温暖化は海面上昇や気象・海象条件の変化を

通じて、港湾、漁港、人工島、埋立地、高潮・津波防災施設、内水排除・下水道システム、海岸保全

施設などあらゆる種類の社会基盤施設の機能や安全性を低下させることがわかった。特に、地下水位

の上昇によって地盤の支持力低下や液状化強度の低下が生じる可能性があることは注意すべきである。

日本における社会基盤施設の機能、安全性を維持するための対策費用については、Kitajima et al.

(1993)によると、1mの海面上昇に対して、全国の港湾施設および港湾に隣接した海岸(運輸省所管)

における防波堤および護岸の嵩上げ、係船岸壁の嵩上げ、埠頭や上屋などの用地の嵩上げ、水門・排

水機場施設の再建築などを行う場合、約11.5兆円かかるものと算定された。また、Mimura et al.

(1993)によると、日本全体の海岸の防護には、20兆円以上が必要と算定された。

Infrastructure is defined as any basic facilities such as roads, harbors, waterworks, electricity

and disaster prevention facilities, which support industry and human activities. For this reason,

much infrastructure is located in cities or, as in the case of power stations and dams, used to

support urban society. If this infrastructure is damaged by the effects of global warming and

sea-level rise, the damage may extend not only to the infrastructure itself, but also ripple

effects could be huge by rendering the infrastructure un-useable.

The predicted impacts of sea-level rise, changes in atmospheric and marine conditions resulting

from global warming on coastal infrastructure indicate a reduction in the functioning and safety

of all kinds of infrastructure, including harbors, fishing ports, artificial islands, reclaimed lands,

disaster prevention facilities for tidal surges and tsunamis, drainage and sewerage systems, and

coastal protection facilities. Of special concern, a rise in ground water levels may weaken the

ground's capacity to support weight, and increase susceptibility to liquefaction.

Kitajima et al. (1993) estimated the costs to maintain functions and safeties of Japanese

infrastructures against a 1 m rise in sea level. It was estimated that about 11.5 trillion Japanese

yen would be needed to raise breakwaters, seawalls, docks, wharves, port facilities and port

areas and to reconstruct water gates and drainage pump stations. Mimura et al. (1993) also

estimated that more than 20 trillion yen are needed to protect all of Japan's coasts.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 51

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Figure 3-3-2-1Impacts on animaginary coastal area.

Present

After Sea-Level Rise

Affected Infrastructure

Port, Fishery port

Natural disaster prevention facilities

Breakwater, Seawall

Water gate

Drainage, Sewage outfall

Man-made island, Reclaimed area

Underground facilities

(Power line, telephone line, subway etc.)

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社会・経済に対する影響Impacts on Human Society3

沿岸域への影響

3.産業・経済活動(3)Industry and Economic Activities

気候変動は、産業・経済活動へも大きな影響を与える。

気候変動に対して最も敏感な産業は、農業や漁業などの第1次産業である。気温、水温、降雨パター

ンの変化に対して、生産量が変化したり、生産可能種類も変わる可能性がある。アジアの沿岸域では、

稲作や魚、エビの養殖が活発であり、これらに対する影響も懸念される。また、水力発電も降雨パタ

ーンに強く依存している。また、海面上昇によって沖合での石油・天然ガス掘削事業や沿岸域立地の

プラントにも影響が生じる恐れがある。また、平均気温が上昇することで、スキーや海岸リゾートと

いった観光産業への影響も考えられる。

これらの影響は、市場や経済活動によって社会の様々なセクターに波及していくものと考えられる。

それら波及の過程は複雑で、季節、地域性に大きく左右される。それ故に産業・経済活動への定量的

な影響評価はほとんど行われていない。例えば、エネルギー需要でいえば、気温の上昇とともに、暖

房の需要は落ち、冷房の需要が上がるはずである。ある研究によると、気温が1℃上昇するとエネルギ

ー需要が11%減るという結果がある一方、別の研究によると。3.7℃上昇すると、4~6%増えるとい

う結果が出されており、確定的な予測にはなっていない。

天然資源や農業と比較して、第2次、3次産業が気候変動に適応する容量は大きいといえる。また、

これらを通じて生産された物資、施設の寿命は気候変動のタイムスケールと比較するとはるかに短く、

そのことも産業・経済活動への影響評価を難しくしている要因である。

Climate change will have a great impact on industrial and economic activities.

The most vulnerable industries to climate change are primary industries such as agriculture and

fisheries. The volume and species of production may be changed due to the alterations in

atmospheric/water temperature and precipitation patterns. Because coastal zones in Asia have

extensive rice crop cultivation and fish/shrimp aquaculture, impacts on these activities are a

subject of concern. Hydropower production depends on rainfall patterns. Moreover, sea-level

rise may affect offshore drilling platforms for petroleum and natural gas and plants sited near

the coasts. The rise in mean temperature may also affect tourist industries such as skiing and

coastal beach resorts.

These impacts may extend to a variety of sectors in society through market and economic

activities. The processes involved are complicated, and vary with season and locality. For this

reason, very few quantitative impact assessments on industry and economic activities have

been done. In the energy sector, as mean temperatures rise, demand for heating should fall

and demand for cooling should rise. However, one study showed an 11 percent decrease in

energy demand against a 1°C rise in a temperature, while another study showed a 4 to 6

percent increase in demand against a 3.7°C rise in temperature. Clear predictions of impacts

are not yet reliable.

Compared with natural resources and agriculture, secondary and tertiary industry may have a

larger capacity to adapt to climate change. Furthermore, the lifetime of materials and facilities

produced by these industries is much shorter than the time scale of climate change. This is one

of the reasons why impact assessment is difficult for industrial and economic activities.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 53

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Plate 3-3-3-1Paddy field and fish pond(Guangdong, China).

Plate 3-3-3-2Abandoned shrimp pond(Thailand).

Table 3-3-3-1Summary of results of studies relating climate change toenergy demand (based on Ball and Breed, 1992).Source: IPCC (1996)

Study

Country/Region

TemperatureChange (°C)

Change inAnnual

Demand

Change inPeak

Demand

Aittoniemi, 1991 Finland 1.2-4.6 electricity

electricity

electricity

7-23% down

4-6% up

5% up

11% down

10% up

13-20% up

Darmstadter, 1991 U.S.MINK 0.81 2030 degreedays

agriculturecoolingheating

3% up<2% up7-16% down

Smith andTirpak, 1989 USA 3.7 2055 weather

analog

Rosenthal,Gruenspecht,and Moran, 1995

USA 1 2010 degreedays

space heatingand cooling

5-10% down1-3% down

UK ClimateChange ImpactsReview Group,1991

UK 2.2 2050 degreedays

all energyelectricity

Matsui, 1993 Japan 2050

Date CoverageMethod

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54

影響評価手法Methodologies for Impact Assessment4

沿岸域への影響

3.

海面上昇・気候変動の影響評価に関しては、1990年代初頭からさまざまな手法やアプローチが開発

されている。IPCC第1期における沿岸域管理サブグループ(IPCC CZMS)は、各国における脆弱性評

価の実施を促進する目的のもとに「脆弱性評価におけるIPCC共通手法」を開発した(IPCC CZMS,

1991, 1992)。この手法は、ケーススタディ地域の設定からはじまる7つのステップにより構成され

ている(Figure 3-4-1-1)。IPCC共通手法は、現在までに50以上の国と地域において実施されたケー

ススタディで用いられ、海面上昇に対する沿岸域の脆弱性評価に関して大きな役割を果たした。

一方、IPCC共通手法の問題点・課題に関する活発な議論が行われた結果、地域の固有性や適応策を

重視した手法やアプローチが検討されるようになった。それらの中には、沿岸域の脆弱性と抵抗力を

評価し、対策に関する政策決定を支援するアプローチ(Kay and Hay, 1993)、沿岸域のリスク評価

に関するデータベース(Gornitz et al., 1994)、南太平洋島嶼国の固有性を考慮した脆弱性評価手法

(Yamada et al., 1995)、沿岸域への影響と適応策の評価手法(Leatherman et al., 1996)などがあ

る。また、経済的な評価を含めるべきだという意見も強い。

近年は、海面上昇・気候変動に対する沿岸域の脆弱性や抵抗力を評価したうえで、望ましい適応策

を評価する手法・アプローチが検討されている。国連環境計画(UNEP, 1998)は、適応策の実施者

に詳細なガイダンスを提供するために、上記のさまざまな手法を総合化し、気候変動の影響評価及び

適応戦略に関するハンドブックとしてまとめている(Figure 3-4-1-2)。

Since the early 1990s, various methods and approaches concerning impact assessment for

climate change and sea-level rise have been developed. The IPCC Coastal Zone Management

Subgroup (IPCC CZMS) developed the "IPCC Common Methodology of Vulnerability

Assessment" in order to promote vulnerability assessments in each country (IPCC CZMS 1991,

1992). Consisting of seven steps (Figure 3-4-1-1), this Methodology has been used for case

studies in more than 50 countries and regions, and has made a significant contribution to the

assessment of the vulnerability of coastal zones to sea-level rise.

On the other hand, problems associated with the IPCC Common Methodology have been

pointed out, and new methodologies focusing on local characteristic and adaptation proposed.

Some of these include evaluation of coastal vulnerability and resilience, support to decision-

making (Kay and Hay, 1993), a database for coastal risk assessment (Gornitz et al., 1994),

vulnerability assessment with regard to the characteristics of South Pacific island countries

(Yamada et al., 1995), and assessment methodologies of coastal impacts and adaptations

(Leatherman et al., 1996), etc.

In estimating coastal vulnerability and resilience to sea-level rise and climate change, new

methodologies and approaches to evaluate desirable adaptations have been discussed. UNEP

(1998) published a handbook about impact assessment and adaptation on climate change that

included those methodologies, aiming to offer detailed guidance for policy formulation (Figure

3-4-1-2). Economic evaluation of impacts and responses is another important approach.

さまざまな影響評価手法(1)Overview of Methodologies for Impact Assessment

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 55

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Figure 3-4-1-2Methods for climatechange impactassessment andadaptation strategies.Source: UNEP (1998)

Figure 3-4-1-1Stepwise approach forvulnerability analyses.Source: IPCC CZMS (1992)

STEP-7

STEP-6

STEP-5

STEP-3

STEP-2

STEP-4

DELINEATION OF CASE STUDY

IDENTIFICATION OF RELEVANT DEVELOPMENT FACTORS

ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICAL CHANGES AND NATURAL SYSTEM RESPONSES

FORMULATION OF RESPONSE STRATEGIES

IDENTIFICATION OF NEEDS AND ACTIONS

ASSESSING OF VULNERABILITY AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

NATURAL SYSTEM DATA

STEP-1 DELINEATION OF CASE STUDY AREA AND SPECIFICATION OF ACCELERATEDSEA-LEVEL RISE AND CLIMATE CHANGE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

SOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEM DATA

Chapter 7 Coastal Zones

7.1 Nature and scope of the problem7.1.1 Delineation of the study area

7.1.2 Absolute and relative sea-level change

7.1.3 Biogeophysical effects and socio-economic impacts

7.2 An array of methods7.2.1 Acquisition and management of data

7.2.1.1 Global sea-level changes

7.2.1.2 Coastal topography and land use

7.2.1.3 Socio-economic data

7.2.1.4 Management of data

7.2.2 Index-based approaches

7.2.3 Methods for assessing biogeophysical effects

7.2.3.1 Increasing flood-frequency probabilities

7.2.3.2 Erosion and inundation

7.2.3.3 Rising water tables

7.2.3.4 Saltwater intrusion

7.2.3.5 Summary

7.2.4 Methods for assessing potential socio-economic impacts

7.2.4.1 Population

7.2.4.2 Marketed goods and services

7.2.4.3 Non-marketed goods and services

7.3 Scenarios7.3.1 Relative sea-level rise

7.3.2 Other scenarios

7.4 Autonomous adaptation7.5 Planned adaptation

7.5.1 Identification of adaptation options

7.5.2 Evaluation of adaptation options

7.6 Summary and implicationsReferences

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沿岸域への影響

これまでの海面上昇に関する調査の大部分は、物理的な環境変化の予測が中心であったが、長期的

かつ経済学的見地より、海面上昇は多くの問題を包含するため、社会経済的影響を評価することも重

要である。特に、海面上昇の被害を防ぐための対策に関する費用便益分析(対策にかかる費用と対策

によって生じる便益を比較すること)は、国民経済的見地より対策の効率性を評価する際に重要であ

る。

環境変化の経済的評価法には、直接支出法、消費者余剰法、ヘドニック価格法、仮想市場評価法、

応用一般均衡分析などの方法がある。● 直接支出法:環境被害を被った個人または企業が被害を軽減するために要する支出額の増加分で計

測する方法である。● 消費者余剰法:環境と密接に関係する私的財の市場を見つけることができれば、その市場における

消費者余剰の変化分がその環境変化の評価値を示しているとの理論に基づく計測法である。

注)私的財:市場を取引の場とし、需要量と供給量が価格の動きに反応する財。

消費者余剰:消費者が財やサービスの消費から享受する正味の満足度を金額で表示したもの。

Earlier studies on sea-level rise have focused on prediction of physical changes in the

environment. From the long-term and economic points of view, it is also useful to evaluate

social and economic impacts. Cost-benefit analysis, are very important in order to evaluate

efficiency of countermeasures against sea-level rise from the standpoint of national economies.

Economic evaluation methods on environmental changes include the direct expenditure

method, the consumer's surplus method, the hedonic price method, the contingent valuation

method and the computable general equilibrium analysis.

• Direct Expenditure Method: estimates incremental expenditures necessary to decrease

environmental damages affecting individuals or businesses.

• Consumer's Surplus Method: is based on the theory that the value of environmental change

would be the change in consumers' surplus, if a market existed for private goods, which is

closely related to the environment. Note: private goods: the goods for which the amount of supply and demand reacts to price, with the market as

the place of exchange.

Consumers' surplus: net satisfaction level which consumers receive from consumption of goods or services,

expressed in monetary terms.

影響評価手法Methodologies for Impact Assessment43.

経済的評価手法 その1(2)Methodologies for Impact Assessment of EconomicAspects, Part 1

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 57

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

Table 3-4-2-1Basic scenarios of sea-level rise (S.L.R.).

Countermeasurefor S.L.R.

• Difference between A and B

Impact of S.L.R.not done done

S.L.R.

does notoccur

occurs

A

B C

• Difference between B and C

Impact of Countermeasure for S.L.R.

island

stone wall

bankS.L.R.

Situation A Situation B Situation C

Expenditure

SituationsA B C

Damage Costdue to S.L.R.

Benefit byCountermeasurefor S.L.R.

island

recreation site

bankS.L.R.

Situation A Situation B Situation C

Price

P*

Demand

Damage Cost due to S.L.R.

Demand curve at B

Demand curve at A

Price

P*

Demand

Benefit byCountermeasure for S.L.R.

Demand curve at B

Demand curve at C

note : Demand, Price: in the market of visit to the recreation site.P*: price to visit there.

Figure 3-4-2-1Direct expendituremethod.

Figure 3-4-2-2Consumer's surplusmethod (Travel costmethod).

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沿岸域への影響

● ヘドニック価格法:多くの場合、環境変化による資産価値または賃金率への影響分をその経済評価

値とする手法である。

● 仮想市場評価法:アンケートにより直接被害者に被害を避けるための最大支払意思額あるいは被害

を受け入れるための最小受取補償額を尋ね、その合計を被害の経済評価値とする方法である。

● 応用一般均衡分析:環境変化が起こると、その影響は一般均衡の市場メカニズムを経由して波及し、

最終的には社会を構成する個人の効用水準の変化という形で帰着する。このような波及と帰着の過

程をモデル化して、環境変化による効用水準の変化分を貨幣価値に換算したもをその経済評価値と

する方法である。

注)一般均衡分析:複数の財市場の相互関係を整合的に考察しようとする経済分析方法。

効用水準:財やサービスの消費から得られる満足度。

• Hedonic Price Method: in many cases, this method takes changes of asset prices or wage

rates as a result of environmental change to represent the economic valuation of those

changes.

• Contingent Valuation Method: individuals are asked directly the maximum amount of

money which they are willing to pay in order to avoid environmental damages, or

minimum amount of money which they are willing to accept as compensation for those

damages.

• Computable General Equilibrium Analysis: measures change of individuals' utility level in

monetary terms due to environmental changes, by modeling the spread-and-accrue process

of those impacts through the market mechanism.Note: general equilibrium: an economic analysis method which takes into account the mutual relationships

between multiple markets for goods.

utility level: satisfaction level derived from consumption of goods or services.

Land Price

SituationsA B C

Damage Costdue to S.L.R.

Benefit byCountermeasurefor S.L.R.

island bank

S.L.R.

Situation A Situation B Situation C

Figure 3-4-3-1Hedonic price method.

影響評価手法Methodologies for Impact Assessment43.

経済的評価手法 その2(3)Methodologies for Impact Assessment of EconomicAspects, Part 2

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 59

Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones

island

stone wall

bank

S.L.R.

How much areyou willing to payfor......?

Situation A Situation B Situation C

WTPor

WTAC

WTP to avoidB at A

or or

WTAC torecive B

WTP to getC at B

WTAC toabandon C

Damage Costdue to S.L.R.

Benefit byCountermeasure

for S.L.R.

note) WTP: willingness to payWTAC: willingness to accept compensation

Individuals'Utility Level

SituationsA B C

(in money term)Damage Cost due to S.L.R.

(in money term)Benefit byCountermeasurefor S.L.R.

island bank

S.L.R.

Situation A Situation B Situation C

Figure 3-4-3-3Computable generalequilibrium analysis.

Figure 3-4-3-2Contingent valuationmethod.

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影響評価・カントリースタディImpact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

4

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影響評価・カントリースタディ

影響評価・カントリースタディの概観Overview of Impact Assessment Studies andCountry Studies

14.

海面上昇・気候変動の影響評価・カントリースタディは、先進国自身を対象とした独自のプログラム、

途上国と先進国の二国間プログラム、地域及び国際機関と途上国の多国間プログラムに大別される。

日本は、1991年以来、地球温暖化・気候変動に関する国家対応戦略研究を実施してきている。海面

上昇に対する脆弱性評価を含む研究プログラムをインドネシア、フィジー、サモア、トンガ、ツバル

と共同で実施している。米国は、米国国別研究プログラム(USCSP)により、世界50ヶ国以上の途上

国を対象として、GHGインベントリ、脆弱性・適応策評価、影響緩和策の分析に関する支援を行って

いる。オランダは、バングラデシュ、ベトナム等を対象として脆弱性評価を実施した。この他に、ド

イツ、オーストラリア、スウェーデン、英国等が温暖化に関連した途上国支援を行っている。

多国間プログラムは、代表的なものとして以下に示すものが挙げられる。アジア開発銀行(ADB)

が1992年から1994年にかけて、バングラデシュ、インド、パキスタン、スリランカ、インドネシア、

マレーシア、フィリピン、ベトナム、の8ヶ国を対象として「アジアにおける気候変動」と題する調査

を実施した。太平洋島嶼国気候変動プロジェクト(PICCAP)では、地球環境基金(GEF)の支援を受

けて、南太平洋島嶼国10ヶ国を対象として、南太平洋地域環境計画(SPREP)のコーディネイトの下

に脆弱性・適応策評価を含む調査が行われている。こうした取り組みは、国連開発計画(UNDP)と

GEFが支援をしており、途上国が国連気候変動枠組条約(UNFCCC)への報告義務を満たし、事務局

に通報を提出することが可能にするためのプログラムである。この他に、国連環境計画(UNEP)が、

シンガポールなどの特定の沿岸域を対象として、脆弱性評価プロジェクトを実施している。

Country studies on impact assessments for sea-level rise and climate change are divided into 3

groups: individual programs, bilateral programs between developed and developing countries,

and multilateral programs involving regional and international organizations and developing

countries.

Japan has implemented national response strategy studies on global warming and climate

change since 1991. Japan also has performed cooperative study programs including

vulnerability assessment to sea-level rise with Indonesia, and, through the South Pacific

Regional Environmental Program (SPREP), Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu. The United States

Country Study Program (USCSP) has supported more than 50 developing countries to prepare

GHG inventories, vulnerability/adaptation assessments and impact mitigation measures. The

Netherlands, Germany, Australia, Sweden, United Kingdom have also supported programs

related to global warming in developing countries.

Regarding the multilateral programs, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) conducted a study,

entitled "Climate Change in Asia", in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Indonesia,

Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam from 1992 to 1994. The Pacific Island Climate Change Assistance

Programme (PICCAP) implemented the studies, which include vulnerability/adaptation

assessments for ten South Pacific small island countries with assistance from the Global

Environment Facility (GEF), and under the coordination of the SPREP. Those programs are

supported by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and GEF, which assist

developing countries to meet their tasks of reporting to the UN Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC). United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) also provides

assistance for vulnerability assessments on specific coastal zones, including Singapore.

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Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

Figure 4-1-1Reports from country studies and synthesisconferences.

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2影響評価・カントリースタディ

4. アジア地域の研究Impact Assessment Studies in Asian Region

バングラデシュ(1)Bangladesh

バングラデシュの概要

バングラデシュは、ガンジス河、ブラマプトラ河、メグナ河の3本の大河川の氾濫平野に位置し、国

土の大部分は標高の低いデルタである。バングラデシュの概要について、Karim(1993)は東半球ワー

クショップにおいて、以下のように述べている。

「バングラデシュは、人口密度が高いため、一人当たりの可耕作地面積は世界で最も少ない(0.1ha

以下)。農村部の50%以上の家庭は基本的に土地を所有しておらず、0.2ha以下の土地を借地している。

このように、人口が多い一方限られた資源や頻発する自然災害は、全国的な貧困を招いている。近年

は洪水、干ばつやサイクロンの来襲が頻繁に起こり、農村経済の疲弊が生じている。1987年の大洪水

に続いて、1988年には今世紀最大の洪水にみまわれた。またバングラデシュでは1988年および

1991年のサイクロン、1989年の干ばつ、1989年および1992年に生じた竜巻等、さまざまな災害

が生じている。このようにバングラデシュは頻発する自然災害の影響を受けやすい傾向になっている。」

脆弱性評価

バングラデシュにおける脆弱性評価に関する研究は、その著しい脆弱性を反映して、さまざまな取

組みが行われている。Warrick et al.(1996)は、バングラデシュに対する気候変動と海面上昇の影響

を“The Implications of Climate and Sea-level Change for Bangladesh”にまとめて出版している。

この本は、7つの章から構成されており、ベンガル湾の海面変動から、自然資源に対する影響、社会経

済や法制度に関するものまで幅広い研究結果を示している(Figure 4-2-1-1, 4-2-1-2)。

Overview of Bangladesh

Most of Bangladesh's land consists of low elevation deltas, as it is located on the floodplain of

three major rivers: the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna. Karim (1993) described

Bangladesh in the Eastern Hemisphere Workshop as follows:

"Bangladesh has the lowest per capita arable land (less than 0.1 ha) due to its high density of

population. Over 50 percent of rural households are functionally landless, owning less than

0.20 ha of land. Its limited resource base, large population and vulnerability to frequent natural

calamities have all contributed to wide spread poverty. There have been recurrent floods,

droughts and cyclones, more so in recent years, which continuously weakened the economy of

the rural people. In 1988, Bangladesh had the biggest flood of the century immediately after a

big flood in 1987. Thereafter a devastating cyclone in 1988 and in 1991, drought in 1989 and

damaging tornadoes in 1989 and 1992 took place in Bangladesh. It seems that Bangladesh is

becoming prone to frequent natural calamities."

Vulnerability assessment

The studies of the vulnerability assessment in Bangladesh were implemented by researchers in

various scientific fields, reflecting its remarkable vulnerability. Warrick et al. (1996) published

"The Implications of Climate and Sea-level Change for Bangladesh", which consists of seven

chapters which include broad themes such as sea-level changes in the Bay of Bengal, effects of

climate change and sea-level changes on the natural resources, and socio-economic and legal

implications.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 65

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Figure 4-2-1-1Areas of Bangladesh exposed to storm surgeand affected by cyclones. The impact of the1991 cyclone covered an area similar to thatshown as "occasionally" affected on the map.Other selected cyclone tracks have been addedfor comparison.Source: Warrick et al. (1996)

SandwipIsland

Cox'sBazar

0 100km

N

DHAKADHAKA

ChandpurChandpur

KHULNAKHULNA

CHITTAGONGCHITTAGONG

INDIA

BAYOF

BENGAL

SandwipIsland

Cox'sBazar

INDIA

MYANMAR

Area affected by Storm Surge

Occassionally affected by cyclones

Rarely affected by cyclones

Cyclone Paths19

46

1970

1965

195819

61

1960

1961

1960

1965

1963

1991

1940

1909

1999

Figure 4-2-1-2The spatial distribution inBangladesh of five main typesof severe natural events andprocesses: cyclones, floods,riverbank erosion, droughts,and salinity. A comparison ofthis with that of humanactivities provides ageneralised picture of thevulnerability or hazardousnessof Bangladesh.Source: Warrick et al. (1996)

0 100km

N

DHAKADHAKA

KHULNAKHULNA

CHITTAGONGCHITTAGONG

INDIA

INDIA

MYANMAR

Drought

Cyclone Path

Salinity Zones

Locations ofRiverbankErosion (1990)

Flooded area 1987

Flooded area 1988

Boundary ofRisk Area

BAY OF BENGAL

SandwipIsland

Cox'sBazarBAY OF BENGAL

SandwipIsland

Cox'sBazar

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影響評価・カントリースタディ

アジア地域の研究Impact Assessment Studies in Asian Region24.

中国(2)China

中国の概要:

中国の海岸線延長は、全長18,700kmであり、沿岸部に広大なデルタと平野を有する。将来の海面

上昇に対して脆弱性の高い8地域(遼河平野下流域、華北平原、華東平原、韓江デルタ平野、珠江デル

タ平野、広西沿岸平野、北海南平野、台湾沿岸平野、Figure 4-2-2-1参照)が挙げられている(Du,

1993)。また、将来の海面上昇により影響を受ける面積は、中国全域で 35,000km2(旧黄河デルタ

7,000km2(天津、塘沽を含む)、 揚子江デルタ8,000km2(上海を含む)、珠江デルタ7,000km2(広

州を含む)と見積もられている(Du, 1993)。

脆弱性評価:

渤海湾沿岸域低地に位置する天津地域において、IPCC共通手法にしたがって脆弱性評価が行われて

いる(Han、1993)。このケーススタディでは、将来の海面のシナリオとして、0.3mおよび1.0mの

海面上昇および高潮による上昇が考慮されている。また地理および社会・経済データに加え衛星リモ

ートセンシングデータを解析することにより、沿岸低地、人口、資産、および経済活動に対する影響

を評価している。研究の結果、想定した海面上昇により、全ての項目にわたり重大な影響が生ずるこ

とが予測された。Figure 4-2-2-2は、2つのシナリオ(0.3mおよび1.0m)における海面上昇の影響

予測地域を示している。Figure 4-2-2-3は、この地域が防御されないと仮定した場合における海面上

昇の人口・経済指標に対する影響量を示している。

Overview of China

China boasts a coastline about 18,700 km long, and vast deltas and plains along the coast.

Eight vulnerable areas to future sea-level rise were identified: lower Liaohe River plain; North

China plain; East China plain; Hanjiang River Delta, Pearl River Delta, Guangxi coastal plain;

North Hainan plain; and Taiwan coastal plain (Figure 4-2-2-1) (Du, 1993). It was also estimated

that the potentially affected area due to future sea-level rise could be 35,000 km2 including

7,000 km2 in Old Yellow River Delta (including Tianjin, Tanggu), 8,000 km2 in Yangze Delta

(including Shanghai), 7,000 km2 in Pearl River Delta (including Guangzhou) (Du, 1993).

Vulnerability assessment

A vulnerability assessment case study was performed for the Tianjin area located on the low-

lying Bohai Bay Coast according to the Common Methodology. In this case study, a sea-level

rise of 0.3 meters and 1.0 meters and an additional rise caused by storm surges were

considered as scenarios for future sea levels. Impacts on land area, population, assets, and

economic activities were evaluated by analyzing geographical and socio-economic data and

satellite remote sensing images. The study concluded that severe damage would occur in all

the categories analyzed in the Tianjin area. Figure 4-2-2-2 is an example showing two scenarios

for the area likely to be affected by sea-level rise: 0.3 meters and 1 meter rises. Figure 4-2-2-3

shows the magnitude of impacts of sea-level rise on population and economic activities if this

area is not protected.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 67

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Figure 4-2-2-1Chinese vulnerablecoastal plains. Shadedarea denotesmountainous coast.Source: Revised fromDu (1993)

0 200km

Lower Liaohe River plain

North China plain

East China plain

Hanjiang River deltaic plain

Pearl River deltaic plain

Guangxi coastal plain

North Hainan plain

Taiwan coastal plain

Mountainous coast

Guangzou

Shantou

Shanghai

BeijingTianjing

Figure 4-2-2-2Area of influence by sea-level rise (SLR) in TianjinCoastal PlainSource: Han et al.(1993)

Wuqing C.

Baodi C.

Ninghe C.

Hangu d.

Tanggu d.

Dagang d.

Jinghai C.

N-Sub

T-D

W-SubS-Sub

E-Sub

Bohai Bay3.9m

3.9m

3.2m

3.2m

2.9m

2.9m

2.5m

2.5m

2.2m- Maximum High Tide2.5 & 3.2m- during 0.3 & 1.0m SLR3.2 & 3.7m- Maximum High Tide plus AverageStorm Surge Level (1m) during 0.3 &1.0m SLRT-D- Tianjin DowntownSub Suburban District ; N S E W- Northern Southern Eastern Westernd - DistrictC - County

Figure 4-2-2-3Degree of economicinfluence of sea-levelrise at different levelsSource: Han et al.(1993)

2.2 2.5 2.9 3.2 3.9

Salt field

Population

Agriculture

Forestry

Deg

ree

on in

fluen

ce

Sea level (m)

(%)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

2.2m- Present MaximumHigh Tidal Level.

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影響評価・カントリースタディ

アジア地域の研究Impact Assessment Studies in Asian Region24.

インド(3)India

インドの概要

インドの国土は、東をベンガル湾、西をアラビア海に面するインド半島、ベンガル湾とアンダマン

海の間に位置するアンダマン諸島およびニコバル諸島、アラビア海側に位置するラッカシブ諸島であ

る。これらの海岸線の総延長は約7,000kmであり、Figure 4-2-3-1およびTable 4-2-3-1に示すとお

り11の沿岸域に分類されている(ADB, 1994)。インドの海岸は、サイクロンによる被害を頻繁に受

けており、とくに東河岸は、サイクロン来襲時の豪雨による洪水に対して脆弱である。また、ベンガ

ル湾は、サイクロンによる高潮に対して非常に脆弱である。1970年11月に来襲したサイクロンは、

200,000人以上の人命を奪い、200,000以上の家屋、800,000頭以上の家畜、80%の稲作物に被害

を与えた(ADB, 1994)。

脆弱性評価

「アジアの気候変動」と題したアジア開発銀行(ADB)が実施した調査では、インド全域の沿岸域

における予備的な脆弱性評価が行われている。この調査では、既存の地形図や社会経済データをGISに

入力して解析し、水没や侵食による国土の損失、危険にさらされる人口、経済的損失、森林に対する

影響等を検討している。Table 4-2-3-2に、1mの海面上昇に対する経済的損失の試算結果を示す。こ

の試算は、水没する土地の価格、住民および人家の移転、防波堤等の建て替え、道路網の損失等の費

用総額を712億ドルと見積もっている。

Overview of India

The territory of India includes the Indian peninsula, which faces both the Bay of Bengal to the

east and the Arabian Sea to the west, Andaman and Nicobar Islands located between the Bay

of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, and the Lakshadveep Islands located in the Arabian Sea. The

total length of coastline is about 7,000 km, and as shown in Figure 4-2-3-1 and Table 4-2-3-1, is

classified to 11 coastal regions (ADB, 1994). The coastal zones in India are frequently affected

by cyclones. In particular, the east coast is vulnerable to flooding induced by the heavy rains

of cyclones. In addition, the Bay of Bengal is vulnerable to storm surges caused by cyclones. A

November 1970 cyclone killed over 200,000 people and over 800,000 head of livestock, and

destroyed over 200,000 houses, and more than 80 percent of rice crops (ADB, 1994).

Vulnerability assessment

The "Climate Change in Asia" study by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) conducted a

comprehensive vulnerability assessment of sea-level rise for India's coastal zone. In this study,

land loss due to flooding and erosion, risk to the population, economic losses, and impacts on

forestry were examined using GIS analysis based on topographic maps and socio-economic

data. Table 4-2-4-2 shows an estimation of the economic costs assuming a 1 meter rise in sea-

levels. The estimated costs were 71.2 billion dollars in total, including the costs of land loss,

displacement of population and households, rebuilding of breakwaters, and damage to road

networks, etc.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 69

Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

BOMBAY

MADRAS

CALCUTTA

ARABIAN SEA

BAY OF BENGAL

>500

300 - 500

200 - 300

100 - 200

50 - 100

25 - 50

PERSONS / KM 2

Orissa

Coa

stWest Bengal

Coast

Andhra Coas

t

Tamiln

adu

Coa

st

Kerala C

oast

Karnataka C

oast

Konkan C

oast

Gujarat C oast

LakshadveepIslands

Andaman & NicobarIslands

Figure 4-2-3-1Population density in thecoastal districts of India.Source: Revised from ADB(1994)

Table 4-2-3-1A classification of the Indian coasts and islands.Source: Revised from ADB (1994)

Table 4-2-3-2The economic costs of sea-level rise 1mscenarios for India.Source: Revised from ADB (1994)

Region

Gujarat Region

West Coast Region

East Coast Region

The Indian Islands

Name of Coast

Gujarat Coast

Konkan CoastKarnataka CoastKerala Coast

Tamil Nadu CoastAndhra CoastOrissa CoastWest Bengal Coast

Lakshadveep IslandsAndaman & Nicobar Islands

Length of theCoastline in Km

1600

820250560

10001000720250

850

Land Loss

- Rural- Urban- Total

Households- Rural- Urban- Total

Population Displacement- Rural- Urban- Total

Dislocation of Jetty/Ore Loading Points

Loss of Road Network (2m Average Widths)- Unmetalled- Metalled- Total

Raising River bunds and Flood ProtectedStructures by 2m Height & 1m width- Length (km)- Salinity Prevention Cost

Grand Total

Economic Costs (million dollar)

21,39337,54158,935

1,1602,4663,626

1,968772

2,740

15

7833

112

686

71,292

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アジア地域の研究Impact Assessment Studies in Asian Region24.

タイ(4)Thailand

タイの概要

タイ王国の国土は51.4万km2で、人口は約6000万人である。国土は、北高南低で、北部の山岳地帯

からチャオプラヤ川が流下し、中央部に広大で低平なデルタを形成している。気候的には、モンスー

ンの影響によって雨季(5~11月)と乾季があるのが特徴である。国民の50%が農業に従事しており、

世界有数の米作国であるが、近年、急速に工業化が進んでいる。

タイでは、水管理に関連して森林の減少が大きな問題になっている。1961年には国土の53%あっ

た森林が、1973年には43%、1993年には26%と急速に減少した。そのため、水不足や洪水が激化

する一方、地下水の利用による農耕地の塩類化も広い範囲で生じている。また、沿岸部では1980年代

にエビの養殖が導入されて以降、マングローブ林の養殖地への転換が大規模に進んだ。タイ湾沿岸と

アンダマン海沿岸で、マングローブ地帯や砂浜の侵食、後退が顕在化しており、海岸の防護機能の低

下が生じている。

脆弱性評価

タイでの脆弱性評価は、UNEPとの共同研究(Parry et al.(eds), 1992)、カントリースタディ

(Panich, 1998)、Somboon et al.(1993)の研究などが行われている。また、1997年からは、日

本の研究グループとの共同研究が取り組まれている。脆弱性評価の結果、水資源管理と沿岸災害に脅

威が生じるとされている。タイは、1990-1995年に記録的な降雨の変動の影響を受けた(1990-

1993年は小雨、1995年には大きな洪水)。1995年の洪水は、200年に1回の規模といわれ、バンコ

ク周辺では水位が平均水位上2.3mまで上昇した。この氾濫で、1900万トンの米の収穫の内200万ト

ンが減収となった。他方、この被害によって米の輸出価格がトン当たり3000バーツから5500バーツ

に上昇し、被害を受けなかった米作農家には逆に増収となるなど、影響の現れ方は複雑な様相を呈し

た。また、海面上昇は、海岸侵食を加速すると懸念される。

Overview of Thailand

The Kingdom of Thailand occupies 514,000 km2 with a population of about 60 million. The land declines

from north to south, and River Chaophraya flows through a low and flat delta. The climate is affected by

monsoons, resulting in a clear division of wet (May to November) and dry seasons. The predominant

industry has been agriculture, which makes Thailand a major rice exporter, at the same time as it has

been experiencing rapid industrialization. In Thailand, water management is closely linked with forest

management. The area covered by forests decreased from 53 percent in 1961 to 26 percent of the land in

1993. This decreased the natural ability to conserve water resources and to regulate floods. At the same

time, intensive use of ground water caused salinization of farm lands. Along the coastlines, mangrove

forests have been cleared and converted to shrimp ponds since 1980s. Retreat and erosion of mangrove

and sandy coasts are already problems on the Bay of Thailand and Andaman Sea coasts.

Vulnerability assessment

Impact and vulnerability assessments have been carried out in UNEP studies (Parry et al. (eds), 1992), a

Thai Country Study (Panich, 1998), and Somboon et al.(1993) etc. A cooperative study with Japan started

in 1997. In these studies, the most significant effects of climate change and sea-level rise are identified for

water resources and coastal management. Thailand experienced extraordinary fluctuations of the climate

from 1990 to 1995. The flood of 1995 was an event that is said to occur one in 200-years, and raised the

water level of Chaophraya River 2.3 meters above the mean water level around Bangkok. This damaged 2

million tons of rice yield out of the national yield of 19 million tons, resulting in increased export price

from 3000 to 5500 baht/ton. Sea-level rise is expected to exacerbate coastal erosion as well.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 71

Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

Figure 4-2-4-1Land use pattern in the central part of Thailand.Source: Thailand on a Disk (TEI, 1998)

AndamanSea

Bay ofThailand

Mangrove

Paddyfield

Fresh waterswamp

Figure 4-2-4-2Ground subsidence of Bangkok 1978 - 1987.Source: Somboon et al. (1993)

Figure 4-2-4-3Landsat image around Bangkokand the mouth of Chao PhrayaRiver (1998).

Bangkok

ChaoPhrayaRiver

RetreatingMangrove

Forest

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影響評価・カントリースタディ

アジア地域の研究Impact Assessment Studies in Asian Region24.

ベトナム(5)Vietnam

ベトナムの概要

ベトナムは、国土の約3分の1を占める広い平野と、3,260kmに及ぶ海岸線を持つ。主な低地は北部

の紅河デルタ、南部のメコンデルタであり、2つをあわせると全国の50%を占める人口が集中してい

る。アジア開発銀行(ADB)の研究(ADB、1994)において、紅河デルタ、メコンデルタは以下のよ

うに記述されている。

「紅河デルタは、72%を3m以下の低地が占める地域である。紅河デルタの土地標高分布をTable 4-2-

5-1に示す。紅河デルタは標高が低いため、半分が海水侵入の脅威にさらされており、洪水期にはデル

タのほとんどが洪水レベル以下になる。ホンダウにおける最高潮位は約2.5~3.0m、ハノイの洪水レ

ベルは通常10~12mであり、1971年8月の洪水時のハノイにおける最高水位は14.8mであった。」

「メコンデルタは、河川および海洋起源の新しい沖積土からなる。ベトナム内のデルタ総面積は390万

ha、その内240万haが耕地化されており、マングローブ林117,350 ha、コバノブラッシノキ林

217,443 haである。デルタの大部分は2m以下の標高の湿地に分類される。したがって、水没、浸水、

および塩水侵入がメコンデルタの開発を制限する要因となっている。」

脆弱性評価

上の報告書は、2つのデルタに関して以下の記述をしている。「2070年までに海面が90cm上昇し、

既存の海岸堤防システムが暈上げされないと仮定すれば、紅河デルタの50万haおよびメコンデルタの

150-200万haが、海面上昇に関連した脅威にさらされ、220~250万haが塩水の影響を受けるおそ

れがある。」

Overview of Vietnam

Vietnam has a large coastal plain which covers about one quarter of the territory, and has 3,260 km

of coastline. There are two main lowlands in Vietnam, the Red River Delta in the north and the

Mekong Delta in the south, which are densely populated and together account for about 50 percent

of the total population.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) study (ADB, 1994) described the Red River Delta and the

Mekong Delta as follows: "The Red River Delta is a low-lying region where 72 percent of its land

surface is below 3 meters high. Land elevation distribution of the Red River Delta is shown in Table

4-2-5-1. Because the Red River Delta is at such a low elevation, about half of the delta is threatened

by sea water intrusion, and almost all of the delta is lower than flood-water level in the flood season.

Tidal crest elevation at Hon Dau is about 2.5~3.0 meters and flood-water level at Hanoi is usually

10~12 meters, and the highest flood water level can reach to 14.8 meters at Hanoi, as in the August

1971 flood."

"The Mekong Delta consists mainly of young alluvial soils of marine and fluvial origin. The total area

of the delta located within Vietnam is about 3.9 million ha of which 2.4 million ha is cultivated,

117,350 ha is mangrove forest and 217,443 ha is melaleuca forest. Most of the delta can be classified

as wetland with an elevation lower than 2 meters. For this reason, inundation, waterlogging and

saltwater intrusion are problems constraining development in the Mekong Delta".

Vulnerability assessment

The report described the two deltas as follows: "If sea-level rise is as high as 90 cm by the year

2070 and the existing sea dike system is not raised high enough by then, about 0.5 million ha

in the Red River Delta and 1.5~2 million ha in the Mekong River Delta will be at a high risk of

tidal threat and salt-affected areas will amount to 2.2~2.5 million ha."

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 73

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Figure 4-2-5-1Provincial boundary and ecological zone.Source: Revised from ADB (1994)

ECOLOGICAL ZONE: Northern Mountains: Red River Delta and Midlands: North Central Coast: South Central Coast: Central Highland: North-East of Southland: Mekong River Delta

LEGEND: National boundary

: Provincial boundary

Cao Bang

Lang Son

Quang Ninh

Bac Thai

Ha Bac

Ha Giang

TuyenQuang

Vinh Phu

Ha Tay

Hai Hung

Thai Binh

Ninh Binh

T.DHanoi

Lao Cai

Yen Bai

Lai Chau

Son La

Thanh Hoa

Hoa Binh

Nam Ha

Nghe An

Ha Tinh

Quang Binh

Quang Tri

Thua Thien Hue

Quang NamDa Nang

QuangNgai

Kon Tum

Binh Dinh

Gia Lai

PhuYen

Khanh Hoa

Dac Lac

Ninh Thuan

Binh Thuan

Lam DongSong Be

Dong Nai

Ba Ria-Vungtau

Tay Ninh

Ho Chi Minh

Long An

Tien Giang

BenTre

Dong Thap

Vinh Long

Tra Vinh

An Giang

CanTho

Soc Trang

KienGiang

Minh Hai

Hai Phong

Figure 4-2-5-2Areas subject to flooding in Vietnam.Source: Revised from ADB (1994)

Storm surges

River floods

River floods and storm surges

Table 4-2-5-1Land elevation distribution.Source: ADB (1994)

Land Area (ha) 293,020

29.9

572,000

58.4

706,580

72.1

822,000

83.9

863,300

88.1

882,980

90.1

924,140

94.3

954,520

97.4% of TotalLand Mass

Below1 m

Below2 m

Below3 m

Below4 m

Below5 m

Below6 m

Below7 m

Below9 m

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南太平洋島嶼国の研究Impact Assessment Studies in South PacificIsland Countries

3影響評価・カントリースタディ

4.

取り組みの概要(1)Overview of Impact Assessment Studies

南太平洋島嶼国は、サンゴ礁の低平な島々が多く、また、サイクロンの進路にあたり、気象災害の

影響を受けやすいという特徴をもつ。これらの国々の経済力は小さく、自給自足経済も色濃く残って

いる。多くの人々が沿岸域に居住している反面、海岸の防災施設は貧弱である。南太平洋島嶼国は、

共通した生活スタイルや文化的伝統といった固有性を持つ一方で、1000m級の山地を持つ「南太平洋

のスーパーパワー」と呼ばれるフィジーから、国土面積が約25km2、人口約9000人のツバルまでさま

ざまな国が存在する。

海面上昇・気候変動は、南太平洋島嶼国に対して甚大な影響を与えると予想されることから、これ

らの国々に対する影響評価を含む研究やプログラムが二国間ベース、多国間ベースで盛んに行われて

いる。日本は、1991年以来、フィジー、サモア、トンガ、ツバルにおいて、海面上昇に対する脆弱性

評価調査を南太平洋環境計画(SPREP)と共同で実施している。米国は、米国国別研究プログラムに

より、フィジー、キリバス、マーシャル諸島、ミクロネシア、サモア等において、脆弱性・適応策評

価及び影響緩和の分析に関する支援を行っている。オーストラリアは、南太平洋の海水位及び気候モ

ニタリングプロジェクトを実施している。

多国間ベースでは、地球環境基金(GEF)の支援を受けて、太平洋島嶼国気候変動支援プロジェク

ト(PICCAP)が取り組まれている。このプロジェクトは、対応能力向上や市民の意識喚起まで視野に

入れて、GHGインベントリー、脆弱性評価、適応策、行動計画に関する検討を目的としている。

PICCAPには、SPREPのコーディネートの下に、クック諸島、フィジー、キリバス、マーシャル諸島、

ミクロネシア、ナウル、サモア、ソロモン諸島、ツバル、バヌアツが参加している。

これらの取り組みを通して、南太平洋諸国に適した適応策の確立や自然エネルギーの活用、そのた

めの人材育成、技術移転などが進むことが期待される。

Small island countries in the South Pacific consist of many low-lying coral islands, which are

exposed to meteorological hazards such as cyclones. Generally, their economic bases are

small, and they range in size from large countries with high mountainous lands and large

population like Fiji, to small and low-lying islands like Tuvalu, however they have some

similarities in life styles and traditional social structures.

Many studies on the vulnerability and adaptation measures of these countries have been

carried out on a bilateral and multilateral basis. These include Japanese/SPREP cooperative

studies for Tonga, Fiji, Samoa, and Tuvalu, and studies by the US Country Studies Program.

Australia also monitors sea-level changes in this region.

Recently progress has been made by the Pacific Island Climate Change Assistance Programme

(PICCAP) focusing on capacity-building to conduct GHG emissions inventories, and

assessments of vulnerability and adaptation. PICCAP is supported by GEF and UNDP,

implemented by SPREP, and enjoys the participation of ten island countries in the South

Pacific.

Through these activities, it is expected that adaptation strategies and utilization of renewable

energy are promoted, on the basis of the progress in capacity building and technology transfer

of technology appropriate for the South Pacific.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 75

Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

Plate 4-3-1-2Indigenous life in Fiji.

Plate 4-3-1-1Processing "KAVA" drink which ismade from Yangona roots.

Figure 4-3-1-1Location of Kiribati in the Central Pacific.

40°

30°

20°

10°S

10°N

20°

Sanson-flamsteed's projection100°E 110° 120° 130° 140° 150° 160° 170° 180° 170°W 160° 150° 140° 130° 120° 110°

0 1000

km

2000

PHILIPPINES

MICRONESIABERAU

NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS

INDONESIA

AUSTRALIA

NEW CALEDONIA

VANUATU

NAURUKIRIBATI

TUVALU

FIJITONGA

POLYNESIA

SOLOMON ISLANDS

WESTERNSAMOA AMERICAN

SAMOA

FRENCHPOLYNESIA

MARSHALLISLANDS

NEW ZEALAND

PAPUANEW GUINEA

Caroline Is

Bismarck Is

Guadalcanal I.San Cristobal I.

Santa Cruz Is.

Banks Is.

Efate

Palau Is.

Saipan

Guam

Gilbert Is.

Tokelau Is.

Samoa Is.

Cook Is.

Tahiti

Mururoa

Line Is.

Kiritimati Is.(Christmas I.)

HAWAII

Vavau Is.

Is. Walis

Tubuai Is. Henderson I.

Tuamotu Arch

Phoenix Is.

Suva

Apia

Port Moresby Honiara

Vila

Manila

MARQUESAS ISLANDS

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影響評価・カントリースタディ

南太平洋地域の研究Impact Assessment Studies in South Pacific Island Countries34.

フィジー(2)Fiji

フィジーの概要

フィジーは、約320の島からなる南太平洋で最も大きな島嶼国家である。総面積は18,300km2、主

な島には、Viti Levu島(10,388km2)、Vanua Levu島(5,536km2)がある。サイクロンが頻繁に来

襲し、洪水、浸水、高潮等による被害を引き起こしている。総人口約74万人の内、約90%が沿岸部に

居住している。約46%をフィジー系住民、約49%を植民地時代以来のインド系住民が占めている。ま

た、フィジー系住民は、約70%が農村部に居住しており、食料の自給自足への依存など、土地に深く

結びついた伝統的な生活様式を維持している。

脆弱性評価

フィジーでは、Viti Levu島、Yasawa groupの6地点におけるケーススタディ、 GISを利用した全国

規模の予備的な脆弱性評価(VA)、南太平洋最大の港湾施設を持つSuva港およびLautoka港に対する海

岸工学的影響評価が行われている(Nunn et al., 1993, 1994)。

1)フィジーにおけるVA:南太平洋島嶼国の評価方法がフィジーのケーススタディに適用されている。

Yasawa groupの中央部に位置する小島であるNaculaにおける評価結果を、Figure 4-3-2-1に示す。

2)Suva港に対する影響評価:将来の海面上昇の影響を加えた高潮の浸水危険性とSuva港の港湾施設

に対する波力増加の影響を評価している。Table 4-3-2-1に示すとおり、海面上昇によって、満潮、

高潮および波による水位上昇に対する現在の護岸の天端高は不足することになる。

3)海岸侵食:海岸集落の古老へのインタビューによって、1950年代以降、大部分の砂浜が後退し、

各地で侵食が問題視されていることが明らかになった(Mimura et al., 1998)。

Overview of Fiji

Fiji is a large archipelagic country in the South Pacific, consisting of about 320 islands. Fiji's

total area is 18,300 km2 and its main islands are Viti Levu Island (10,388 km2) and Vanua Levu

Island (5,536 km2). Frequent cyclones cause disasters. About 90 percent of Fiji's population of

740,000 lives in the coastal zone. About 70 percent of Fiji's indigenous inhabitants live in

villages. The majority of Fijians depend on a subsistence economy, and maintain a traditional

lifestyle tied with the land.

Vulnerability assessment

The Vulnerability assessment in Fiji includes case studies on six locations in Viti Levu and

Yasawa Island, a preliminaly national vulnerability assessement (VA) using GIS, and impact

assessments of coastal engineering on Suva port (the largest port facilities in the South Pacific)

and Lautoka harbors (Nunn et al., 1993, 1994).

1) VA in Fiji: The methodology for the assessment of vulnerability of South Pacific island

countries was applied for the case studies in Fiji. The results for Nacula, a small island

located in the central part of the Yasawa group, are shown in Figure 4-3-2-1 (Nunn et al.,

1993, 1994).

2) Impact assessment of Suva port: Risks of storm surge and impacts of increasing wave force

on Suva port was assessed. As shown in Figure 4-3-2-2 and Table 4-3-2-1, even disregarding

future sea-level rise, the current crown height of seawalls is insufficient if a high tide, storm

surge, and wave set-up occur at the same time.

3) Beach erosion: Interviews of elderly people living in coastal villages revealed that beach

erosion has been noticeable on a majority of Fijian beaches since 1960 (Mimura et al., 1998).

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 77

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Figure 4-3-2-1Results of SCI of Nacula case study.Source: Yamada et al. (1995)

Optimal Management

Present Condition

No Management

SOFT

Infr

astr

uctu

ra

l

Human

Natural

ind

ivid

ual

com

mun

alna

tional

population

physical

biological

Cultural

EconomicIn

stitu

tiona

l

national

comm

unal

cash subsistence

nationa

l

villa

ge

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

HARD

Nacula

No.2

No.3

No.4

No.5

No.6

No.7

No.1

S U V A

N

100m0 500m 1000m

Scale 1 : 12,000

Table 4-3-2-1Comparison between highwater level and crown heightof existing seawalls.Source: Nunn et al. (1994)

0.00.51.0

0.00.51.0

0.00.51.0

0.00.51.0

0.00.51.0

0.00.51.0

0.00.51.0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

0.600.80MHWS=+1.60

+3.0+3.5+4.0

+3.0+3.5+4.0

+3.0+3.5+4.0

+3.0+3.5+4.0

+3.0+3.5+4.0

+3.0+3.5+4.0

+3.0+3.5+4.0

+3.20

+2.79

+2.81

+2.48

+3.22

+2.44

+2.55

Tide

AstronomicalTide

Sea LevelriseWave

Set-upStormSurge

WaterLevelPoint

CrownHeight

Figure 4-3-2-2Impact assessment of Suva Port.Source: Nunn et al. (1994b)

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影響評価・カントリースタディ

南太平洋地域の研究Impact Assessment Studies in South Pacific Island Countries34.

キリバス(3)Kiribati

キリバスの概要

Abete et al.(1993)は、キリバスの概要を以下のように述べている。「キリバス共和国は太平洋中

央部に位置する33の環礁からなる小島嶼により構成されており、これらは、赤道や日付変更線付近に

散在している。これらの島々は3つの群島に分けられる:2.5°Nから1.6°Sにわたって赤道付近に散在

するギルバート列島(首都タラワを含む)、8島全てが南半球にあるフェニックス諸島、さらに8つの島

が2,000km以上にわたって広がり、タラワから4,000km以上離れているライン諸島がある。キリバス

は総面積820km2(このうち半分以上がライン諸島にあるキリチマチ(クリスマス島)である)、海域面

積は355万km2である。島々は低平でせいぜい海面上3~4mの標高であり、砂礫により構成されてい

る。例外は標高78mの石灰岩からなるバナバ島である。この島では、1900~1979年(キリバス独立

の前年)の間に英国燐委員会により大規模な燐採掘が行われた。」

脆弱性評価

南太平洋地域環境計画(SPREP)は、太平洋地域における海面上昇・気候変動の影響を比較し、キ

リバスを大きな影響を受ける可能性のある国として位置付けている。Woodroffe and McLean(1992)

は、キリバスを対象として、海面上昇に対する脆弱性評価の調査を行っている。既存の知見および限ら

れたデータに基づいて行われているが、研究チームは現地調査による6地点のケーススタディを行った。

Figure 4-3-3-1とFigure 4-3-3-2にSOPAC(1997)及び上記の研究によって得られた結果の一部を

示す。

Overview of Kiribati

Abete et al. (1993) described Kiribati as follows: "The Republic of Kiribati, in the Central Pacific,

comprises 33 small islands almost all of which are atolls, straddling the equator and the

international date-line. There are three distinct archipelagos, the Gilbert Islands chain which

comprises 17 islands stretching from 2.5°N to 1.6°S of the equator; the Phoenix Islands group

comprising 8 islands south of the equator; and the 8 Line Islands which are spread over more

than 2,000 km of sea, some more than 4,000 km from the capital of Kiribati, Tarawa in the

Gilbert Islands. The islands of Kiribati have a total land area of around 820 km2 and a sea area

of 3.55 million km2. The islands are low-lying and reach only about 3 or 4 meters above mean

sea level and are composed of poorly consolidated sands. The one exception is the island of

Banaba which is a limestone island rising 78 meters above sea level; however the island has

been ruined by extensive mining for phosphate by the British Phosphate Commissioners

between 1900 to 1979 (the eve of Kiribati independence)."

Vulnerability assessment

South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP, 1992) projected relative effects of sea-

level rise and climate change in the region, and concluded that Kiribati could experience

profound impacts. Woodroffe and McLean (1992) implemented a preliminary vulnerability

assessment to accelerated sea-level rise in Kiribati. They used coastal types as an indicator of

vulnerability. Figure 4-3-3-1 and Figure 4-3-3-2 show results of their study and the one done by

SOPAC (1997).

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 79

Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

Figure 4-3-3-1Islet of Betio, South Tarawa, Kiribati, showing 1943, 1969,and 1992 shorelines and shore stability zones (after Gillie,1993), areas of erosion and accretion (1943-1993), beachprofile sites (12 to 26), and vulnerability (after Solomon,1997).Source: SOPAC (1997)

0 200km

Lower shoreConglomerate platformConglomerate rampConglomerate outcropBeachrockMangrovesSeawall / Protection

Upper shoreSandShingleSand and shingle

Buota (a)

N

Low vulnerabilityMedium to low vulnerability

Medium to high vulnerabilityHigh vulnerability

Buota (b)

0 200km

III

III

IV V

VI

VII

VII

VIII

IX

X

N

0 400m

2120

19

18 17 16

22

23

24

2526

14

1312

15

Vulnerability of Shorelineshighmoderatelow

194319691992

ErosionAccretion

reef flat

South Pacific Ocean

Tarawa Lagoon

Figure 4-3-3-2Buota (a) : coastal types, Buota (b) : vulnerability index.Source: Revised from Woodroffe and McLean (1992)

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影響評価・カントリースタディ

34.サモア(4)Samoa

サモアの概要

サモアの総面積は2,900km2、主な島はUpolu、Savaiiであり、 それぞれ1,115km2、1,700km2で

ある。首都Apiaは、Upolu島にある。大部分の国民はポリネシア人であり、その多くは沿岸域の360を

超える村落に居住している。1991年の統計によれば、人口は161,000人である。Upolu島、Savaii島

は火山島であり、沿岸域の低地は限られているが、多くの村落の人々が海岸近くで生活している。首

都Apiaを除く大部分の村落の人々の生活は、自給自足経済に依存している。

脆弱性評価

サモアでは、Upolu島、Savaii島の6地点におけるケーススタディ、GISを利用した脆弱性の全国規模

の予備的評価、および西サモア唯一の国際港であるApia港に対する影響評価が行われている(Kay et

al., 1993, Nunn et al., 1994)。

1)全国規模の予備的評価:西サモアでは、一般的に教会は徒歩で行ける距離にあり、学校も同様に近

い距離にある。したがって、約15m以下の低地における学校と教会の密度は、沿岸域に居住して

いる人口の一般的な指標となる。Kay et al.(1993)は、この指標を用いて、西サモアの全人口

の60~70%が沿岸域に居住していると推測している(Figure 4-3-4-1)。

2)Apia港の影響評価:深海波、設計波などの波浪条件を計算し、将来の海面上昇の影響を加えた有義

波高(H1/3)を見積もり、Apia港の石積み護岸に対する波力増加の影響を評価している。Figure 4-

3-4-2に示すとおり、1mの海面上昇により、2倍以上の重量の石が必要になる地点もある。

Overview of Samoa

Samoa comprises two main islands, Upolu Island and Savaii Island. The total land area is about

2,900 km2 with Upolu and Savaii containing 1,115 and 1,700 km2 respectively. The capital,

Apia, is on Upolu. The indigenous population is Polynesian, living in over 360 villages, mainly

along the coast. The census in 1991 shows a total population of about 161,000 persons. Upolu

and Savaii are volcanic islands, and although coastal flat areas are limited, most people live in

the villages near the coast. Samoa has mostly a subsistence economy, except for people living

in Apia.

Vulnerability assessment

The vulnerability assessment for Samoa includes case studies on six locations in Upolu and

Savaii, preliminary nation-wide VA using GIS, and impact assessments on Apia harbor, the only

international port in Samoa (Kay et al., 1993, Nunn et al., 1994).

1) National VA: Churchgoers generally live within walking distance of church in Samoa.

Families with school children also generally live close to schools. Therefore, the

concentration of schools and churches located on the land under about 15m elevations

gives a general indication of the overall density of households and population lives within

the coastal zone. Kay et al. (1993) estimated that 60-70 percent of the total population lives

within the coastal zone in Samoa (Figure 4-3-4-1).

2) Impact assessment of Apia Harbor: The impact of increasing wave force on the weight of

revetment in Apia Harbor was assessed by estimating the change of significant wave height

H1/3 after calculating deep water wave conditions and design waves. As shown in Figure 4-

3-4-2, double the current weight of amour stones for seawalls will be required in several

study sites to compensate for a 1 meter rise in sea level.

南太平洋地域の研究Impact Assessment Studies in South Pacific Island Countries

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 81

Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

Figure 4-3-4-1Preliminary vulnerability assessment of UpoluIsland, Samoa.Source: Nunn et al. (1994a)

School

Church

Figure 4-3-4-2Change of weight of armour unit 'W' due to sea-level rise.Source: Nunn et al. (1994a)

1500

1000

500

00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Point No.

W (k

g)

SLR=0.0m

SLR=0.5m

SLR=1.0m

1500

1000

500

00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Point No.

W (k

g)

SLR=0.0m

SLR=0.5m

SLR=1.0m

Plate 4-3-4-1Houses in the coastal area.

Plate 4-3-4-2Market in Apia.

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影響評価・カントリースタディ

34.トンガ(5)Tonga

トンガ王国の概要

トンガ王国は、南緯15°~23.5°、西経173°~177°の南太平洋に位置する。総面積747km2、171

の島々からなるが、人間が居住しているのは36島のみである。これらの島々は、NNE-SSWの方向に

560kmにわたって散在しており、一般に4つのグループ(Niuas, Vava'u Group, Ha'apai Group,

Tongatapu Group)に分けられる。最も大きな島はTongatapu島であり、首都であるNuku'alofaが位

置している。全国の人口は約97,000人であり、その約67%がTongatapu島に、そのうち約30%が

Nuku'alofaに居住している。Tongatapu島は、Figure 4-3-5-1に示すとおり、東西方向に約40km、

最大幅約20kmであり、最大標高が65mと比較的平坦な島である。Nuku'alofaの都市化された地域の

大部分は標高0.5~1.5mである。

脆弱性評価

Tongatapu島は、標高3m以下の低地に人口の約3分の1が集中しているが、IPCC共通手法に従って

脆弱性評価が行われている(Fifita et al., 1992)。1mの海面上昇により、約10km2が水没し、約

9,000人(Tongatapu島の約15%)が影響を受ける可能性がある。とくに首都Nuku'alofaは、Figure

4-3-5-1に示すとおり、島状に孤立する恐れがある。また、1982年のサイクロンIsaacは、

Tongatapu島の3分の1の人口が居住する住居地域を含む23km2を浸水させた。1mの海面上昇に加え

て、このようなサイクロンが来襲すれば、37km2の面積および島の人口の45%が浸水する恐れがある。

Overview of the Kingdom of Tonga

The Kingdom of Tonga is located in the South Pacific Ocean between 15° and 23.5° South

Latitude and 173° and 177° West Longitude. There are about 171 named islands, but only 36

are permanently inhabited, and the total land area is 747 km2. The islands of Tonga extend 560

km in a NNE-SSW direction, and are commonly divided into four groups: the Niuas, the Vava'u

Group, the Ha'apai Group and the Tongatapu Group. The population of Tonga is currently

estimated at about 97,000 of which 67 percent lives in Tongatapu, the largest island, with 30

percent living in Nuku'alofa the capital city. As shown in Figure 4-3-5-1, Tongatapu Island is 40

km long in the east-west direction, 20 km wide at the widest point, and is generally flat. Most

of the urban area of Nuku'alofa has an elevation between 0.5 meters and 1.5 meters.

Vulnerability assessment

A vulnerability assessment was implemented for Tongatapu Island, where one third of the

population lives in the lowland below 3 meters in elevation, according to the IPCC Common

Methodology (Fifita et al., 1992). A 1m sea-level rise could affect about 10 km2 of land and

9,000 people. In particular, as shown in Figure 4-3-5-1, Nuku'alofa, the capital could be

isolated as a small island. The 1982 tropical cyclone Isaac flooded 23 km2, including urban

areas accounting for one-third of Tongatapu's population. With a one-meter rise in sea level,

such a cyclone would flood 37 km2 and the residences of 45 percent of the population in

Tongatapu.

南太平洋地域の研究Impact Assessment Studies in South Pacific Island Countries

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 83

Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

Figure 4-3-5-1The results of vulnerabilityassessment of Tongatapu Island,the Kingdom of Tonga.Source: Revised from Fifita et al.(1992)

Plate 4-3-5-1Nuku'alofa, the capital city, the view from thelagoon.

Mangrove

Coral Area

Residential Area

Sea-level Rise 1m

Power Line

Road

Tongatapu Island, the Kingdom of Tonga

Nuku'alofa

0 5 10 km

Table 4-3-5-1Physical effects of sea-level rise.Source: Fifita and Mimura (1992)

Inundation

Land area (km2)

Residence area (km2)

Population to be affected

Storm surge

Land area (km2)

Residence area (km2)

Population to be affected

0

0

0

23.3 (8.8%)

4.9

19,880 (31.3%)

3.1 (1.1%)

0.7

2,700 (4.7%)

27.9 (10.6%)

5.9

23,470 (37.0%)

10.3 (3.9%)

2.2

9,000 (14.2%)

37.3 (14.1%)

7.6

29,560 (46.6%)

Impact Categories Present Situation(0.0m)

SLR 1(0.3m)

SLR 2(1.0m)

*Percentages of affected areas and populations are based on the total values of Tongatapu Island.

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84

影響評価・カントリースタディ

34.ツバル(6)Tuvalu

ツバルの概要

ツバルの9つの島々は、全て周辺のサンゴ礁やラグーンからの未固結のサンゴ砂および礫により構成

されている。ツバルの国土は、129の散在する環礁や小島により形成されているが、このうち、3分の

2以上は5ha未満の面積であり、7島のみが100ha以上である。また、総面積(24km2)の70%を上位

12の島が占める。各島の標高は、その多くが平均海面3m以下であるため、高水位、高潮や将来の海面

上昇・気候変動に対して非常に脆弱である。1876年に、2,497人であった人口は、1991年には4倍

に増加し、9,000人以上になっている。この急激な人口増加はキリバスから分離、独立に伴って生じ

たが、海面上昇・気候変動に対する脆弱性を増大させている。ツバルの首都が位置するFunafuti

(Figure 4-3-6-1)は、唯一の国際飛行場を持つ町である。この島では、急激な人口および人口密度の

増加が生じている。

脆弱性評価

南太平洋地域環境計画(SPREP)と日本の環境庁は、ツバルにおける海面上昇・気候変動の脆弱性

評価に関する共同研究を行った。Funafutiにおける現地測量に基いて行った、海岸工学的な手法による、

海面上昇の影響の定量的な検討結果の一部を、Figure 4-3-6-2に示す。これによると、再現期間10年

のサイクロンが来襲した状況を想定した場合の、浸水・越波・打ち上げの影響は深刻であり、0.3mの

海面上昇によりほぼ全地点において越波が生じる。これは、後背地の家屋が越波にさらされ、危険な

状態が生じることを意味する。更に、内陸部にある国際空港の滑走路は、越波と地下水位上昇による

浸水の被害が著しくなることが予想される。

Overview of Tuvalu

All nine islands of the archipelago of Tuvalu are built on unconsolidated coral sands and gravels

derived from the adjacent reefs and lagoons. More than two-thirds of the 129 discrete atoll and reef

islands that make up the land area of Tuvalu are less than 5 ha in area. Only seven have an area

greater than 100 ha. The twelve largest islands account for some 70 percent of the total area (24 km2)

of Tuvalu. Island elevations rarely exceed three meters above mean sea level, with most land being

at or close to sea level. Therefore Tuvalu is exceptionally vulnerable to high spring tides, storm

surges, and the future sea level rise and climate change. An estimated population of 2,497 in 1876

has nearly quadrupled in just over 100 years to over 9,000 people in 1991. Dramatic increases in

population, following separation from Kiribati and independence in 1978, have increased

vulnerability to sea-level rise and climate change. Funafuti (Figure 4-3-6-1), on which the Tuvalu

government and the only international airport are located, has experienced a rapidly increasing

population and population density.

Vulnerability assessment

South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and Japan have collaborated on studies of

vulnerability assessment to climate change and sea-level rise for Tuvalu. A part of the impact

assessment study of sea-level rise in Funafuti, according to the coastal engineering approach based

on the field survey, is shown in Figure 4-3-6-2. As the result of the study, estimated

inundation/flooding and high waves caused by tropical cyclones which have a return period of 10

years would make Funafuti extremely vulnerable. In the case of the sea-level rise of 0.3 meter, all the

sites on land would be inundated by high waves. This means all houses inland would be seriously

affected. In addition, the runway of the international airport, situated inland, would be affected

severely by the high waves and increased water table.

南太平洋地域の研究Impact Assessment Studies in South Pacific Island Countries

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 85

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Figure 4-3-6-1Funafuti atoll in Tuvalu.Source: Sem et al. (1995)

1

18

2

3

45

14

15

16

17

1312

8

1011

7

6

9

1

18

2

3

45

14

15

16

17

1312

8

1011

7

6

9

1

18

2

3

45

14

15

16

17

1312

8

1011

7

6

9

1

18

2

3

45

14

15

16

17

1312

8

1011

7

6

9

Storm condition + RunupBarometric tide & windsetup combined = 0.19m (Return interval = 10years)Tide level = M.H.W.S.(C.D.L. +2.8m)

S.L.R = 0.0m S.L.R = 0.3m S.L.R = 0.5m S.L.R = 1.0m

Land level aboveestimated Runupheight

~~~~

+1m±0m-1m

+1m±0m-1m

Figure 4-3-6-2Relationship between relative land level to wave runup heightand sea-level rise.Source: Sem et al. (1995)

Plate 4-3-6-1Erosion of sandy beach, Tuvalu.

Funafuti0 5km

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86

日本の研究Impact Assessment Studies in Japan4

影響評価・カントリースタディ

4.

災害ポテンシャル(1)Potential Risk

日本の概要:

日本は、北緯45°30'から20°24'、すなわち亜寒帯から亜熱帯にまで及ぶ南北に伸びた国土を有し

ている。海岸線は延長約34,390kmと国土面積に比較して非常に長い。日本列島は東に太平洋、西に

日本海に面しているために、沿岸域に作用する潮汐や波力などの外力は地域により著しく異なる。

総合的脆弱性評価:

日本全土に対する影響評価は、氾濫の危険性を有する土地面積、人口、資産を指標として行われてい

る(松井ら、1992)。この研究では、浸水および氾濫地域を評価するために、3種類の潮位(平均潮位

時、満潮時、満潮+高潮または津波発生時)を設定している。すなわち、本研究では満潮水位以下の地

域、いわゆるゼロメートル地帯を常時海の影響を潜在的に受ける地域とみなしている。また台風時の高

潮潮位以下の地域を氾濫危険区域とみなしている。Table 4-4-1-1に潜在的リスクの算定結果を示す。

現状でも約861km2の面積が平均満潮水位以下であり、その中には200万人が居住し、54兆円の資産が

集積している。これに対して1mの海面上昇が生じれば、面積は2.7倍以上の2,340km2に拡大し、人口、

資産もそれぞれ410万人、109兆円に拡大する。これらの面積、人口、資産は、それぞれ日本全体の

0.6%、3.0%、4.0%を占める。さらに、現状で6,290km2の高潮または津波による氾濫危険地域は、

1mの海面上昇によって8,900km2に拡大し、1,500万人以上の人口が危険にさらされる。

Overview of Japan

The Japanese land mass stretches from latitude 20°24' to 45°30'; in other words, from the

subtropical zone in the south to the subarctic zone in the north. The total coastline amounts to

about 34,390 km and is very long relative to the land area. The Japan archipelago faces the

Pacific Ocean to the east and the Sea of Japan to the west, thus external forces acting on the

coast such as tides and waves vary significantly from place to place.

Comprehensive vulnerability assessment

The impact assessment on Japan has been studied by taking the area, population, and assets at

risk as indicators (Matsui et al., 1992). Three water levels (mean water; high water; high tide,

storm surge or tsunami) were used to evaluate the possibility of submerging or flooding. In this

study, an area below the high water level, which is often called a zero-meter altitude area,

represents an area that is potentially affected by the storm surge and tsunami almost all the

time. An area that would be below the storm surge level during a typhoon can be considered

to be a flood prone area. Table 4-4-1-1 shows the results of the estimates on the potential risks.

At present, even under normal conditions, about 861 km2 are below the mean high water level.

There are 2 million people who live in this zone, together with 54 trillion Japanese yen worth

of assets. If the sea-level rises by 1 meter, this zone will expand to 2,340 km2, or 2.7 times

larger than its present size. The population will be 4.1 million, and the assets 109 trillion

Japanese yen in the expanded zone. These are equivalent to 0.6, 3.0, and 4.0 percent of

Japan's total area, population, and assets, respectively. Moreover, the flood prone area, which

is currently 6,270 km2, will expand to 8,900 km2 if the sea-level rises by 1 meter. More than 15

million people may be endangered.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 87

Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

Figure 4-4-1-1Distribution of areas below high tide level(storm surgelevel).One red point represent a 1km x 1km area. Source: Matsui et al. (1993)

Table 4-4-1-1Impacts of sea-level rise on the area,population, and assets of Japan.Source: Matsui et al. (1993)

0 100 200km

1.0 m risePresent 0.3 m rise 0.5 m rise

364

861

6268

1,020

2,000

11,740

34

54

288

411

1192

6662

1,140

2,520

12,300

37

68

302

521

1412

7583

1,400

2,860

13,580

44

77

333

679

2339

8893

1,780

4,100

15,420

53

109

378

Unit: Area (km ), Population (1,000), Assets (Trillion Yen).2

Meanwater level

Highwater level

High tide level(Storm surge or Tsunami)

Area AssetsPopu-lation

Area AssetsPopu-lation

Area AssetsPopu-lation

Area AssetsPopu-lation

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影響評価・カントリースタディ

日本の研究Studies in Japan44.

東京湾に対する台風の被害(2)Impacts of Typhoons on Tokyo Bay

筒井ら(1992)は、地球温暖化に伴う台風の巨大化および海面上昇による東京湾の高潮の変化を、

数値モデルを用いて検討している。

台風の巨大化および海面上昇:伊勢湾台風規模(中心気圧940hPa)の台風が、地球温暖化により中心

気圧925hPaに発達し、Figure 4-4-2-1に示すAおよびEのコースで東京湾に来襲するケースを想定し

た。海面上昇量は、IPCC(1990)により報告されている65cmを用いている。

台風巨大化の影響:巨大台風に関する高潮計算結果をFigure 4-4-2-2に示す。15hPaの気圧降下が約

50cmの高潮の増大をひきおこすという関係が認められた。

地球温暖化時の予測最高水位:東京湾沿岸部の代表的な10地点(A~J、Figure 4-4-2-2参照)を選び、

予想される高潮時の最高水位を、現在および地球温暖化後の将来の気象条件について計算し、比較し

ている。将来の気象条件は、上記の巨大化台風(中心気圧925hPa)と65cmの海面上昇である。この

結果、Aコースの台風の場合には1.1~1.5m、Eコースの場合には0.9~1.4m程度の高潮の潮位の上昇

が予測されている。

Tsutsui et al. (1993) simulated high water levels for Tokyo Bay in storm surge conditions by

considering sea-level rise and typhoon intensification using a mathematical model.

Typhoon intensification and sea-level rise: The model assumed that typhoons similar to the Ise

Bay Typhoon (940 hPa at the center) would intensify to 925 hPa by global warming, and hit

Tokyo Bay along courses A and E in Figure 4-4-2-1. The scenario for a sea-level rise of 65 cm

was reported by IPCC (1990).

Impacts of intensified typhoons: The results of calculation of the effects on storm surges of

intensified typhoons are shown in Figure 4-4-2-2. A relationship is evident with a decrease of

central pressure of 15 hPa corresponding to an increase in the storm surge of 50 cm.

Estimated high water level under global warming: Ten stations in the coastal zone of Tokyo Bay

(A~J, see Figure 4-4-2-2) were selected and the highest water level caused by the storm surge

at each station was predicted. The predictions were based on the present and future conditions

induced by global warming mentioned above (intensification of typhoon to 925 hPa in central

pressure and sea-level rise of 65cm). A rise in sea level caused by storm surges of 1.1 to 1.5

meters was predicted for A-track typhoons, and a rise of 0.9 to 1.4 meters for E-track typhoons.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 89

Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

Figure 4-4-2-1Study site and movingdirection of typhoon.Source: Revised from Tsutsuiet al. (1992)

6h

5h

6h

7h

A Course E Course

Inner Region

AB

C DE F

G

HI

J

Figure 4-4-2-2Estimated storm surge level in Tokyo Bay.Source: Revised from Tsutsui et al. (1992)

0.4 1.2 2.0m

Yokosuka

TokyoChiba

Futtsu Cape

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

0.4 1.2 2.0m

Yokosuka

TokyoChiba

Futtsu Cape

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

Intensified Typhoon (Course E) Normal Typhoon (Course E)

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90

影響評価・カントリースタディ

日本の研究Studies in Japan44.

砂浜海岸の侵食(3)Erosion of Sandy Coastlines

日本の砂浜

日本の海岸線総延長の約24%が砂浜である。しかし近年、海岸侵食が進み、砂浜海岸の43%が侵食

傾向にあり、安定を保っているのが41%、堆積傾向はわずかに6%程度となっている。過去70年間に

120km2の国土が失われる等、海岸侵食は現在でも重大な問題となっている。

海面上昇に対する砂浜海岸の応答

三村ら(1994)は、Bruun則モデルに基づいて、海面上昇による日本全国の砂浜海岸の侵食面積の

算定を行っている。 Bruun則は、Figure 4-4-3-1に示すように、海面が上昇した場合、海岸の縦断地

形が、上昇した水位に対する平衡地形に向かって変化するため、水没による後退以上に砂浜侵食が促

進され、汀線が後退することを表している。同研究では、全国9,688の海岸毎の砂浜延長、幅、平均

海底勾配、沖波条件などのデータおよび沿岸波浪観測から求めた波浪条件に基づいて、Bruun則モデル

によって汀線の後退量と砂浜侵食の面積を都道府県毎に算定している。海面上昇シナリオとしては、

IPCC(1990)に基づいて、30、65、100cmを適用している。Figure 4-4-3-2およびFigure 4-4-

3-3に示すとおり、30cmの海面上昇により、日本全国の砂浜面積の56.6%に相当する118km2の砂浜

が侵食される。さらに65cmでは81.7%、100cmの上昇では90.3%の砂浜が侵食されることが推計

されている。30cmの海面上昇により侵食されると推計された砂浜面積は、過去70年間に侵食によっ

て失われた国土面積に相当する。海面上昇による海岸侵食は、既存の侵食と同時に生じる可能性があ

るため、砂浜侵食は将来深刻になることが考えられる。

Sandy coastlines in Japan

Sandy beaches occupy about 24 percent of the total length of Japanese coasts. However, in

recent years, these coasts have been suffering from increasing erosion. With 43 percent of the

sandy coastlines being eroded, 41 percent in stable condition, and only 6 percent accreting,

about 120 km2 of land area have been lost over the past 70 years. This means that coastal

erosion is already a serious problem.

Responses of sandy coastlines

Mimura et al. (1994) estimated the area of erosion of Japanese sandy coasts by sea-level rise

based on the Bruun Rule model. As shown in Figure 4-4-3-1, the Bruun Rule model shows that

shorelines would retreat beyond the area flooded by sea-level rise, as a result of accelerated

erosion of the sandy beach, because the landform cross section evolves to a new equilibrium.

In this study, the lengths of shoreline retreat and the areas of eroded sandy coast in each

prefecture of Japan were estimated based on data from 9,688 locations, which included the

length and the width of sandy beaches, average sea bottom slope, the characteristics of

offshore waves, and the characteristics of coastal waves. The scenarios of sea-level rise

adopted were 30, 65 and 100 cm according to the IPCC (1990). As shown in Figure 4-4-3-2 and

Figure 4-4-3-3, 11,775 ha of currently existing sandy beaches, equivalent to 56.6 percent of the

total sandy beaches in Japan, would be eroded by a 30 cm rise in sea level. For a 65 cm and

100 cm rise in sea level, 81.7 percent and 90.3 percent of the beach would be eroded,

respectively. The estimated area of sandy beaches eroded by a 30 cm rise in sea level would

be equivalent to the area that disappeared by erosion in Japan in the past 70 years. The

erosion of sandy beaches in Japan would become more serious in the future because the

erosion induced by accelerated sea-level rise would compound the present problems.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 91

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Figure 4-4-3-1Erosion of longtitudal topography.Source: Revised from Mimura et al. (1995)

W*

S

h*

yShorelineRetreat

Topography afterSea-level Rise Present Topography

Figure 4-4-3-2Relationship between sea-level rise andarea of erosion.Source: Revised from Mimura et al. (1995)

100

80

60

40

20

0

Are

a of

Ero

sion

(%)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120Sea-level Rise (cm)

Figure 4-4-3-3Erosion ratio in each prefecture.Source: Revised from Mimura et al. (1995)

HokkaidoAomori

IwateMiyagi

AkitaYamagata

FukushimaIbarakiChibaTokyo

KanagawaNiigata

ToyamaIshikawa

FukuiShizuoka

AichiMie

KyotoOsakaHyogo

WakayamaTottori

ShimaneOkayamaHiroshima

YamaguchiTokushima

KagawaEhimeKochi

FukuokaSaga

NagasakiKumamoto

OitaMiyazaki

KagoshimaOkinawa

0 20 40 60 80 100Erosion Ratio (%) for Sea-level Rise of 30cm

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92

影響評価・カントリースタディ

日本の研究Studies in Japan44.

海岸構造物の対策費用(4)Protection Costs of Coastal Infrastructures

Kitajima et al.(1993)は、日本全国の港湾施設や海岸構造物における1mの海面上昇の対策費用に

関する算定を以下の手順で行っている。

1)前提条件の設定:海面上昇以外に自然環境条件の変化はない;港湾および近隣都市施設の将来の開

発はない;経時的なプロセスは考慮しない;1992年の貨幣基準でコスト算定を行う。

2)日本の沿岸域の分類および潮位・波浪条件の設定:日本の沿岸域を4地域に分類し、それぞれに平

均的潮位・波浪条件を適用した(Figure 4-4-4-1)。

3)既存の港湾施設および海岸構造物:39都道府県におけるこれらの施設の数量を調査した。

4)防御費用の算定:防御費用の算定を単純化するために、港湾施設および海岸構造物を3つにグルー

プ分けした(Table 4-4-4-1)。このうち、線状構造物に関しては、現在および1mの海面上昇時の

2つのシナリオにおける建設コストを算出し、2つのコストを比較して得られた建設コストの増加

率を求めた。この増加率に現存施設の建設費用をかけたものを防御費用とした。また、Wharfなど

の面的な施設についてはかさ揚げ費用を、水門・ポンプ場などの施設については再建設コストを算

定した。

5)算定結果:Figure 4-4-4-2に示すとおり、対策費用の総額は11.5兆円と算定されている。また、

このうち7.8兆円が、港湾施設のかさ揚げに、3.6兆円が海岸構造物の対策に必要であるという結

果が得られている。

Kitajima et al. (1993) estimated the costs of protecting port facilities and coastal structures in

Japanese coastal zones against a 1 meter rise in sea level as follows:

1) Assumptions: No change for the natural environment other than the sea-level rise; no

future development for ports and neighboring urban areas; no consideration of time-

dependent processes; the cost estimation based on the monetary value in 1992.

2) Classification of coastal zones, determination of tide and wave characteristics: The coastline

was divided into four regions, and each region was assigned average tide and wave

conditions (Figure 4-4-4-1).

3) Survey of existing facilities and structures: The port facilities and coastal structures were

surveyed in 39 prefectures.

4) Estimation of costs of protection: The port facilities and coastal structures were classified

into three groups in order to simplify the estimation of the protection costs (Table 4-4-4-1).

In this group, for line structures, the construction costs were estimated for two kinds of

structure which were designed for present and 1 meter sea-level rise conditions. A ratio of

increase of construction cost for the structure was calculated by comparing the two costs,

and the ratio was multiplied by the present construction cost on all the existing structures

in order to estimate total protection costs. In addition, the estimations were made for

raising the level of the flat surface facilities such as wharves and quays, and for

reconstruction of independent facilities such as water gates and pumping stations.

5) Results of estimation: As shown in Figure 4-4-4-2, total costs for protection were estimated

at 11.5 trillion Japanese yen. About 7.8 trillion Japanese yen are necessary for raising the

port facilities, while about 3.6 trillion are for the coastal structures.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 93

Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

Figure 4-4-4-1Classification ofJapanese coastal zones.Source: EnvironmentAgency of Japan (EAJ)(1993)

Enclosed SeaInland Sea

Shiretoko Cape

Mouth of Tone River

Nomozaki Cape

The Pacific, North

The Pacific, South

Sea of Japan

Seto Inland Sea

Table 4-4-4-1Classification of facilities.Source: EAJ (1993)

Type of Facilities Structures

Line Srtucture

Plane Facility

Independent Facility

embankment, seawall, groin, detached breakwater,jetty, quay, wharf

water gate, pumping station

quay shed, warehouse, quayage

Figure 4-4-4-2Estimated costs ofprotection for 1m sealevel rise.Source: EAJ (1993)

( Billion US$ )

Por

t Fac

ilitie

sC

oast

al

Str

uctu

res

Quay Shed

Quayage etc.

Wharf

Breakwater

Jetty etc.

Seawall

Embankment

Others

0 5 10 15 20 25

Gate etc.Groin

Detached BreakwaterSeawall

Embankment

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94

世界及び地域規模での影響評価Global and Regional Impact Assessment5

影響評価・カントリースタディ

4.

世界規模の脆弱性評価(GVA)

国別の脆弱性評価と並行して、世界規模の脆弱性評価が取り組まれた(Baase、1995)。データの

欠如など問題点は残っているが、危険に瀕する面積、人口、資産、対策費用、水没する湿地帯の面積、

米作への影響の推定として、次のような結果が得られた(IPCC, 1996)。

・現状では、世界中で2億人が最大高潮水位以下の土地に住んでおり、毎年4,600万人が高潮の氾濫

の被害にあっている。50cmあるいは1mの海面上昇で、この数はそれぞれ9,200万人、1億1,800

万人に達する。

・湿地帯は,現在0.5-1.5%/年の割合で消失している。海面上昇によって,この割合は増大すること

になろう。特に影響が大きいのは、米国、地中海、アフリカの大西洋沿岸、東アジア、オーストラ

リア及びパプアニューギニアである。

・アジア中心に行われている米作に大きな影響が出る。現在の耕作地の10%が海面上昇の影響範囲に

あり、ベトナム、ミャンマー、バングラデシュなどを中心に2億人分の食料生産に影響が及ぶ。

アジア・太平洋地域脆弱性評価(APVA)

地球環境データベースを用いて、アジア・太平洋地域を対象にした広域的かつ詳細な影響評価が取

り組まれている(Mimura et al., 2000)。

この地域は、人口の絶対数、増加率ともに大きい一方、台風に伴う高潮、洪水の常襲地帯である

(Figure 4-5-1, 4-5-2)。台風の強度、停滞期間、来襲頻度を掛け合わせると各地の累積影響度が求め

られるが、海面上昇と重なることによって台風の影響域が広がることが分かる(Figure 4-5-3)。こう

した地域評価によって、地域全体の影響の大きさ、もっとも脆弱な場所と分野などを特定し、適応策

の策定につなげることが期待されている。

Global Vulnerability Assessment (GVA)

In parallel to country studies, global vulnerability assessment was performed(Baase, 1995). In

spite of constraints such as shortage of data, a first order estimates were presented for the area,

population, and assets at risk, cost of countermeasures, inundated wetlands, and effects on rice

production(IPCC, 1996).

• Presently, some 200 million people are estimated to live below the "maximum" storm-surge

level, and 46 million people are estimated to experience flooding due to storm surge in an

average year. This number of people at risk will increase to 92 and 118 million people/year

for 50cm and 1m sea-level rise, respectively.

• Coastal wetlands are presently lost at a rate of 0.5-1.5%/year. Sea-level rise would increase

the rate of net wetland loss. The areas which may experience higher rate of loss will be the

coasts of the United States, the Mediterranean Sea, the African Atlantic, and Papua New

Guinea.

• About 10% of the rice production in Asia is located in areas vulnerable to sea-level rise,

thereby endangering the food supply of more than 200 million people.

Asia/Pacific Vulnerability Assessment (APVA)

Regional impact assessment are being carried out for Asia and the Pacific, using global

databases (Mimura et al., 2000). The number and growth rate of the population are quite large

in this region, while it has been suffering from severe storm surges and flooding due to the

tropical cyclone (Figure 4-5-1, 4-5-2). The cumulative effect of tropical cyclones, which is

defined as a product of intensity, duration of effect, and frequency of the tropical cyclone, is

intensified by sea-level rise (Figure 4-5-3). Through such regional assessment, we can identify

the whole picture of the impacts and the most vulnerable areas and sectors.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 95

Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

Figure 4-5-1Distribution of population density.

Figure 4-5-2Tracks of tropical cyclones (1949-1989).

Figure 4-5-3Cumulative effect of tropical cyclones.

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国際的な取り組みInternational Programs and Activities

5

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98

国際的な取り組み

地球温暖化の問題の解決には、大気-海洋-陸域生態系の複雑な機構や人為的な温室効果ガスの気

候への影響の科学的解明をもとに、各国政府が協力して、温室効果ガスを削減したり(mitigation)、

変化しつつある気候への適応策(Adaptation)をとることが必要となっている。これに対する取り組

みには、科学的な解明、科学的知見の集約、国際的な政策の検討という3つの分野がある。科学的解明

では、三大国際研究計画であるWCRP、IGBP、IHDPが鋭意進められている。これらの研究計画やその

他の研究によって得られた科学的な知見に基づいて、1988年に国連環境計画(UNEP)とWMOによ

って設置されたIPCCが気候変動に関する最新の知見を評価している。その結果は、国連気候変動枠組

条約の実施に関する交渉や国際機関や各国の政策決定者に提供されている。

とくに海面上昇の影響を受ける島嶼国では、南太平洋の地域組織としてのSPREPによる気候変動問

題への対応や、気候変動枠組条約では、AOSIS(小島嶼国連合)を組織して、解決にむけての努力を

行っている。また、UNEP、米国、日本は小島嶼国を含めた発展途上国の気候変動の影響対応策の調査

研究を支援する調査研究プログラム(カントリースタディと呼ばれる)を進めており、こうした国々

が早期に温暖化に対処できるように能力開発を行っている。

・WCRP(気候変動国際協同研究計画):WMO(世界気象機関)、ICSU(国際学術連合会議)、IOC

(政府間海洋委員会)の3者に支えられた研究計画で、1980年より開始。

・ IGBP(地球圏生物圏国際協同研究):ICSUによって提唱された研究計画で、1990年から実行段階

に入った。

・ IHDP(地球環境変動に関する人間次元的研究):ISSC(国際社会科学協議会)によって提唱され

た研究計画で現在はICSUも協力している。

国際的な取り組みの全体像Overview of International Activities on Global Warming

5.1

Dealing with the issue of global warming requires intergovernmental cooperation to mitigate

greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate change. Actions should be based on scientific

findings about the impacts of man-made greenhouse gases on the climate, as well as the

mechanisms of atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial ecosystems. These actions have three

stages: scientific research, review of the state-of-the-art knowledge, and establishment of

international policies. Of all international research projects, WCRP (World Climate Research

Programme), IGBP (International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme), and IHDP (International

Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change) in particular deal with

extensive research in this field. IPCC, established in 1988 by UNEP and WMO, has assessed the

latest findings on climate change collected through the above projects and others, and has

provided this advice for international organizations and policymakers in various countries.

Furthermore, SPREP, a regional organization in the South Pacific, endeavors to cope with

climate change, considering small island states subject to sea-level rise. For this purpose, AOSIS

(Alliance of Small Island States) was also established in context of the treaty of the UN

Framework on Climate Change. In addition, UNEP, the United States, and Japan set up

research programs -- country studies-- to support various research on the impacts of climate

change and their solutions in developing countries. They also support human resource

development in these countries, including insular states, to cope with global warming in a

timely way.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 99

International Programs and Activities

Figure 5-1-1Overview of international programs and activities.

Country Studiesin Developing

Countries

UNEP

USA

Japan

Netherland

Germany

etc.

IPCC (1988~)

WCRP IGBP

START

IHDP

UNFCCC

AOSIS• impacts/adaptations• mitigation measures

• science of climate change• impacts/adaptations• mitigation measures

• Analysis of globalenvironment change

• GAIM• IGAC• LOICZ• GCTE etc.

• Analysis of globalclimate system

• Monitoring anddatabase

• Stabilization of GHGsconcentration

• Kyoto Protocol• committment of Annex B• flexibility mechanisms (emission trading, CDM, JI)

• Measures for solutionof global environmentproblems• Industrial transformation• Institution and global environment change• Population/security and global environment change

Support

LUCC

SPREP

Scientific Assessment

International Policy

International Research& Monitoring Programs

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100

IPCCの取り組みIPCC Activities2

国際的な取り組み

5.

IPCCは1988年にUNEPとWMO によって設置されて以降、地球温暖化と気候変動の関係、気候変

動・海面上昇の影響評価、対応策など気候変動に関する最新の科学的知見を評価する役割を果たして

きた。従来IPCCでは3つの作業部会を設け、第一は気候変化の現象、第二は影響と適応、第三は対応

策について検討してきた。その結果は、1990年の第一次評価報告書、1995年の第二次評価報告書と

して公表されている。とくに第ニ次評価報告書は、温暖化は既に始まっていると結論し、温暖化防止

京都会議(COP3)を始めとした気候変動に対する国際的な早急な対応の必要性を政策決定者にアピー

ルした。1997年には、Figure 5-2-2に示した地域毎の影響評価に関する報告書を公表したが、影響

評価や適応策の検討は、地域レベルに着目して行われるようになっている。現在、2001年2月を目処

に、第三次評価報告書の作成に取りかかっている。

また同時並行して、①航空機と地球規模の大気、②技術移転の方法論的及び技術的課題、③排出シ

ナリオ、④土地利用及び土地利用変化と林業(シンク)に関する特別報告書を作成中であり、評価報

告書とともに、政策決定上の有用な知見を提供している。さらに1999年からは温室効果ガス(GHG)

インベントリ(目録)についてタスクフォースを設置した。日本は、共同議長を選出するとともに、

事務局を設置することになった。

Established in 1988 by UNEP and WMO, the IPCC has been assessing the latest scientific

findings on climate change. IPCC has three Working Groups: I on climate change; II on its

impacts and adaptations; and III on response strategies. IPCC has published the results of its

work in the First Assessment Report in 1990 and Second Assessment Report in 1995. In the

second report, IPCC concluded that global warming had already begun, and called for

policymakers to take urgent measures on climate changes through international cooperation.

Important steps were taken for this at COP3 (The Third Conference of Parties to the UN

Framework Convention on Climate Change) in Kyoto. The Special Report on Regional Impacts

of Climate Change was published in 1997, showing an IPCC focus on the regional aspects of

impact assessment and response strategies. The Third Assessment Report, will be published in

February 2001.

At the same time, the IPCC is preparing four "Special Reports": (1) aviation and the global

atmosphere, (2) methodological and technological issues in technology transfer, (3) emissions

scenario, and (4) land use, land-use change, and forestry. These reports will also provide

useful advice for decision-making on climate change. In 1999, the Task Force on National

Greenhouse Gas Inventories was established, with co-chairperson and the Technical Support

Unit (TSU) in Japan.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 101

International Programs and Activities

Figure 5-2-1IPCC bureau for the third assessmentreport.

Figure 5-2-2Regional classification of IPCC impactassessment study.

PacificIslands

PacificIslands

CaribbeanIslands

Africa

Middle EastArid Asia

EuropeNorthAmerica

TemperateEast Asia

Arctic

Antarctic

TropicalMonsoon Asia

Australasia

LatinAmerica

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102

気候変動枠組条約と京都議定書、COP4The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change,the Kyoto Protocol, and COP4

3国際的な取り組み

5.

国連気候変動枠組条約の究極的な目的は、「気候系に対して危険な人為的干渉を及ぼすことにならな

い水準において大気中の温室効果ガスの濃度を安定化させること」である。条約では、2000年までに

1990年レベルの排出量に削減することを求めているが、さらに1997年12月に京都で開催された温暖

化防止京都会議(第3回締約国会議)で2000年以降の先進国の排出削減目標が決定した。2008年か

ら2012年までの5年間の平均で先進国は5%の温室効果ガスの削減が国際的な約束となった。日本は

6%、米国は7%、欧州連合は8%である。

先進国にとって相当厳しい目標であり、達成のために自国内の省エネや新エネルギーの導入など従

来の政策、措置に加えて、排出量取引、共同実施、クリーン開発メカニズムなどの経済的措置を達成

のために柔軟性をもたせる方策として導入した。98年11月にブエノスアイレス(アルゼンチン)で開

催されたCOP4では、排出量取引などをCOP6(2000年11月予定)までにその仕組みを作るなどスケ

ジュールが決定した。

The prime objective of the treaty of UN Framework Convention on Climate Change is "to

achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would

prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system". This Convention states

that GHG emissions from industrialized nations should be reduced to 1990 levels by the year

2000. Further, emission reduction targets for industrialized nations after 2000 were set at the

COP3 held in Kyoto in December 1997, where they committed to reduce their emissions by at

least 5 percent by the five year period from 2008 to 2012: Japan committed to 6 percent, the

United States to 7 percent, and the European Union to 8 percent reductions. The targets are

said to be considerably challenging for these some industrialized countries. A flexible

mechanisms was adopted in the Kyoto Protocol, allowing the use of economic measures such

as emissions trading, joint implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanism, in order to

achieve their targets, in addition to traditional domestic approaches such as promoting energy

efficiency and introducing new alternative energy sources. At COP4 held in the Argentine

capital of Buenos Aires in November 1998, a schedule was decided upon to create frameworks

for emission trading by the time of COP6 which is planned for 2000.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 103

International Programs and Activities

Table 5-3-1First commitment of Annex I.Source: EAJ (1997)

GHGs listed in Annex A

base year

sinks

first commitment period

commitment

banking

CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC, PFC, SF6

1990 (1995 for HFC, PFC, SF6)

The net changes in greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinksresulting from direct human-induced land-use change and forestry activities,limited to afforestation, reforestation and deforestation since 1990

2008 to 2012

Countries inscribed Annex B shall reduce their overall emissions of such gasesby at least 5 per cent below 1990 levels in the commitment period

If the emissions of a Party included included in Annex I in a commitment periodare less than its assigned amount under this Article, this difference shall, onrequest of that Party, be added to the assigned amount for that Party forsubsequent commitment periods

Figure 5-3-1Quantified emission limitation or reductioncommitment of main countries.Source: EAJ (1997)

10

8

6

4

2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12Annex Bnon-Annex B

Ann

ex B

EU

Sw

izte

rlan

d

Hun

gar

y

Jap

an

US

A Can

ada

Rus

sia

New

Zea

land

No

rway

Aus

tral

ia Icel

and

5.2

8 8

6 6

0 0

8

10

1

76

emis

sio

n in

crea

se (%

)em

issi

on

red

ucti

on

(%)

(% of base year or period)

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6

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106

対応戦略の基本的な考え方Basic Concepts of Response Strategies1

対応戦略と適応策

6.

緩和策と適応策

国連気候変動枠組条約前文には、「先進国が、明確な優先順位に基づき、すべての温室効果ガスを考

慮に入れ、かつ、それらのガスがそれぞれ温室効果の増大に対して与える相対的な影響を十分に勘案

した包括的な対応戦略(地球的、国家的及び合意がある場合には地域的な規模のもの)に向けた第一

歩として、直ちに柔軟に行動することが必要であることを認め、」とあり、対応戦略の重要性が述べら

れている。対応戦略は、Figure 6-1-1に示すとおり、「緩和策」と「適応策」に分類することができる。

緩和策とは、温室効果ガスの排出削減・吸収量増大などによって気候変動を緩和する対策である。適

応策とは、気候変動に対する社会・経済活動の対応力を高め、脆弱性を低減する対策である。

適応策と脆弱性の低減

現在の緩和策では、何がしかの温暖化の進行は避けられないと考えられている。それによって生じ

る将来の気候変動・海面上昇の影響に対して、沿岸域では適応策を検討する必要がある。そのための

一つの手段として「脆弱性評価」の概念が生み出された。Figure 6-1-2に、脆弱性評価と適応策の関

係を示す。海面上昇の影響の程度は、沿岸域の自然システムや社会・経済システムの脆弱性に左右さ

れるため、脆弱性を低減できれば、社会経済システムへの影響は小さくなる。適応策とは、計画的な

措置によってそのような方向をめざすものである。

Mitigation and adaptation

The UNFCCC describes the importance of response strategies in its preface as "Recognizing

also the need for developed countries to take immediate action in a flexible manner on the

basis of clear priorities, as a first step towards comprehensive response strategies at the global,

national and, where agreed, regional levels that take into account all greenhouse gases, with

due consideration of their relative contributions to the enhancement of the greenhouse effect".

As shown in Figure 6-1-1, response strategies can be classified as "mitigation" or "adaptation".

Mitigation means reduction of GHG emissions and enhancement of CO2 absorption. Adaptation

involves adjustments to enhance the viability of social and economic activities and to reduce

their vulnerability to climate change.

Adaptation and reduction of vulnerability

The concept of "vulnerability assessment" was established as one of the practical methods to

examine the adaptation measures to the impacts of future climate change and sea-level rise.

The relationship between vulnerability assessment and adaptation is shown in Figure 6-1-2.

Since the magnitude of impacts of sea-level rise on coastal zones depends on the vulnerability

of coastal natural and socio-economic systems, final impacts of sea-level rise on social and

economic systems can be reduced by reducing the vulnerability of each system.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 107

Response Strategy and Adaptation

Figure 6-1-1Mitigation and adaptation.Source: IPCC (1994)

HumanInterference

MITIGATIONof Climate Changevia GHG sources

and sinks

ADAPTATIONon the Impacts

CLIMATE CHANGEand VARIABILITY

CLIMATE CHANGEand VARIABILITY

IMPACTS

SensitivityVulnerability

Effects

ExpectedAdaptations

Net Impacts

PolicyResponses

Figure 6-1-2A conceptual frameworkfor coastal vulnerabilityassessment.Source: UNEP (1996)

Ability toPreventor Cope

ImpactPotential

Susceptibility Resilience/Resistance

NaturalVulnerability

BiogeophysicalEffects

Socio-economicVulnerability

RegionalImpacts

AutonomousAdaptation

PlannedAdaptation

AutonomousAdaptation

PlannedAdaptation

AcceleratedSea-Level

Rise

Natural System

Socio-economic System

OtherClimatic andNon-Climatic

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108

適応策Adaptation2

対応戦略と適応策

6.

適応策は、「何に対する適応か」、「適応の主体は誰か」、「適応はどのように起こるかを」といった課

題を念頭に置いて考えられる(Figure 6-2-1)。

・何に対する適応か:ここでは、将来の気候変動や海面上昇を適応すべき環境変化として考えている。

しかし、各国の将来には、人口の増加、経済発展、それに伴う環境破壊の増加などの様々な変化が

予想される。望ましい適応策とは、気候変動だけでなく全ての環境変化に対して、自然環境や社

会・経済の抵抗力を増すようなものであるのはいうまでもない。

・誰が適応するのか:大きくは、自然システムと人間社会の2つである。人間社会では、個々の農家

が行う作物の転換から、地域や産業界の方策、さらに産業政策や防災対策の転換といった国レベル

まで様々なレベルで適応が生じる。計画的に適応を進めようとすれば、情報の提供やこれらを調整

する役割が重要になる。

・適応はどのように起こるか:適応策の考え方には、いろいろな視点が提出されている。形態(自律

的か、計画的か)、時期(事前か、事後的か)、時間スケール(短期的か、中・長期的か)、空間スケ

ール(局所的か、広域的か)、機能(撤退、順応、防護)、対策の種類(法的、制度的、財政的、技

術的など)、評価基準(費用対効果、効率性、実施可能性、社会的平等など)。これらの視点が整理

され、適応策が具体的に提案されるまでには、まだ時間が必要なようにみえる。

実際の適応は、気候変動の進行に応じてくり返し行われることになる。無理なく適応が図られるた

めには、情報の浸透や社会的支持、都市計画や環境管理計画といった他の政策とのすり合わせが必要

である。Figure 6-2-2は、こうした動的なプロセスを示したものである(Klein et al., 1999)

There are a few key questions to direct discussions about adaptation strategies: Adapt to what?

Who will adapt? How will adaptation take place? (Figure 6-2-1)

• Adapt to what ?: Fundamentally, it is environmental change, including climate change and

sea-level rise, to which adaptation is needed. However, countries will face other stresses

such as population growth, economic development, and the resultant environmental

degradation. Clearly, the optimal adaptation strategies will enhance the resilience of natural

environment and society to all these stresses.

• Who will adapt ?: On the macro scale, it is the natural environment and human society

which must adapt. In human society, adaptation practices will occur at various levels,

ranging from individual farmers changing crop species, and regional and industrial sector

practices, to changes in national disaster prevention and industrial policies. Provision of

information and coordination are essential for effective adaptation.

• How will adaptation take place ?: Various elements have been proposed for adaptation: form

(autonomous or planned), timing (proactive or reactive), time scale (short-term or medium-

/long-term), spatial scale (local or wide), function (retreat, accommodation, or protection),

kind of measure (legal, institutional, financial, technological, etc.), and performance

standards (cost-effectiveness, efficiency, feasibility, social equity, etc.). Time is needed before

these various elements can be organized effectively and actual adaptation plans can be

proposed.

The adaptation will be recursive practice following the real change of the climatic and sea-level

conditions. Klein et al. (1999) proposed a conceptual framework of adaptation taking into

consideration such viewpoint.

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 109

Response Strategy and Adaptation

What is Adaptation?

Adaptation to What?

CLIMATE • RELATED STIMULI• Phenomena• Time / Space Scales

Non-ClimateForces andConditions

How Goods is the Adaptation?

EVALUATION• Criteria• Principles

Who or What Adapts?

SYSTEM• Definition• Characteristics

How Does Adaptation Occur?

TYPES• Processes• Outcomes

Figure 6-2-1Gross anatomy of adaptation to climate changeand variability.Source: Smit et al. (1998)

Figure 6-2-2Framework of coastal adaptation.Source: Klein et al. (1999)

Climatevariability

Climatechange

Impacts Information,Awareness

Planning,Design

Implemen-tation

Monitoring,Evaluation

Mitigation

Adaptation

Otherstresses

Policycriteria

Coastaldevelopment

objectives

Existingmanagement

practices

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110

適応技術-ハード技術とソフト技術Adaptation Technology - Hard and Soft Technologies3

対応戦略と適応策

6.

適応策には、「撤退」、「順応」、「防護」があり、Table 6-3-1に示すとおり、さまざまなオプション

が存在する。防護策には、以下に示すようにハード技術とソフト技術という分類が可能である。適応

策には、自動的適応と政策的(意図的)適応という2つの異なった形式があり、適応が行われる時期と

しては、予見的(事前)と対応的(事後)という2つが考えられる。Table 6-3-1では、適応オプショ

ンをこれらについて分類して示している。実際の適応策の立案では、撤退策、順応策にかかわる計画

的・政策的対応と技術的な対応を組み合わせることが重要である。

(1)ハード技術

・堰、堤防、防潮堤

・護岸、擁壁、防水壁

・突堤

・離岸提

・防潮門、防潮壁

・塩水防御壁

(2)ソフト技術

・定期的な養浜

・砂丘の回復と形成

・湿地の回復と形成

・植林

Adaptive strategies can be classified as (Managed) Retreat, Accommodation, and Protection,

which include a variety of options as shown in Table 6-3-1. The protection option consists of

hard and soft technologies as shown below. Type and timing of adaptation are autonomous

adjustment and strategic action, and proactive and reactive, respectively. Table 6-3-1 also

shows the nature of adaptive options. For the development of actual adaptation measures, it is

important to coordinate them with planning, policy and technical responses relating to retreat

and accommodation measures.

(1) hard technology for protection

• dikes, levees, and floodwalls

• seawalls, revetments and bulkheads

• groynes*

• detached and submerged breakwaters

• flood gates and tidal barriers

• saltwater intrusion barriers

* rigid structures built out from shore to protect from erosion, trap sand, etc.

(2) soft technology for protection

• beach replenishment

• dune restoration and creation

• ecosystem restoration

• coastal forest planting

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 111

Response Strategy and Adaptation

Table 6-3-1Response strategies to sea-level rise.Source: UNEP (1996)

Response option Type of adaptation

(Managed) Retreat

• no development in susceptible areas

• conditional phased-out development

• withdrawal of government subsidies

• presumed mobility

Emphasis on progressive abandonment of land and structures in highly vulnerable areas and resettlement of inhabitants

Accommodation

• advanced planning to avoid worst impacts

• modification of land use

• modification of building codes

• protect threatened ecosystems

• regulation in hazard zones

• hazard insurance to reinforce regulation

Emphasis on the conservation of ecosystems harmonized with the continued occupancy and use of vulnerable areas and adaptive management responses

Protection

• hard structural options

• dikes, levees and floodwalls

• seawalls, revetments and bulkheads

• groynes

• detached breakwaters

• floodgates and tidal barriers

• saltwater intrusion barriers

• soft structural options

• periodic beach nourishment (beach fill)

• dune restoration and creation

• wetland restoration and creation

• afforestation

Emphasis on the defence of vulnerable areas, population centres, economic activities and natural resources

Autonomousadjustments

Strategicaction

Timing of adaptation

Reactive Pro-active

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112

適応策の例Examples of Adaptive Measures4

対応戦略と適応策

6.

Photo 6-4-1Seawall made by local people (Fiji).

これまで用いられてきた技術や方策の中に、将来の気候変動・海面上昇に対する適応技術として有

効なものを見い出すことができる。

Many traditional and existing policies and technologies will be effective as adaptive options to

climate change and sea-level rise.

(1) Measures to protect coast and to prevent beach erosion.

Photo 6-4-2Simple seawall (Fiji).

Photo 6-4-3Mangrove plantation to protect a villagecoast (Fiji).

Photo 6-4-4Vegetation to stabilize a sandy beach(Florida, USA).

Photo 6-4-5Artificial headlands to prevent coastalerosion (Ibaraki, Japan).Source: Ministry of Construction

Photo 6-4-6Sand-bypassing to supply sand to theeroded beach (Florida, USA).

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 113

Response Strategy and Adaptation

(2) Measures to prevent storm surge and flood damages.

Photo 6-4-7Gentle-slope revetment (Hokkaido, Japan).Source: Ministry of Construction

Photo 6-4-8Sand dunes as coastal protection (TheNetherlands).

Photo 6-4-9Flood by storm surge (1961, Osaka, Japan).

Photo 6-4-10Storm surge barrier at river mouth (Osaka,Japan).

Photo 6-4-11Waju and Mizuya(Nagashima-cho, Mie).Waju is a small land andcommunity protected by acircle dike. Mizuya is aemergency storage builton a high foundation. Theyhave long been protectivemeasures against floodsbefore river banks wereraised.Source: Pamphlets fromNagashima-cho and Wajuno Sato

TheNagaraRiver

TheKisoRiver

River Bank

Cross Section of Nagashima

Mizuya, the flood shelterOmoya, the main house

RicePaddy

River Bank

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114

総合的沿岸域管理計画Integrated Coastal Zone Management5

対応戦略と適応策

6.

世界沿岸域会議(WCC '93)の声明は、総合的沿岸域管理計画(ICZM)およびその枠組みを以下の

ように定義している。

ICZMの定義:「総合的沿岸域管理計画(ICZM)は、現在の、および長期的な沿岸域管理の問題を扱

うのに最も適したものである。これらの問題には、居住地の損失、水質汚濁、水文サイクルの変化、

沿岸資源の枯渇、および海面上昇やその他の地球規模の気候変動に対する対応策等が含まれている。

ICZMは将来の動向を確認し、予測する手段でもある。このように、ICZMは、沿岸域を持つ国々や内

海に面する国々における持続的発展を達成するため重要なツールである。」

ICZMの枠組み:「総合的沿岸域管理計画には、包括的なアセスメント、目的の設定、沿岸システムと

資源の計画および管理が含まれる。これらの要素については、伝統、文化および歴史的な視野に立ち、

相対する興味および利用形態を十分に考慮する必要がある。また、総合的沿岸域管理計画は、持続的

発展のための不断の過程でもある。」

本会議は、ICZMのプロセスに関するステップを検討し(Table 6-5-1)、23ヶ国に及ぶICZMのケー

ススタディ(Figure 6-5-1)を報告書にまとめている。これらのケーススタディを通じて、ICZMを適

切に実施していく上での制限・障害が以下のとおり挙げられている。

制限・障害:ICZMに関する理解・経験不足;沿岸および海洋の資源、プロセス、機会に関する理解不

足;断片的に行われる制度的な調整;単一のセクターに権力が集中した官僚主義的対応;利権の競合

および優先順位の欠如;不適切な制度化、施行力の欠如;土地所有制度およびその他社会的な要因に

関する知識の欠如;情報および資源(資金、人的資源、関連技術、設備)の欠如。

The Preamble to the World Coast Conference (WCC '93) Statement defined Integrated Coastal

Zone Management (ICZM) as follows: "Integrated coastal zone management has been identified

as the most appropriate process for addressing current and long-term coastal management

issues, including habitat loss, degradation of water quality, changes in hydrological cycles,

depletion of coastal resources, and adaptation to sea-level rise and other impacts of global

climate change. It also is a means to identify and anticipate future opportunities. Thus, ICZM is

a major tool for achieving for sustainable development in coastal states, including states with

boundaries on inland seas." "Integrated coastal zone management involves the comprehensive

assessment, setting of objectives, planning and management of coastal systems and resources,

taking into account traditional, cultural and historical, perspectives and conflicting interests and

uses; it is a continuous and evolutionary process for achieving sustainable development."

The Conference described the steps in the ICZM process (Table 6-5-1), and summarized the

case studies of 23 countries in the report (Figure 6-5-1). The constraints and obstacles for

implementing appropriate ICZM programs encountered during these case studies were limited

understanding of and experience in ICZM; limited understanding of coastal and marine

resources, processes and opportunities; fragmented institutional arrangements; single-sector-

oriented bureaucracies; competing interests and lack of priorities; inadequate legislation and/or

lack of enforcement; lack of knowledge of land tenure regimes and other social factors; and

lack of information and resources (funds, trained personnel, relevant technologies, equipment,

etc.).

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Response Strategy and Adaptation

Figure 6-5-1ICZM case studies.Source: IPCC (1994)

China

Philippines

Indonesia

New Zealand

USA

Netherlands

Germany

Croatia

Egypt

Greece

Israel

Syria

Turkey

Tanzania MalaysiaSri Lanka

Thailand

Bangladesh

Mexico

Ecuador

Chile

Belize

Barbados

Table 6-5-1Steps in the ICZM process.Source: Revised form IPCC (1994)

The planning process for ICZM typically involves:

* identifying issues and problems, and establishing corresponding objectives and criteria;* delimiting the spatial, temporal and substantive scope of the planning effort;* identifying stakeholders, and ensuring their participation in the management process;* analyzing existing planning programmes, institutional arrangement and management instruments to determine whether they may be useful in addressing the issues;

* formulating a set of actions that systematically relate the set of objectives to the current state of the coastal system;

* collecting and analyzing existing data and evaluating the need for further research and information;* establishing monitoring systems and integrated databases; and,* supplying information for programme evaluation to policy makers.

The implementation process of ICZM typically involves:

* ensuring concordance between the plan structure and its implementation;* designing, constructing, operating and maintaining physical structures;* applying and modifying regulatory measures such as physical planning;* applying and modifying standards relating to, for example, water quality;* enforcing strategies, regulations and standards through a formal legal process or through persuasion, education and traditional community controls;

* providing for participation of private entities and the public;* identifying and contracting sources of funding for the implementation process;* conducting ongoing measurements and monitoring of coastal processes and their interaction with human action; and

* monitoring and evaluating the level of output of the ICZM plan.

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References • Index • Abbreviations

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引用文献 References

2.地球温暖化・海面上昇のメカニズム及び将来予測Mechanisms and Projections of Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise

2.1 地球温暖化のメカニズム Mechanisms of Global Warming

IPCC (1990): Climate Change, The IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge University Press, 365p.

IPCC (1996): Climate Change 1995, Impacts, adaptations and mitigation of climate change: scientific-technical

analyses, Cambridge University Press, 365-398.

2.2 過去の気候変動と現状 Past and Present Climate Change

IPCC (1996): Climate Change 1995, Impacts, adaptations and mitigation of climate change: scientific-technical

analyses, Cambridge University Press, 365-398.

Japan Meteorological Agency (http://www.kishou.go.jp/info/990114/temp.html).

2.3 地球温暖化の将来予測 Projections of Global Warming

Kato, H., H. Hirakuchi, K. Nishizawa, S. Kadokura, N. Oshima, K. Wada and F. Giorgi, (1998): Prediction of

climate change in East Asia caused by global warming, Part 2: A simulation of Bai-u climate using RegCM2.5

nested in NCAR-CSM, Proc. 1998 Fall Meeting of Japan Meteorological Society, p.276. (in Japanese)

Maruyama, K., H. Hirakuchi, J. Tsutsui, N. Nakashiki, S. Kadokura, and M. Kadoyu (1997): Global warming

projection for 125 years using NCAR CSM coupled model, Research Report U97034, Central Research Institute of

Electric Power Industry, Abiko, Japan, 24p. (in Japanese)

2.4 海面上昇のメカニズム Mechanisms of Sea-Level Rise

Gornitz,V and S.Lebedeff (1987): Global Sea Level Changes during the Past Century.

IPCC (1990): Climate Change, The IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge University Press, 365p.

IPCC (1996): Climate Change 1995, Impacts, adaptations and mitigation of climate change: scientific-technical

analyses, Cambridge University Press, 365-398.

Oerlemans, J. and J. P. F. Fortuin (1992): Sensitivity of Glaciers and Small Ice Caps to Greenhouse Warming,

SCIENCE, Vol. 258, pp.115-117.

2.5 過去の海水準変動と現状 Sea-Level Change - Past and Present

Gornitz,V and S.Lebedeff (1987): Global Sea Level Changes during the Past Century; in Warrick, R. A. and E. M.

Barrow and M. L. Wigley (eds.), Climate and Sea Level Change (1993), Cambridge University Press, p.8.

IPCC (1990): Climate Change, The IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge University Press, 365p.

Mörner, N-A. (ed). (1980): Earth Rheology, Isostasy and Eustasy, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 599pp.

2.6 海面上昇の将来予測 Projection of Sea-Level Rise

Wigley, T. M. L. and S. C. B. Raper (1992): Implications for Climate and Sea Level of Revised IPCC Emissions

Scenarios, NATURE, Vol.357, pp.293-300.

Gregory, J. M. (1993): Sea Level Changes under Increasing Atmospheric CO2 in a Transient Coupled Ocean-

Atmosphere GCM Experiment, Journal Climate, Vol.6, pp.2247-2262.

3.沿岸域への影響Impacts of Sea-level Rise on Coastal Zones

3.1 地球温暖化の沿岸域への影響 Impacts of Global Warming on Coastal Zones

IPCC (1990): Climate Change, The IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge University Press,365p.

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References • Index • Abbreviations

3.2 自然・生態系に対する影響 Impacts on Natural Resources and Ecosystems

(1)砂浜海岸 Sandy Beaches

Bruun, P. (1962): Sea-level rise as a cause of storm erosion, Proc. of ASCE, J. of Waterways and Harbors Div.,

88, pp.117-130.

Mimura, N. and E. Kawaguchi (1996): Responses of coastal topography to sea-level rise, Proc. of 25th ICCE,

pp.1349-1360.

Mimura, N. et al. (1995): Responses of Coastal Landform to Sea-level rise -Focusing on Sandy Beaches and

River Mouth-, Preprints of the 3rd symposium on Global Environment, JSCE, pp.97-102.

(2) デルタ その1 Deltas, Part1

(3) デルタ その2 Deltas, Part2

(4) マングローブ Mangroves

Fujimoto,K. et al. (1989): 温室効果に伴う急激な海水準上昇のマングローブ生態系へ及ぼす影響の予測に関す

る基礎的研究、(財)国際協力推進協会、pp.31-43.

Miyagi, T, T. Kikuchi, and K. Fujimoto (1995): Late Holocene sea-level changes and the mangrove peat

accumulation/habitat dynamics in the western Pacific area. "Rapid sea-level rise and mangrove habitat"

T. Kikuchi (ed) 19-26.

Miyagi, T., C. Tanavad, P. Pramojanee, K. Fujimoto & Y. Mochida (1999): Mangrove habitat dynamics and sea-

level change - A scenario and GIS mapping of the changing process of delta and estuary type mangrove habitat

in Southwestern Thailand-. TROPICS, 8-3, 179-196.

(5) サンゴ礁 その1 Coral Reefs, Part1

Wilkinson, C. (ed) (1998): Status of Coral Reefs of the World, 1998, Australian Institute of Marine Science, 184p.

Hori, N. (1980): Coral reef in Japan, Science Journal KAGAKU, Vol. 50, 111-122 (in Japanese).

(6) サンゴ礁 その2 Coral Reefs, Part2

Kayanne, H. (1992): Deposition of calcium carbonate into Holocene reefs and its relation to sea-level rise and

atmospheric CO2, Proc. 7th Int. Coral Reef Symp., 1, 50-55.

Veron, J.E.N.(1995): Corals in Time and Space, 321p, UNSW Press.

Veron, J.E.N. and P.R. Minchin (1992): Correlations between sea surface temperature, circulation patterns and

the distribution of hermatypic corals of Japan, Continental Shelf Res., 12, 835-857.

(7) 湖沼・汽水域 その1 Coastal Lagoons, Part1

(8) 湖沼・汽水域 その2 Coastal Lagoons, Part2

Hirai, Y. Sato and Tanavud (1999): Assessment of Impacts of Sea Level Rise on Coastal Lagoons - Case Studies in

Japan and Thailand -.

(9) 水資源 Water Resources

IPCC (1990): Climate Change, The IPCC Impacts Assessment, Cambridge University Press.

IPCC CZMS (1992): Global Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the Sea, 35p.

3.3 自然・生態系に対する影響 Impacts on Human Society

(1) 人間居住 Impacts on Human Settlements

IPCC (1994): Preparing to Meet the Coastal Challenges of the 21st Century, Conference Report, World Coast

Conference 1993, 49p.

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(2) 社会基盤施設 Infrastructure

Kitajima, S., T. Ito, N. Mimura, Y. Hosokawa, M. Tsutsui and K. Izumi (1993): Impacts of Sea Level Rise and Cost

Estimate of Countermeasures in Japan. in Vulnerability assessment to sea level rise and coastal zone

management, Proceedings of the IPCC Eastern Hemisphere Workshop, 115-123.

Mimura, N., M. Isobe and Y. Hosokawa (1993): Coastal Zone, in S. Nishioka et al (ed), The potential effects of

climate change in Japan. CGER-I009-'93, Center for Global Environmental Research, National Institute for

Environmental Studies, 57-69.

(3) 産業・経済活動 Industry and Economic Activities

IPCC (1996): Climate Change 1995, Impacts, adaptations and mitigation of climate change: scientific-technical

analyses, Cambridge University Press, 365-398.

Ball, R. H. and W. S. Breed (1992): Summery of Likely Impacts of Climate Change on the Energy Sector, U. S.

Department of Energy, Washington, DC.

3.4 影響評価手法 Methodologies for Impacts Assessment

(1) さまざまな影響評価手法 Overview of Methodologies for Impacts Assessment

IPCC CZMS (1991): The Seven Steps to the Vulnerability Assessment of Coastal Areas to Sea-level rise -

Guidelines for Case Studies, 24p.

IPCC CZMS (1992): Global Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the Sea, 35p.

Kay, R and J. Hay (1993): A Decision Support Approach to Coastal Vulnerability and Resilience Assessment: A

Tool for Integrated Coastal Zone Management; in McLean, R. and N. Mimura (eds.), Vulnerability Assessment to

Sea-Level rise and Coastal Zone Management, Proceedings of the IPCC Eastern Hemisphere Workshop, pp.213-

225.

Gornitz, V. M., R. C. Danields, T. W. White, and K. R. Birdwell. (1994): The Development of a coastal risk

assessment database: vulnerability to sea-level rise in the U.S. southeast, Journal of Coastal Research Special

Issue 12, 327-338.

Yamada, K., P. D. Nunn, N. Mimura, S. Machida and M. Yamamoto(1995): Methodology for the Assessment of

Vulnerability of South Pacific Island Countries to the Sea-Level Rise and Climate Change, Journal of Global

Environment Engineering, Vol.1, pp101-125.

Leatherman, S. P. and G. W. Yohe (1996): Coastal impact and adaptation assessment, in R. Benioff, S. Guill and

J. Lee (eds.), Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment - An International Handbook, Version 1.1, Kluwer

Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp.5.63-5.76, H.1-H.39.

UNEP (1998): Handbook on methods for climate change impact assessment and adaptation strategies

(2) 経済的評価手法 その1 Methodologies for Impacts Assessment of Economic Aspects, Part1

(3) 経済的評価手法 その2 Methodologies for Impacts Assessment of Economic Aspects, Part2

4. 影響評価・カントリースタディImpact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

4.1 影響評価・カントリースタディの概観 Overview of Impact Assessment Studies and Country Studies

4.2 アジア地域の研究 Impact Assessment Studies in the Asia Region

(1) バングラデシュ Bangladesh

Karim, Z. (1993): Preliminary Agricultural Vulnerability Assessment: Drought Impacts due to Climate Change in

Bangladesh; in McLean, R. and N. Mimura(eds.), Vulnerability Assessment to Sea-Level rise and Coastal Zone

Management, Proceedings of the IPCC Eastern Hemisphere Workshop, pp.213-225.

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References • Index • Abbreviations

Warrick, R. A. and Q. K. Ahmad (1996): The Implications of Climate and Sea-level Change for Bangladesh

Kluwer Academic Publishers

(2)中国 China

Du. B. (1993): The Preliminary Vulnerability Assessment of the Chinese Coastal Zone due to Sea Level Rise; in

McLean, R. and N. Mimura(eds.), Vulnerability Assessment to Sea-Level rise and Coastal Zone Management,

Proceedings of the IPCC Eastern Hemisphere Workshop, pp.177-188.

Han, M., N. Mimura, Y. Hosokawa, S. Machida, K. Yamada, L. Wu and J. Li (1993): Vulnerability Assessment of

coastal zone to Sea Level Rise: A Case study on the Tianjin Coastal Plain North China by using GIS & Landsat

Imagery; in McLean, R. and N. Mimura (eds.), Vulnerability Assessment to Sea-Level rise and Coastal Zone

Management, Proceedings of the IPCC Eastern Hemisphere Workshop, pp.189-195.

(3) インド India

ADB (1994): Climate Change in Asia: India Country Report, 172p.

(4) タイ Thailand

Parry, M.L.(ed) (1992): The Potential Socio-Economic Effects of Climate Change in the South-East Asia, UNEP.

Panich, S.(1998): Vulnerability and adaptation; Agriculture, coastal and water resources, Unpublished

manuscript.

Somboon, J.R.P. and N. Thiramongkol(1993): Effect of sea-level rise on the north coast of the Bight of Bangkok,

Thailand, Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography, 24(1/2), pp.3-12.

TEI (1998): Thailand on a Disk

(5) ベトナム Vietnam

ADB (1994): Climate Change in Asia: India Country Report, 103p.

4.3 南太平洋島嶼国の研究 Impact Assessment Studies in South Pacific Island Countries

(1) 取り組みの概要 Overview of Impact Assessment Studies

(2) フィジー Fiji

Nunn, P. D., A. D. Ravuvu, R. C. Kay and K. Yamada (1993): Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability and Resilience

to Sea-Level Rise Climate Change -Case Study- Viti Levu Island, Fiji, Phase I: Concepts and Approach, SPREP,

EAJ and OECC, 188p.

Nunn, P. D., A. D. Ravuvu, W. Aalbersberg, N. Mimura and K. Yamada (1994): Assessment of Coastal

Vulnerability and Resilience to Sea-Level Rise Climate Change -Case Study- Yasawa Islands, Fiji, Phase II:

Development of Methodology, SPREP, EAJ and OECC, 118p.

Mimura, N. and P. D. Nunn (1998): Trends of Beach Erosion and Shoreline Protection in Rural Fiji, Journal of

Coastal Research, 14, 1, 37-46.

Yamada, K., P. D. Nunn, N, Mimura, S. Machida, and M. Yamamoto (1995): Methodology for the Assessment of

Vulnerability of South Pacific Island Countries to the Sea-Level Rise and Climate Change, Journal of Global

Environment Engineering, Vol.1, pp.101-125.

(3) キリバス Kiribati

Abete, T. (1993): The Kiribati Preliminary Assessment to Accelerated Sea-Level Rise; in McLean, R. and N.

Mimura (eds.), Vulnerability Assessment to Sea-Level rise and Coastal Zone Management, Proceedings of the

IPCC Eastern Hemisphere Workshop, pp.91-98.

Woodroffe, C. D. and R. F. McLean (1992): Kiribati, Vulnerability to Accelerated Sea-level Rise: A Preliminary

Study, 81p.

SOPAC (1997): Approaches to Vulnerability Assessment on Pacific Island Coasts: Examples from Southeast Viti

Levu (Fiji) and South Tarawa (Kiribati).

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(4) サモア Samoa

Kay, R. C., F. M. Elisara-Laulu, R.G. Cole and K. Yamada (1993): Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability and

Resilience to Sea-Level Rise and Climate Change -Case Study- 'Upolu Island, Western Samoa, Phase I: Concept

and Approach, SPREP, EAJ and OECC, 101p.

Nunn, P. D., A. D. Ravuvu, E. Balogh, N. Mimura and K. Yamada (1994): Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability and

Resilience to Sea-Level Rise Climate Change -Case Study- Savai'i Island, Western Samoa, Phase II: Development

of Methodology, SPREP, EAJ and OECC, 109p.

(5)トンガ Tonga

Fifita, N. P. et al. (1992): Assessment of the Vulnerability of the Kingdom of Tonga to Sea Level Rise; in Global

Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the Sea, Proceedings of the International Workshop held on

Margarita Island pp.119-139.

(6) ツバル Tuvalu

Sem, G., N. Mimura, J. R. Campbell, E. Ohno, J. H. Hay, K. Yamada, M. Serizawa and S. Nishioka (1995): Coastal

Vulnerability and Resilience in Tuvalu, Assessment of Climate Change Impacts and adaptation, SPREP, EAJ and

OECC, 74p.

4.4 日本の研究 Impact Assessment Studies in Japan

(1) 災害ポテンシャル Potential Risk

Matsui, T. et al. (1993): Assessment of Socio-Economic Impacts of Sea Level Rise in Coastal Zone in Japan,

Journal Japan Association of Coastal Zone Studies, Vol.5,pp.1-11.

(2) 東京湾に対する台風の被害 Impacts of Typhoons on Tokyo Bay

Tsutsui, J. and M. Isobe (1992): Prediction of Storm Surge in Tokyo Bay under Global Warming, Journal Japan

Association of Coastal Zone Studies, Vol.4, pp.9-19.

IPCC (1990): Climate Change, The IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge University Press.

(3) 砂浜海岸の侵食 Erosion of Sandy Coastlines

Mimura, N., K. Inoue, M. Kiyohashi, T. Izumiya, and H. Nobuoka (1994): Prediction of the impact of sea level

rise on sandy beaches ---a verification of prediction model and national scale assessment---, Proceedings of

Coastal Engineering, JSCE, Vol. 41, pp. 1161-1165 (in Japanese).

Mimura, N., M. Kiyohashi, and E. Kawaguchi (1995): Responses of coastal landform to sea level rise ---focusing

on sandy beaches and river mouths---, Pre-prints of 3rd Symposium on Global Environment, Committee on

Global Environment, JSCE, 97-102 (in Japanese).

(4) 海岸構造物の対策費用 Protection Costs of Coastal Infrastructures

Kitajima, S., T. Ito, N. Mimura, Y. Hosokawa, M. Tsutsui and K. Izumi (1993): Impacts of Sea Level Rise and Cost

Estimate of Countermeasures in Japan; in McLean, R. and N. Mimura (eds.), Vulnerability Assessment to Sea-

Level Rise and Coastal Zone Management, Proceedings of the IPCC Eastern Hemisphere Workshop, pp.115-123.

EAJ (1993): The Potential Effects of Climate Change in Japan, 94p.

4.5 世界及び地域規模での影響評価 Global and Regional Impact Assessment

Baase, G.(1995): Development of an Operational Tool for Global Vulnerability Assessment(GVA): Update of the

Number of People at Risk Due to Sea-Level Rise and Increased Flood Probabilities, CZM Centre Publication

No.3, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, The Netherlands.

IPCC(1996): Ch 9 Coastal Zones and Small Islands in: Climate Change 1995, The IPCC Impact Assessment,

Cambridge University Press, pp.288-324.

Mimura, N., K. Satoh and S. Machida(2000): Asian and Pacific vulnerability assessment-An approach to

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References • Index • Abbreviations

5. 国際的な取り組みInternational Programs and Activities

5.1 国際的な取り組みの全体像

Overview of International Activities on Global Warming

5.2 IPCCの取り組み IPCC Activities

5.3 気候変動枠組条約と京都議定書、COP4 The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the

Kyoto Protocol, and COP4

EAJ (1997): Kyoto Protocol and Our Challenge (in Japanese)

6. 対応戦略と適応策Response Strategy and Adaptation

6.1 対応戦略の基本的な考え方 Basic Concept of Response Strategy

IPCC (1994): IPCC Technical Guidelines for Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Adaptations, CGER-I015-'94,

pp32

UNEP (1996): Handbook on methods for climate change impact assessment and adaptation strategies pp.5-3

6.2 適応策 Adaptation

Smit, B., I. Burton and R. J. T. Klein (1998): The Science of Adaptation : A framework for Assessment, pp.5

Klein R. J. T., R. J. Nicholls and N. Mimura (1999): Coastal Adaptation to Climate Change: Can the IPCC

Technical Guidelines be Applied?, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change in press, 2000,

Kluwer Academic Publisher.

6.3 適応技術-ハード技術とソフト技術 Adaptation Technology - Hard and Soft Technologies

UNEP (1996): Handbook on methods for climate change impact assessment and adaptation strategies, pp.5-41

6.4 適応策の例 Examples of Adaptive Measures

6.5 総合的沿岸域管理計画 Integrated Coastal Zone Management

IPCC (1994): Preparing to Meet the Coastal Challenges of the 21st Century, Conference Report, World Coast

Conference 1993, 49p.

integrated regional assessment, Proceedings of the Thai-Japanese Geological Meeting "Comprehensive

Assessment on Impacts of Sea-Level Rise"(in press).

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索 引 Index

あ 行IPCC ................................................................................................................................................12, 14, 18, 26, 46, 52, 98

IPCC共通手法 .........................................................................................................................................................52, 64, 80

IHDP ....................................................................................................................................................................................96

IGBP ....................................................................................................................................................................................96

アジア開発銀行.......................................................................................................................................................60, 66, 70

インド ..................................................................................................................................................................................66

影響緩和策 ..........................................................................................................................................................................60

影響評価 ............................................................................................................................................................50, 52, 84, 92

エルニーニョ.......................................................................................................................................................................36

応用一般均衡分析 ...............................................................................................................................................................56

温室効果ガス ................................................................................................................................................12, 96, 100, 104

温暖化防止京都会議(COP3)..................................................................................................................................98, 100

か 行海岸構造物 ..........................................................................................................................................................................90

海岸侵食 ................................................................................................................................................26, 28, 42, 68. 74, 88

仮想市場評価法...................................................................................................................................................................56

カントリースタディー .................................................................................................................................................60, 96

干ばつ ..................................................................................................................................................................................62

緩和策 ................................................................................................................................................................................104

気候最適期 ..........................................................................................................................................................................14

共同実施 ............................................................................................................................................................................100

キリバス ..............................................................................................................................................................................76

クリーン開発メカニズム .................................................................................................................................................100

経済的評価 ....................................................................................................................................................................54, 56

洪水..............................................................................................................................................................32, 42, 62, 70, 92

国連環境計画(UNEP)..........................................................................................................................................52, 60, 96

国連開発計画(UNDP)......................................................................................................................................................60

国連気候変動枠組み条約(UNFCCC).......................................................................................................60, 96, 100, 104

COP4.................................................................................................................................................................................100

COP6.................................................................................................................................................................................100

さ 行災害ポテンシャル ...............................................................................................................................................................84

サイクロン ............................................................................................................................................30, 32, 46, 62, 66, 82

サモア ..................................................................................................................................................................................78

サンゴ礁の白化(現象)...............................................................................................................................................36, 38

CO2濃度 ..................................................................................................................................................................12, 16, 36

GIS .................................................................................................................................................................................66, 78

GHGインベントリ..................................................................................................................................................60, 72, 98

地盤沈下 ........................................................................................................................................................................30, 32

小島嶼国連合(AOSIS).....................................................................................................................................................96

消費者余剰法.......................................................................................................................................................................54

脆弱性評価 .............................................................................52, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 92, 104

世界沿岸域会議.................................................................................................................................................................112

ゼロメートル地帯 ...............................................................................................................................................................84

総合的沿岸域管理計画 .....................................................................................................................................................112

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References • Index • Abbreviations

た 行タイ....................................................................................................................................................................30, 32, 42, 68

対応戦略 ............................................................................................................................................................................104

大気・海洋結合大循環モデル......................................................................................................................................16, 22

太平洋島嶼国気候変動プロジェクト(PICCAP)......................................................................................................60, 72

台風....................................................................................................................................................................30, 32, 86, 92

WCRP ..................................................................................................................................................................................96

淡水レンズ ..........................................................................................................................................................................44

地球環境基金(GEF)...................................................................................................................................................60, 72

地球環境データベース .......................................................................................................................................................92

中国 ......................................................................................................................................................................................64

汀線 ................................................................................................................................................................................28, 88

直接支出法 ..........................................................................................................................................................................54

ツバル ..................................................................................................................................................................................82

泥炭蓄積 ..............................................................................................................................................................................34

適応策 ................................................................................................................................60, 72, 92, 96, 104, 106, 108, 110

島嶼国 ......................................................................................................................................................................44, 46, 72

トンガ ..................................................................................................................................................................................80

は 行バイオマス ..........................................................................................................................................................................34

排出量取引 ........................................................................................................................................................................100

バングラデシュ.......................................................................................................................................................32, 62, 92

費用便益分析.......................................................................................................................................................................54

フィジー ..............................................................................................................................................................................74

Bruun則モデル .............................................................................................................................................................28, 88

米国国別研究プログラム(USCSP)................................................................................................................................60

ベトナム ........................................................................................................................................................................70, 92

ヘドニック価格法 ...............................................................................................................................................................56

ま 行南太平洋地域環境計画(SPREP)..................................................................................................................60, 72, 76, 82

AAdaptation ........................................................................................................60, 72, 92, 96, 104, 106,108,110

Asian Development Bank (ADB) ........................................................................................................60, 66, 70

AOSIS................................................................................................................................................................96

BBangladesh ...........................................................................................................................................32, 62, 92

Biomass.............................................................................................................................................................34

Bleaching..........................................................................................................................................................36

Bruun Rule Model......................................................................................................................................28, 88

CChina.................................................................................................................................................................64

Clean Development Mechanism....................................................................................................................100

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126

海面上昇データブック2000 引用文献・索引・略語一覧

索 引 IndexClimatic optimum.............................................................................................................................................14

Coastal infrastructures......................................................................................................................................90

Coastal erosion...................................................................................................................26, 28, 42, 68, 74, 88

Contingent Valuation Method .........................................................................................................................56

Consumer's Surplus Methods ..........................................................................................................................54

Computable General Equilibrium Analysis.....................................................................................................56

COP3.........................................................................................................................................................98, 100

COP4...............................................................................................................................................................100

COP6...............................................................................................................................................................100

Coral Bleaching..........................................................................................................................................36, 38

Cost Benefit Analysis .......................................................................................................................................54

CO2 concentration ..............................................................................................................................12, 16, 36

Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) .......................................................................................................12, 96, 100, 104

Cyclones .............................................................................................................................30, 32, 46, 62, 66, 82

DDirect Expenditure Method .............................................................................................................................54

Drought.............................................................................................................................................................62

EEl Niño..............................................................................................................................................................36

Emission Trading............................................................................................................................................100

FFiji .....................................................................................................................................................................74

Flood ........................................................................................................................................32, 42, 62, 70, 92

Fresh water reserves ........................................................................................................................................44

GGeneral Circulation Model (GCM) ............................................................................................................16, 22

Global Environment Facility (GEF)...........................................................................................................60, 72

GIS ..............................................................................................................................................................66, 78

GHG inventory.....................................................................................................................................60, 72, 98

Global database................................................................................................................................................92

HHedonic Price Method .....................................................................................................................................56

IICZM ...............................................................................................................................................................112

IGBP..................................................................................................................................................................96

IHDP .................................................................................................................................................................96

Impact Assessment.........................................................................................................................50, 52, 84, 92

India..................................................................................................................................................................66

IPCC..............................................................................................................................12, 14, 18, 26, 46, 52, 98

IPCC Common Methodology...............................................................................................................52, 64, 80

JJoint Implementation .....................................................................................................................................100

KKiribati ..............................................................................................................................................................76

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000

Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000 127

References • Index • Abbreviations

LLand Subsidence ........................................................................................................................................30, 32

MMitigation......................................................................................................................................60, 72, 96, 104

N

O

PPeat Accumulation ...........................................................................................................................................34

PICCAP .......................................................................................................................................................60, 72

Q

RResponse Strategy ..........................................................................................................................................104

SSamoa ...............................................................................................................................................................78

Shoreline.....................................................................................................................................................28, 88

Small Islands.........................................................................................................................................44, 46, 72

SPREP .............................................................................................................................................60, 72, 76, 82

TThailand..........................................................................................................................................30, 32, 42, 68

Tonga................................................................................................................................................................80

Tuvalu ...............................................................................................................................................................82

Typhoon .........................................................................................................................................30, 32, 86, 92

UUNDP................................................................................................................................................................60

UNEP ....................................................................................................................................................52, 60, 96

UNFCCC......................................................................................................................................60, 96, 100, 104

USCSP ...............................................................................................................................................................60

VVietnam.......................................................................................................................................................70, 92

Vulnerability Assessment ....................................52, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 92, 104

WWCC '93 ..........................................................................................................................................................112

WCRP................................................................................................................................................................96

X

Y

ZZero-meter Altitude Area .................................................................................................................................84

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References • Index • Abbreviations

128

海面上昇データブック2000 引用文献・索引・略語一覧

略語一覧 Abbreviations

ADB Asian Development Bank

AOSIS Alliance of Small Island States

COP Conference of the Parties

EAJ Environment Agency of Japan

GCM General Circulation Model

GEF Global Environmental Facility

GHGs Greenhouse Gases

GIS Geographic Information System

GWP Global Warming Potential

ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions

ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management

IGBP International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme

IHDP International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme

IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPCC CZMS IPCC Coastal Zone Management Subgroup

ISSC International Social Sciences Council

PICCAP Pacific Islands Climate Change Assistance Programme

SOPAC South Pacific Applied Geosciences Commission

SPREP South Pacific Regional Environment Programme

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

USCSP United States Country Study Program

VA Vulnerability Assessment

WCC '93 World Coast Conference 1993

WCRP World Climate Research Programme

WMO World Meteorological Organization

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Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000

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