1. first one to discover cells robert hooke

2.cell thoery devoloped by rudolf virchow states, every cell originates from another cell cells are the smallest units of living organisms cell strucuture is correlated to its function all things are composed of 1 or more cell

3. how is RNA made? it is transcribed as a template from dna4. lysozyme a protein that breaks polysacchrides apart at the catalytic site

5. Who invented the first compound microscope Zacharias Jansen

6. cell fractionation takes the cell apart and seprates the major organelles so their functions can studied 7. prokaryotic cells no nucleus dna in unbound region tough cell wall little organized internal structures

8.eukaryotic cells DNA in nucleus membrane bound organelles much larger than prokaryotic cells

9. nuclear envelope double membrane contains lipid bilayer

10. nuclear pores -regulate passage in an out of cell11. nuclear lamina: protein filaments that help to maintain the shape of the nucleus12.nuclear matrix-organizes the genetic material inside nucleus13. smooth er synthesises lipids stores calcium detoxifies poison metabolizes carbs

13. rough er has ribosomes secretes glycoproteins distributes transport vesicles

14. golgi modifyies and packages proteins made in er to be secreted from cell

15. lysosome digests bad stuff in cell garbage disposal system or police tay sachs disease caused by lysosomal storage disorder

14. peroxisomes break down peroxide and turn it into water peroxisomal disorders- Zellweger Syndrome and Neonatal Adrenoleukodystrophies

15. components of the cytoskeleton microtubles microfilaments intermediate filaments

16. desmosomes anchoring junctions fasten cells together into strong sheets17. tight junctions membranes of neighboring cells pushed together to prevent leakage of extracellular fluid18. gap junction- communicating junction/ provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

19. 4 major small organic molecules sugar fatty acid amino acid nucleotides

20. 4 major large organic molecules polysacharides fats and membrane lipids proteins nucleic acids

21. disaccharides combination of monosacchrides that carries aldehyde or ketone reacts with any hydroxl on a second sugar

22. 3 common dissachrides maltose (glucose + glucose) lactose (galactose + glucose) sucrose (glucose + fructose)

23. oligosaccharides and polysaccharides larger linear and branched made from repeated sugar molecules oligosaccharides are shorter than polysaccharides but are usually more complex

24. fatty acid chains caroxylic acid head links other FA chains together stored in cells as energy reserve

25. saturated FA no double bonds bad for your health

25. unsaturated FA Contains atleast one double bond good for your health

26. triacylglycerol stores 6x the energy of glucose

combines 6 fatty acid chains at the head creating ester linkage the tails of the glycerol determine if tis healthy or not and its origin

27. phospholipids insoluble in water forms bilayers because of hydrophobic tails

28. glycolipids two long hydrocarbon tails polar region head containing one or more sugar molecules amino acids

29. all have an amino group carboxyl group alpha carbon and side chain that determines its unique properties

30. classifying aminos amino acids are grouped according to whether their side chains are acidic, basic, uncharged polar, nonpolar

31. peptide bonds join amino acids together by amide linkage between the acids

32. nucleosidenitro base + a 5 carbon sugar

33. nucleotidenucleoside + a phosphate group

34. purinesA and G

35. pyrimidinesC , T and U

36. Breaking down a polymer In order to break down a polymer into its smaller subunits you need to perform hydrolysis which is to add water to the polymer which will break it up

37. noncovalent bonding and macromolecules different kinds of noncovalent bonding can determine the shape and functionality of macromolecules

38. ultracentrifugue responsible for proving the proteins were macromolecules

39. griffith experiment (bacterial transformation) concluded chemical substance from one cell can be genetically transferred to another cell/ mice and bacteria

40. avery macleod and mcCarty experiment determined dna was the molecule that carried heritable info/ use of enzyme killing rna dna and proteins

41. hershey and chase experiment radioactive material inserted into protein coat and inside protein mixed up and shit determined is the genetic material42. dna structure right handed double helix two strands run antiparrel to each other (5' to 3' and 3' to 5') 3.bases are complimentary and held together by h bonding and have ten bases per turn of the helix 4.bases are flat and perpendicular to axis of helix

43. nucleosome- dna wrapped around 8 histone proteins

44. chromatosome- nucleosome plus the H1 protein45. chromatin- mass of folded up nucleosomes. used to make chromosomes

46. chromosome painting- using special flourescent labeling to karyotype pairs of human chromosomestelomerase

47. RNA protein complex that adds telomeres to the ends of chromosomes/ uses telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) to add the telomere repeats

48. Euchromatin DNa is less packed in this region region of active gene expression away form centromere

49. Heterochromatin DNA is tightly packed in this region region of inactive chromatin near centromere

50. example of heterochromatin X inactivation in women- genes turned off due to x inactivation will continue through generations51. position effects of gene expression location of the gene on a chromosome (i.e if its near the heterochromatin region) can cause the effects of that gene to be silenced and become inactivated

52. chromaitn remodeling ATP chromatin remedling complexes loosen the folding of chromosomes and slide the nucleosomes around to allow for selective gene expression

53. what percent of nucleotide pairs actually code for proteins1.5%

54. how many genes are in the human genome- 30,000

55. gene expression- the process by which encoded info in dna is translated into a product that has some kind of effect on the cell/organism

56. what makes rna fold on itself- intramolecular base pairing

57. transcription synthesis of rna from dna rna is complementary to dna template strand produces mRNA

58. differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic transcription in eukaryotes transcription occurs in nucleus and must be approved to leave nucleus in pros, transcription and translation occur in cytoplasm and can be translated immediately after transcription

59. RNA polymerase the enzyme that catalyzes transcription moves along dna in 3' to 5' direction, RNa produced from 5' to 3' end uses ribonucleotides and no primer

60. how many eukaryotic rna polymerases are there? 3 RNA poly 1 which does most stuff Rna poly 2 which does less smaller stuff Rna poly 3 which does only really small stuff

61. transcription binding protein (TBP) a polypeptide chain that bends the dna and allows access to other transcribing factors upon binding to the dna62). TATA box promoter region from rna poly 2

63. Pre-mRNA modifications1. rna capping 5' end2. splicing of introns3. formation of 3' end

64. spliceosome catalyze rna splicing

65. steps in splicing reaction Branch site 2' OH attacks 5' splice site 3' OH at 5' splice site counterttacks the 3 the 3' splice site exons are joined and introns released as lariat to be degraded in nucleus 3' end formation endonuclease cleaves 20 bases downstream from AAUAAA PolyA-polymerase adds polyA tail to 3' end66. totipotent cells that can give rise to all the specialized cell types in the organism67. genomic equivalence all cells contain the same genes but just express different ones68. cell differentiation process where a cell undergoes a coordinated change through through large scale changes in gene expression to become a more specialized cell69. what amount of genes is typically expressed in a human cell? 30-60%

70. transcription regulators bind to regulatory dna sequences turn genes on or off from a distance initiate transciption by recruiting chromatin modifying proteins

71. transcription switches allows cells to respond to change sin their env. activators turn genes on and increase trsnscription respressor turn genes off and crease transcription differential gene expression in prokaryotes use of alternative sigma factors

72. operon- a group of continuous genes that are transcribed from a single promoter into a single mRNA molecule

73. negative regulation. - if tryptophan levels are low the operon is active and the repressor does not bind allowing for transcription if levels are high the respressor binds the dna and does not allow for transcription turning operon off

74. lac operon- involved in digestion of lactose, uses 2 regulators if there is no lactose a respressor will and the operon will turn off regardless of level of glucose

operon is only turned on when there is high levels of lactose with no glucose

75. alterations in chromatin structure methods chromatin remodeling complexes histone acteyltransferase-

76. gene regulation by single protein example cortisol binding to receptor allowing for high levels of gene expression77. inducing differentiated cells to pluripotent cells by introducing transcription regulators into a differentiated cell can cause it de-differentiate divide and re-differentiate into new types of cells78. positive feedback loops and cell memory production of proteins causing gene to continue to produce and becomes its own signal of transcription and no longer needs initial signal to begin transcription