Cells, Tissues, Glands and Membranes HO

8/8/2019 Cells, Tissues, Glands and Membranes HO

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cells, tissues,

glands andmembranes

Allen O. Cudiamat, RN

UNP- College of Nursing


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CHEMISTRY OF LIFE


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CHEMISTRY

MatterSolid

Liquidgas Elements

Atoms

NeutronsProtonselectrons


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CHEMISTRY

Isotopes -Isotopes of the same type of atomdiffer in the number ofneutrons and therefore in weight.

Low level radiation

- Tracers (iodine 131, PET)

High level radiation

-Uranium- gamma rays for sterilizing surgical

instruments)


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Chemical Bonds

Molecules Compounds

1. Ionic Bonds electrons are transferred

from one atom to another2. Covalent Bonds electrons are shared

3. Disulfide bonds bond of 2 sulfur within

one protein molecule to maintain a 3Dstructure

4. Hydrogen Bonds results from unequal

distribution of charges


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Ionic bond


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Covalent Bond


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Hydrogen Bond


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CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Synthesis ReactionA + B AB

2. Decomposition Reaction

AB A + B3. Exchange Reaction

AB + CD AC + BD

Reversible ReactionAB A + B AB


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INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

- Few have carbon atoms but none have C-C or C-H bond; they tend to be simple

WATER OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE

ELECTROLYTES

ACIDS AND BASES

SALTS


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WATER

PROPERTIES OF WATER:

polarity water is the universal solvent

High heat capacity

Chemical reactivity

High heat of vaporization

Cohesive


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OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE

OXYGEN

- completes decomposition reactions needed

for energy release

CARBON DIOXIDE

- maintains blood pH balance


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ELECTROLYTES

Large group of inorganic

compounds that dissociate in a

solution to form ions

Cation

Anion


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ACIDS AND BASES

ACIDS

- release hydrogen ion when in a solution

- proton donor- sour

BASES

- release hydroxide ion when in a solution

- proton acceptors

- bitter


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Acids and Bases

pH Srensen (1909)

- measure of hydrogen or hydroxyl ions in asolution

Buffers

- maintains constancy of pH

Bicarbonate Buffer strong acid buffer (HCl)

Carbonic Acid buffer strong base buffer (NaOH)

Plasma proteins, hGb, SO4


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SALT

Chemical interaction of acid and

base

Acid + Base water + salt

HCl + NaOH H2O + NaCl


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ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

- Are decomposable; have carbon atoms

CARBOHYDRATES

PROTEINS LIPIDS

NUCLEIC ACIDS COMBINED FORMS


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CARBOHYDRATES

- primary source of chemical energy ( ATP)

1. Monosaccharides simple; not

sweet2. Disaccharides double; 2 simple

joined by synthesis reaction

(Dehydration Reaction)3. Polysaccharides multiple; manysimple sugars


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PROTEINS

- Most abundant organic compound

- Amino acids building blocks of proteins

1. fibrous/ structural CHON- important in binding structures together and

providing strength in certain body tissues

- collagen ( bones), Keratin ( hair and nails)

2. Globular/ Functional CHON

- - Mobile and spherical

- Antibodies, hormones, enzymes


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PROTEINS

4 LEVELS OF CHON ORGANIZATION

1. PRIMARY - chains

2. SECONDARY coiled into sheets

3. TERTIARY globular in shape

4. QUARTERNARY more than 1

polypeptide chain


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PROTEINS

ENZYMES

- catalysts that speed up chemical

reaction

- functions by the active site theory


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LIPIDS

- WATER INSOLUBE MOLECULES

- Fats

1. Triglycerides fat deposits

a. Saturatedb. unsaturated

2. Phospholipids cell membrane

3. Steroids (Cholesterol, bile salts, Vit D, Sex

hormones, Adrenocortical Hormones)4. Fat Soluble Vitamins (AEK), prostaglandins,

lipoproteins


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NUCLEIC ACIDS

1.DNA

2.RNA


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CELLS


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CELL STRUCTURES

PLASMA MEMBRANE

- separates the cell from its environment

- compose of phosholipid bilayer

CYTOPLASM- contains organelles

- thick gel-like substance where organelles aresuspended in the cytosol

NUCLEUS- control center

- protects and holds the DNA


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Plasma membrane

MICROVILLI

- fingerlike projections thatincrease the surface area for

absorption


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Plasma membrane

MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS

1. Tight junctions

- impermeable junctions that bind cells togetherinto leak proof sheets

2. Desmosomes

- anchoring junctions that prevent cells from beingpulled apart

3. Gap junctions

- allows communication- connexons are hollow cylinders composed ofproteins that allow passage of ions or nutients


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ORGANELLES

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

1. ROUGH ER

-with ribosomes- CHON synthesis and intracellular

transport

2. SMOOTH ER- synthesize lipids and CHO


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ORGANELLES

RIBOSOMES

- protein synthesis enzyme

production


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ORGANELLES

RIBOSOMES

Structure

-formed in the nucleus

-has two subunits

-eukaryotic cells-60S and 40S

-prokaryotic cells

-50S and 30S

-made up of RNA and protein-~65% RNA

-~35% protein

-about 20 nanometers in

diameter

-not bound by a membrane

-smaller than most organelles

-bound to the rough

endoplasmic reticulum or thenuclear envelope

-sometimes found floating incytoplasm

-can also be in the mitochondria

-has transfer RNA-two binding sites

-one exit site


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Function

-produces/assembles proteins-proteins produced are often transported out of

the cell

-translation: process of the assembly of proteins

-translates mRNA (instructions for building theprotein)

-binds amino acids

-releases and transports proteins into thecytoplasm (prokaryotes) or the Golgi Apparatus(eukaryotes)


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ORGANELLES

GOLGI APPARATUS

- processes CHON from ER

- CHON leaves the cisterna in avesicle to outside the cell(secretion)

- Releases products through golgivesicles (lysosomes, secretoryvesicle)


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ORGANELLES

LYSOSOMES

- sacs from Golgi Apparatus

- contains digestive enzymes

- destroyed in oxygen deprivation

and excessive Vit. A


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ORGANELLES

PEROXISOMES

- sacs containing detoxifying

substances (oxidase enzymes)that enter the cell

- disarm free radicals and convert

them to hydrogen peroxide(H2O2)


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ORGANELLES

MITOCHONDRIAStructure

-inner and outer membranes-phospholipid bilayers with proteins

-outer membrane

-encloses organelle

-inner membrane

-very impermeable

-folds to form cristae


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5 distinct compartments-outer membrane

-intermembrane space (between the two

membranes)-inner membrane

-cristae

-matrix (inside inner membrane)-also contains DNA particles, Ribosomes,

Granules, and ATP particles


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Function-source of power for eukaryotic cells

-"cellular power plant"

-generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

-energy conversion-on inner membrane (in cristae)

-other processes

-cell cycle

-cell growth-programmed cell death

-cell communication

-cell respiration processes


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ORGANELLES

CYTOSKELETON

- network of protein structures extendingthroughout the cytoplasm

1. microfilaments (actin and myosin) cellmotility

2. intermediate filaments help form

desmosomes3. Microtubules dtermine overall shapeof the cell and distribution of organelles


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ORGANELLES

CENTRIOLES

- FORMS THE MITOTIC SPINDLES

DURING CELL DIVISION


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ORGANELLES

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

- Projections of the cell

- The flagella (sperm) are longerthen the cilia (respiratory tract)

- Flagella help in the movement ofthe cell; cilia help in propellingsubstances across a cells surface


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CELL PHYSIOLOGY


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Membrane Transport


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Osmotic Pressure

-solute concentration of a solution; determineswhether cell gain or lose water

1. Hypertonic solution

- More solutes and less water than the cells- Cell shrink (crenation)

2. Hypotonic solution-fewer solutes and more water than the cells

- Cell swells and ruputures (lysis)

3. Isotonic Solution-equal ratio of solute to solvent; no apparent change


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MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

PASSIVETRANSPORT

1. Diffusion

2. Osmosis

3. filtration

ACTIVETRANSPORT

1. Solute pumps/pumping

2. Bulk transport


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Passive Transport1. DIFFUSION

- Movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to anarea of lower concentration

Simple diffusion

- movement of solutes through a selectively permeable

membrane (cell Wall) Facilitated diffusion

-movement of solutes requiring protein carrier

2. OSMOSIS

-diffusion of liquid(water) through a selectively permeablemembrane

3. FILTRATION

- movement of substance from an area of higher hydrostatic

pressure to a lower hydrostatic pressure through a membrane


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DIFFUSION

OSMOSIS


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FACILITATED DIFFUSION


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Active Transport

- Uses ATP energy1. SOLUTE PUMP/PUMPING

- Molecules are moved across a membrane

against an electrical or a concentrationgradient.

2. BULK TRANSPORT

a. Exocytosis- Moves substances out of the cell

b. Endocytosis

- Moves substances into the cell


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Cell Division


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Cell Reproduction

Interphase cell grows and carries usual

metabolic activities

- prepares for DNA replication(AT,CG)

MITOSIS

- Produces two identical diploid daughter cells

MEIOSIS

-produces 4 haploid daughter cells


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Protein Synthesis


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Protein Synthesis

RNA

- tRNA gathers amino acids; contains

anticodon- rRNA helps form ribosomes,arranges CHON

- mRNA transfers the gene(blue printfrom the DNA); contains codon


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Protein Synthesis

TRANSCRIPTION

- transfer of information from DNAs

base sequence(triplet) intocomplementary base

sequence(codon) of the mRNA


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Protein Synthesis

TRANSLATION- occurs in cytoplasm;

1. mRNA attaches to ribosome,

2. tRNA carrying amino acids binds its anticodon to the codon

of the mRNA3. Another tRNA binds with the next sequence of codon

4. The amino acids they carry are bound together by enzymes

5. The first tRNA is released into the cytoplasm

6. Another tRNA binds with the next codon sequence, and soon until the whoe sequence is used up.

7. When the last codon(stop codon) is reached, the protein

chain is released from the ribosome.


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Mitosis


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Mitosis


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Meiosis

Results in 4 haploid daughter cells

Meiosis I and Meiosis II

Occurs in the production f sex cells/gametes


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TISSUES


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TISSUES

- Group of cells similar in structure and function

EPITHELIAL TISSUES

- lining, covering and glandular tissue of the body; for protection,absorption, filtration, secretion

CONNECTIVE TISSUES

- most widespread tissue; connects body parts, supports, transportsmolecules and defends the body

MUSCLE TISSUES

- specialized for contraction; movement

NERVOUS TISSUES- irritability and conductivity; rapid integration and regulation ofbody activities


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Epithelial tissues


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EPITHELIAL TISSUES

CHARACTERISTICS

Form sheets

The membranes have one free edge/surface

The lower surface rests on structureless

material secreted by cells (basement

membrane)

Avascular

Regenerate easily


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Epithelial Tissues

FUNCTIONS

Protection

- membranes of epithelium

Sensory function

- skin, nose, eyes, ears

Secretion

- glandular epithelium

Absorption

- GIT, GUT, Respiratory tract

Excretion

- kidney tubules


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Epithelial Tissues

CLASIFICATIONS

MEMBRANOUS EPITHELIUM

Based on cell shape

Based on cell layers

GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM

Exocrine glands

Endocrine glands


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Membranous Epithelium

BASED ON CELL SHAPE

Squamous flattened

Cuboidal cube-shaped

Columnar columns

BASED ON CELL LAYERS

SIMPLE single layer

STRATIFIED layered one on another

TRANSITIONAL different types of cell per layer

PSEUDOSTRATIFIED one layer of cells tthat looks likemany layers


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Membranous Epithelium

SIMPLE EPITHELIUM

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS - alveoli

SIMPLE CUBOIDAL glands and ducts

SIMPLE COLUMNAR mucous membranes of

stomach, intestines, uterus, respiratory tract

PSUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR lining the air

passages of the respiratory sytem


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Membranous epithelium

STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS (KERATINIZED)

- skin

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS (NON-KERATINIZED)

- lining the vagina, esophagus, and mouth

STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL

- protective function; sweat gland ducts, pharynx,epiglottis

STRATIFIED COLUMNAR- only the most superficial layer is columnar; segments

of urethra, mucous layer near the anus


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Glandular Epithelium

- Specialized for secretory activity

EXOCRINEGLANDS

- discharge secretions into ducts

ENDOCRINEGLANDS

- discharge secretions directly into the

blood stream


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Glandular Epithelium

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OFEXOCRINE

APOCRINE

- collects the products near the apex and releaseby pinching of the distended end (mammary gland)

HOLOCRINE

- products are collected inside the cell and the cellruptures to release the products( sebaceous gland)

MEROCRINE

- discharges through the cell/plasma membrane (salivary gland)


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Connective tissues


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Connective Tissues

MATRIX

- holds the tissues together

GROUND SUBSTANCE

- composed of water , polysaccharides and

adhesion proteins


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Connective Tissues

FIBERS IN THE MATRIX

COLLAGENOUS

- white; form bundles; great tensile strength

RETICULAR- networks; delicate; support capillaries and

nerve fibers

ELASTIC

- have elastin; returns to normal length afterbeing stretched(external ear Cartillage)


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Connective Tissue

CLASSIFICATIONS:

FIBROUS

LOOSE/ORDINARY- stretchable (areolar)

ADIPOSE fat cells

RETICULAR 3D web (spleen)

DENSE bundles of fibers (tendons) BONE osteocytes and osteoblasts in the lacunae

CARTILLAGE - chondrocytes HYALINE shiny (decreased collagen)

FIBROCARTILLAGE strongest; shock-proof; cushion

ELASTIC voice box and the larynx BLOOD

WBC, RBC, platelets


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Muscle tissues


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Muscle Tissues

- specialized for contraction

TYPES

SKELETAL/STRIATED VOLUNTARY

- obvious striations; gross body movements

CARDIAC/STRIATED INCOLUNTARY

- myocardium; uninucleate branching cells that fittightly at the junction called intercalated disks

SMOOTH/VISCERAL/NON-STRIATED INVOLUNTARY

- spindle-shaped elongated uninucleates; found inhollow organs(intestines, stomach, blood vessels,bladder)


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Nervous tissues


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Nervous Tissue

NEURONS

- conduct electrochemical substances

AXON

- conducts impulses away from the cellbody(soma)

DENDRITES

-conducts/receives impulses towards the cell body

NEUROGLIA

- connecting and supporting cells


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ME

MB

RANE

S

b


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membranes

- thin tissue layers that cover surfaces, line

cavities, and divide spaces or organs

EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES

CUTANEOUS

SEROUS

MUCOUS

CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANE

SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE


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EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES

CUTANEOUS (SKIN)

- covers the body surface exposed to the environment

SEROUS lines cavities and covers the organs inside it Parietal layer/membrane

- covers the wall of the cavity Visceral layer/membrane

- covers the surface of the viscera(organ)

MUCOUS

- lines body surfaces opening directly to the exterior

- respiratory, urinary, reproductive tract- produces a film of mucous


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S b


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Serous membranes


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TISSUE REPAIR

TISSUE REPAIR


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TISSUE REPAIR

INFLAMMATION

- generalized(non-specific) body response that attempts to

prevent further injury.

- complex way in which cells and tissues react to injury IMMUNE RESPONSE

- specific response and mounts a vigorous attack against

recognized invaders

REGENERATION

- replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells

FIBROSIS

- repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue


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INFLAMMATION


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CELSUS proposed the first four cardinal signs of

inflammation:

1. Rubor

2. Calor

3. Dolor

4. Tumor

5. Functio laesa

Release of mediators (histamine, serotonin, bradykinin


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CELLDAMAGE

Activation of pain receptors and attraction of phagocytes(chemotaxis)

Direct effects

Blood vessel dilation

Increased capillary permeability

Emigration and margination

Cardinal signs

Redness, heat, swelling, pain

Diapedesis and phagocytosis

Woundhealing

Granulation tissue formation

Fibrosis/regeneration


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BLOOD VESSEL DILATION

HEAT/CALOR

INCREASEDMETABOLIC RATE

REDNESS/RUBOR

INCREASEDNUTRIENTS IN

THE AREA

INCREASED CAPILLARY PERMEABILITY


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FUNCTIO LAESA

LIMITED OR IMPAIRED FUNCTION

EDEMA

PAIN/DOLOR SWELLING/TUMOR

INCREASED CAPILLARY PERMEABILITY

EDEMA

CLOTTING FACTORS ENTER THE

AREA

release of chemical mediators attracting WBCs


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CHEMOTAXIS

release of chemical mediators attracting WBCs

EMIGRATION/

MARGINATION

WBCs line on the blood vessel wall near the area of injury

DIAPEDESIS

WBCs move from the blood vessel into the site of injury

PHAGOCYTOSIS

Neutrophils engulf dead cells

Monocyte macrophages cleans the area from dead cells,pathogens and neutrophils

Exudate is a combination of dead cells, WBCs, plasma, andh i


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exudate

other proteins

Exudates may form abscess

Contains fibrin

mediators

Continuous mediator activation

Leads to immune response

Clotformation

Fibrin accumulates to form a matrix/web

Scab clot exposed to air


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Granulation tissueformation

Delicate pink tissue composedlargely of new capillaries thatgrow into the damaged area

Contains phagocytes thatdispose the clot and connectivetissue(fibroblasts) thatsynthesize collagen fibers topermanently bridge thegap(scar)

Surface epitheliumregeneration or Fibrosis

Regeneration of the surface ofthe injured organ

Formation of keloid or fibrous

connective tissue to bridge thegap.

Cells, Tissues, Glands and Membranes HO

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