Celestial Spheres & Seven Heavens

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Contents Articles Seven Heavens 1 Celestial spheres 3 References Article Sources and Contributors 13 Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 14 Article Licenses License 15

Transcript of Celestial Spheres & Seven Heavens

Page 1: Celestial Spheres & Seven Heavens

ContentsArticles

Seven Heavens 1Celestial spheres 3

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 13Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 14

Article LicensesLicense 15

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Seven Heavens 1

Seven HeavensSeven Heavens is a part of religious cosmology found in many major religions such as Islam, Judaism and Hinduismand in some minor religions such as Hermeticism and Gnosticism. The Divine Throne is said to be in or above theseventh heaven in most Abrahamic religions.

BackgroundIt is believed that the origin of this myth goes back to astrology. Ancient astrologists could identify seven greatheavenly objects and assumed each was floating in a separate heaven. The number 7 in Biblical referencessymbolically represented perfect completion, as in the seven-day week, the seven eyes and horns seen on the Lambof God in The Book of Revelation, and the seventh in the generations of Adam: Lamech who was completelywicked, and Enoch who walked with God.[1] Islamic scholar Ibn Kathir stated in his Tafsir that the seven heavenscontained the moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn in that order, confirming the origin of thebelief. The number also has a significance in Quranic numerology.

JudaismAccording to Jewish teachings in the Talmud, the universe is made of seven heavens (Shamayim) as below:[2][3]

1. Vilon (וילון), Also see (Isa  40:22)also called "arafel" see Even-Shushan dictionary2. Raki'a (רקיע), Also see (Gen  1:17)3. Shehaqim (שחקים), See (Ps  78:23, Midr. Teh. to Ps. xix. 7)4. Zebul (זבול), See (Isa  63:15, Kings I 8:13)5. Ma'on (מעון), See (Deut  26:15, Ps  42:9)6. Machon (מכון), See (Kings 1 7:30, Deut  28:12)7. Araboth (ערבות), The seventh Heaven where ofanim, the seraphim, and the hayyoth and the throne of the Lord

are located.The Jewish Merkavah and Heichalot literature was devoted to discussing the details of these heavens, sometimes inconnection with traditions relating to Enoch, such as the Third Book of Enoch.[4]

IslamNot to be confused with Heaven i.e. Paradise

The word "heaven" is used in the English translation of the Arabic word سماء (Samaa'a). The plural is سماوت

(Samaawat), cognate of Hebrew שמים (Shamaim), which translates as "sky" in Modern Arabic.

General BeliefThe seven heavens are the seven layered realms of the spiritual upper world where generally angels and otherspiritual beings such as Paradise and Hell and the souls of the prophets exist. The seven heavens are part ofAl-Ghayb (Arabic: الغيب The Unseen), the occult or unseen universe in Islamic cosmology as opposed toAl-Shahadah (Arabic: الشهادة The Seen), the universe we know. Some scholars have said that the original meaning ofthe Arabic word سماوت is the hypothetical multiverse or "worlds of space and time" and not "sky" as is used inModern Arabic.Sunni sources record Muhammad visited each of the seven heavens on his Mi'raj. There he met Adam, Īsā andYahya, Yusuf, Idris (considered by most scholars to be Enoch), Harun, Musa and Ibrāhīm in the first to the seventhheaven in the mentioned order.[5] He made the travels to ultimately meet God and The Divine Throne above theheavens.

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Seven Heavens in the Qur'anThe Qur'an mentions the existence of seven heavens:

See you not how Allah has created the seven heavens one above another, and made the moon a light in theirmidst, and made the Sun a Lamp?(71:15-16 [6])Blessed is He in Whose Hand is the dominion; and He is able to do all things. Who has created death and lifethat He may test you which of you is best in deed. And He is the Almighty, the Oft-Forgiving; Who hascreated the seven heavens one above another; you can see no fault in the creation of the Most Gracious.(67:1-3[7])

Names of Seven HeavensAccording to Shi'ite sources, a hadith from Imam Ali mentions the name of the seven heavens[8] as mentionedbelow:1. Rafi' (رفیع), the lowest heaven (السماء الدنیا)2. Qaydum (قیدوم)3. Marum (ماروم)4. Arfalun (أرفلون)5. Hay'oun (هيعون)6. Arous (عروس)7. Ajma' (عجماء)

HinduismHinduism also has the concept of seven heavens. According to the Puranas and the Atharvaveda there are fourteenworlds. There are the seven higher ones (the heavens), called the Vyahritis (Sanskrit: व्याहृति)1. Bhoor-Loka (भूर्लोक i.e. the Earth)2. Bhuvar-Loka (भुवर्लोक)3. Svar-Loka (स्वर्लोक)4. Mahar-Loka (महर्लोक)5. Jana-Loka (जनलोक)6. Tapa-Loka (तपलोक)7. Satya-loka (सत्यलोक)The god Brahma lives in the seventh heaven, Satya Loka.The names of the seven lower ones (the underworlds) called the Patalas (Sanskrit: पाताल) are: Atala (अतल), Vitala(वितल), Sutala (सुतल), Rasaatala (रसातल), Talataala (तलातल), Mahaatala (महातल), Paataala (पाताल) and Naraka (नरक i.e. Hell)

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Seven level underworlds•• Naraka (Jainism)• Inanna visited sumerian 7 gated underworld.

Notes[1][1] The NIV Study Bible New International Version. Michigan: The Zondervan Corporation, 1985, LoCCCN 85-5059[2][2] The Seven Heavens in the Talmud.(see Ps. lxviii. 5).[3] http:/ / www. jewishencyclopedia. com/ view. jsp?artid=1521& letter=A#4364[4] Scholem, Gershom Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and the Talmudic Tradition, 1965.[5] "Collated Hadith of Isra' and Mi'raj" (http:/ / www. sunnah. org/ ibadaat/ fasting/ ascen3. htm). . Retrieved 9 April 2011.[6] http:/ / quran. com/ 71/ 15-16[7] http:/ / quran. com/ 67/ 1-3[8] Al-Burhan fi Tafsir al-Qur'an. V. 5. pp. 415.

References• Davidson, Gustav. Dictionary of Angels: Including the Fallen Angels. New York: The Free Press, 1967 (reprinted

1994). ISBN 002907052X.• Ginzberg, Louis. Henrietta Szold (trans.). The Legends of the Jews. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society

of America, 1909–38. ISBN 0801858909.

External links• Higher Devachanic or Seven Heavenly Spheres (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ jud/ zdm/ zdm027. htm)

Celestial spheres

Geocentric celestial spheres; Peter Apian's Cosmographia(Antwerp, 1539)

The celestial spheres, or celestial orbs, were thefundamental entities of the cosmological models developedby Plato, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus andothers. In these celestial models the stars and planets arecarried around by being embedded in rotating spheres madeof an aetherial transparent fifth element (quintessence), likejewels set in orbs.

In the geocentric model adopted in the Middle Ages, theplanetary spheres (i.e. those that contained planets) werearranged outwards from the spherical, stationary Earth at thecentre of the universe in this order: the spheres of the Moon,Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. In moredetailed models the seven planetary spheres contained othersecondary spheres within them. The planetary spheres werefollowed by the stellar sphere containing the fixed stars;other scholars added a ninth sphere to account for theprecession of the equinoxes, a tenth to account for thesupposed trepidation of the equinoxes, and even an eleventh

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Thomas Digges' 1576 Copernican heliocentric model of thecelestial orbs

to account for the changing obliquity of the ecliptic.[1] Inantiquity the order of the lower planets was not universallyagreed. Plato and his followers ordered them Moon, Sun,Mercury, Venus, and then followed the standard model forthe upper spheres.[2][3] Others disagreed about the relativeplace of the spheres of Mercury and Venus: Ptolemy placedboth of them beneath the Sun with Venus above Mercury,but noted others placed them both above the Sun; some, suchas al-Bitruji, placed the sphere of Venus above the Sun andthat of Mercury below it.[4]

In modern science, the orbits of the planets are simply thepaths of those planets through mostly empty space. Formedieval scholars, on the other hand, celestial spheres wereactually thick spheres of rarefied matter nested one withinthe other, each one in complete contact with the sphere aboveit and the sphere below.[5] When scholars applied Ptolemy'sepicycles, they presumed that each planetary sphere wasexactly thick enough to accommodate them.[5] Combining this information with astronomical observations allowedscholars to calculate that the distance to the far edge of Saturn (or to the inside of the stellar sphere) was 73,387,747miles.[6]

In the heliocentric celestial orbs model introduced by Copernicus, the ascending order of the planets and theirspheres going outwards from the Sun at the centre was Mercury, Venus, Earth-Moon, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.

History

AntiquityIn Greek antiquity the ideas of celestial spheres and rings first appeared in the cosmology of Anaximander in theearly 6th century BC.[7] In his cosmology both the Sun and Moon are circular open vents in tubular rings of fireenclosed in tubes of condensed air that constitute the rims of rotating chariot-like wheels pivoting on the Earth attheir centre, shaped rather like the space station in the film 2001. The fixed stars are also open vents in such wheelrims, but there are so many such wheels for the stars that their contiguous rims altogether form a continuousspherical shell encompassing the Earth. But according to Anaximander's cosmogony, all these wheel rims hadoriginally been formed out of an original sphere of fire wholly encompassing the Earth that had disintegrated intomany individual rings.[8] Hence in Anaximanders's cosmogony, in the beginning was the sphere, out of whichcelestial rings were formed, and from which the stellar sphere was then composed from some of those rings. Theorder of the distances of the wheel rims of the Sun, Moon and stars was: Sun highest, Moon next and then the sphereof the stars the lowest.Following Anaximander, his pupil Anaximenes (c. 585–528/4) held that the stars, sun, moon and the planets are all made of fire. But whilst the stars are fastened on a revolving crystal sphere like nails or studs, the sun, moon and planets, and also the Earth, all just ride on air like leaves because of their breadth.[9] And whilst the fixed stars are carried around in a complete circle by the stellar sphere, the sun, moon and planets do not revolve under the Earth between setting and rising again like the stars do, but rather on setting they go laterally around the Earth like a cap turning halfway around the head until they rise again. Anaximenes may have been the first to distinguish the planets from the fixed stars in respect of their irregular movements. And unlike Anaximander, he relegated the fixed stars to the region most distant from the Earth. The most enduring feature of Anaximenes' cosmos was its conception of the stars being fixed on a crystal sphere as in a rigid frame, which became a fundamental principle of cosmology down

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to Copernicus and Kepler.After Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Xenophanes and Parmenides all held that the universe was spherical.[10] And muchlater in the fourth century BC Plato's Timaeus proposed that the body of the cosmos was made in the most perfectand uniform shape, that of a sphere containing the fixed stars.[11] But it posited that the planets were spherical bodiesset in rotating bands or rings rather than wheel rims as in Anaximander's cosmology. However instead of bandsPlato's student Eudoxus then developed a planetary model using concentric spheres for all the planets, with threespheres each for his models of the Moon and the Sun and four each for the models of the other five planets, thusmaking 27 spheres in all ' [12][13]Callippus modified this system, using five spheres for his models of the Sun, Moon,Mercury, Venus, and Mars and retaining four spheres for the models of Jupiter and Saturn, thus making 33 spheresin all.[13][14] Each planet is attached to the innermost of its own particular set of spheres. Although historians ofGreek science have traditionally considered Eudoxus's model to be purely mathematical,[15][16] recent studies haveproposed that it was also intended to be physically real[17] or have withheld judgment, noting the limited evidence toresolve the question.[18]

In his Metaphysics, Aristotle developed a physical cosmology of spheres, based on the mathematical models ofEudoxus. In Aristotle's fully developed celestial model, the spherical Earth is at the centre of the universe and theplanets are moved by either 47 or 55 interconnected spheres which form a unified planetary system,[19] whereas inthe models of Eudoxus and Callippus each planet's individual set of spheres were not connected to those of the nextplanet. Aristotle says the exact number of spheres, and hence of the number of movers, is to be determined byastronomical investigation, but he added additional spheres to those proposed Eudoxus and Callippus, to counteractthe motion of the outer spheres. Aristotle considers that these spheres are made of an unchanging fifth element, theaether. Each of these concentric spheres is moved by its own god — an unchanging divine unmoved mover, and whomoves its sphere simply by virtue of being loved by it.[20]

Ptolemaic model of the spheres for Venus, Mars, Jupiter, andSaturn with epicycle, eccentric deferent and equant point.Georg von Peuerbach, Theoricae novae planetarum, 1474.

The astronomer Ptolemy (fl. ca. 150 AD) definedgeometrical predictive models of the motions of the stars andplanets in his Almagest and extended them to a unifiedphysical model of the cosmos in his Planetaryhypotheses.[21][22][23][24] By using eccentrics and epicycles,his geometrical model achieved greater mathematical detailand predictive accuracy than had been exhibited by earlierconcentric spherical models of the cosmos.[25] In thePtolemaic model, each planet is contained in two or morespheres, but in Book 2 of his Planetary Hypotheses Ptolemydepicted thick circular slices rather than spheres as in itsBook 1. One sphere/slice is the deferent, with a centre offsetsomewhat from the Earth; the other sphere/slice is anepicycle embedded in the deferent, with the planet embeddedin the epicyclical sphere/slice.[26] Through the use of theepicycle, eccentric, and equant, this model of compoundcircular motions could account for all the irregularities of aplanet's apparent movements in the sky.[27]

Middle Ages

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Christian and Muslim philosophers modified Ptolemy's system to include an unmoved outermost region, theempyrean heaven, which came to be identified as the dwelling place of God and all the elect.[28] The outermostmoving sphere, which moved with the daily motion affecting all subordinate spheres, was moved by an unmovedmover, the Prime Mover, who was identified with God. Each of the lower spheres was moved by a subordinatespiritual mover (a replacement for Aristotle's multiple divine movers), called an intelligence.[29]

Medieval Christians identified the sphere of stars with the Biblical firmament and sometimes posited an invisiblelayer of water above the firmament, to accord with Genesis.[30] An outer sphere, inhabited by angels, appeared insome accounts.[31]

Around the turn of the millennium, the Arabic astronomer and polymath Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) presented adevelopment of Ptolemy's geocentric epicyclic models in terms of nested spheres. Despite the similarity of thisconcept to that of Ptolemy's Planetary Hypotheses, al-Haytham's presentation differs in sufficient detail that it hasbeen argued that it reflects an independent development of the concept.[32] In chapters 15–16 of his Book of Optics,Ibn al-Haytham also said that the celestial spheres do not consist of solid matter.[33]

Adi Setia describes the debate among Islamic scholars in the twelfth century, based on the commentary of Fakhral-Din al-Razi in regard to whether the celestial spheres are real, concrete physical bodies or "merely the abstractcircles in the heavens traced out… by the various stars and planets." Setia points out that most of the learned, and theastronomers, said they were solid spheres "on which the stars turn… and this view is closer to the apparent sense ofthe Qur'anic verses regarding the celestial orbits." However, al-Razi mentions that some, such as the Islamic scholarDahhak, considered them to be abstract. Al-Razi himself, was undecided, he said: "In truth, there is no way toascertain the characteristics of the heavens except by authority [of divine revelation or prophetic traditions]." Setiaconcludes: "Thus it seems that for al-Razi (and for others before and after him), astronomical models, whatever theirutility or lack thereof for ordering the heavens, are not founded on sound rational proofs, and so no intellectualcommitment can be made to them insofar as description and explanation of celestial realities are concerned."[34]

Near the end of the twelfth century, the Spanish-Arabian Muslim astronomer al-Bitrūjī (Alpetragius) sought toexplain the complex motions of the planets using purely concentric spheres, which moved with differing speeds fromeast to west. This model was an attempt to restore the concentric spheres of Aristotle without Ptolemy's epicyclesand eccentrics, but it was much less accurate as a predictive astronomical model.[35][36]

In the thirteenth century, scholars in European universities dealt with the implications of the rediscovered philosophyof Aristotle and astronomy of Ptolemy. One issue that arose concerned the nature of the celestial spheres. Throughan extensive examination of a wide range of scholastic texts, Edward Grant has demonstrated that scholasticphilosophers generally considered the celestial spheres to be solid in the sense of three-dimensional or continuous,but most did not consider them solid in the sense of hard. The consensus was that the celestial spheres were made ofsome kind of continuous fluid.[37]

Later in the century, the Islamic theologian Adud al-Din al-Iji (1281–1355), under the influence of the Ash'aridoctrine of occasionalism, which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God's will rather thanby natural causes, rejected philosophy and astronomy,[38] and maintained that the celestial spheres were "imaginarythings" and "more tenuous than a spider's web".[39] Al-Iji's rejection of astronomy was, in turn, challenged byal-Sharif al-Jurjani (1339–1413), who maintained that "even if they do not have an external reality, yet they arethings that are correctly imagined and correspond to what [exists] in actuality".[39]

Dynamics

Ancient, medieval and Renaissance astronomers and philosophers developed diverse theories about the dynamics of the celestial spheres. They attempted to explain the spheres' motions in terms of the materials of which they were thought to be made, external movers such as celestial intelligences, and internal movers such as motive souls or impressed forces. Most of these models were qualitative, although a few incorporated quantitative analyses that related speed, motive force and resistance.[40] By the end of the Middle Ages, the common opinion in Europe was

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that celestial bodies were moved by external intelligences, identified with the angels of revelation.[41]

Renaissance

Kepler's diagram of the celestial spheres, and ofthe spaces between them, following the opinion

of Copernicus (Mysterium Cosmographicum, 2nded., 1621)

Early in the sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus drasticallyreformed the model of astronomy by displacing the Earth from itscentral place in favour of the sun, yet he called his great work Derevolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the CelestialSpheres). Although Copernicus does not treat the physical nature of thespheres in detail, his few allusions make it clear that, like many of hispredecessors, he accepted non-solid celestial spheres.[42] Copernicusrejected the ninth and tenth spheres, placed the orb of the Moon aroundthe Earth and moved the Sun from its orb to the center of the world.The planetary orbs circled the center of the world in the order Mercury,Venus, the great orb containing the Earth and the orb of the Moon, thenthe orbs of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Finally he retained the eighthstarry sphere, which he held to be unmoving.[43]

In the course of the sixteenth century, a number of philosophers,theologians, and astronomers, among them Francesco Patrizi, AndreaCisalpino, Peter Ramus, Robert Bellarmine, Giordano Bruno, JerónimoMuñoz, Michael Neander, Jean Pena, and Christoph Rothmann, abandoned the concept of celestial spheres.[44]

Rothmann argued from the observations of the comet of 1585 that the lack of observed parallax indicated that theComet was beyond Saturn, while the absence of observed refraction indicated the celestial region was of the samematerial as air, hence there were no planetary spheres.[45]

Tycho Brahe's investigations of a series of comets from 1577 to 1585, aided by Rothmann's discussion of the cometof 1585 and Michael Maestlin's tabulated distances of the comet of 1577, which passed through the planetary orbs,led Tycho to conclude[46] that "the structure of the heavens was very fluid and simple." Tycho opposed his view tothat of "very many modern philosophers" who divided the heavens into "various orbs made of hard and imperviousmatter." Since Grant has been unable to identify such a large number of believers in hard celestial spheres beforeCopernicus, he concludes that the idea first became dominant sometime after the publication of Copernicus's Derevolutionibus in 1542 and either before, or possibly somewhat after, Tycho Brahe's publication of his cometaryobservations in 1588.[47][48]

In Johannes Kepler's mature celestial physics, the spheres were regarded as the purely geometrical spatial regionscontaining each planetary orbit rather than as the rotating physical orbs of the earlier Aristotelian celestial physics.The eccentricity of each planet's orbit thereby defined the lengths of the radii of the inner and outer limits of itscelestial sphere and thus its thickness. The role of these geometrical spherical shells in Kepler's Platonist geometricalcosmology is to determine the sizes and orderings of the five Platonic polyhedra within which the spheres weresupposedly spatially embedded.[49] In Kepler's celestial mechanics the cause of planetary motion became the rotatingsun, itself rotated by its own motive soul.[50] However, an immobile stellar sphere was a lasting remnant of physicalcelestial spheres in Kepler's cosmology.

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Literary and symbolic expressions"Because the medieval universe is finite, it has a shape, the perfect spherical shape, containing within itself an ordered variety...."The spheres ... present us with an object in which the mind can rest, overwhelming in its greatness but satisfying in its harmony."

C. S. Lewis, The Discarded Image, p. 99

Dante and Beatrice gaze upon the highestHeaven; from Gustave Doré's illustrations to theDivine Comedy, Paradiso Canto 28, lines 16–39

In Cicero's Dream of Scipio, the elder Scipio Africanus describes anascent through the celestial spheres, compared to which the Earth andthe Roman Empire dwindle into insignificance. A commentary on theDream of Scipio by the late Roman writer Macrobius, which included adiscussion of the various schools of thought on the order of thespheres, did much to spread the idea of the celestial spheres throughthe Early Middle Ages.[51]

Nicole Oresme, Le livre du Ciel et du Monde,Paris, BnF, Manuscrits, Fr. 565, f. 69, (1377)

Some late medieval figures noted that the celestial spheres' physicalorder was inverse to their order on the spiritual plane, where God wasat the center and the Earth at the periphery. Near the beginning of thefourteenth century Dante, in the Paradiso of his Divine Comedy,described God as a light at the center of the cosmos.[52] Here the poetascends beyond physical existence to the Empyrean Heaven, where hecomes face to face with God himself and is granted understanding ofboth divine and human nature. Later in the century, the illuminator ofNicole Oresme's Le livre du Ciel et du Monde, a translation of andcommentary on Aristotle's De caelo produced for Oresme's patron,King Charles V, employed the same motif. He drew the spheres in theconventional order, with the Moon closest to the Earth and the starshighest, but the spheres were concave upwards, centered on God, rather than concave downwards, centered on theEarth.[53] Below this figure Oresme quotes the Psalms that "The heavens declare the Glory of God and the firmamentshoweth his handiwork."[54]

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Notes[1] Francis R. Johnson, "Marlowe's "Imperiall Heaven," ELH, 12 (1945): 35–44, p. 39[2] Bruce S. Eastwood, Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance, (Leiden: Brill) 2007, pp.

36–45[3] In his De Revolutionibus Bk1.10 Copernicus claimed the empirical reason why Plato's followers put the orbits of Mercury and Venus above

the sun's was that if they were sub-solar, then by the sun's reflected light they would only ever appear as hemispheres at most and would alsosometimes eclipse the sun, but they do neither. (See p521 Great Books of the Western World 16 Ptolemy–Copernicus–Kepler)

[4] al-Biţrūjī. (1971) On the Principles of Astronomy, 7.159–65, trans. Bernard R. Goldstein, vol. 1, pp. 123–5. New Haven: Yale Univ. Pr. ISBN0-300-01387-6

[5] Lindberg, Beginnings of Western Science, p. 251.[6] Lindberg, Beginnings of Western Science, p. 252.[7] See chapter 4 of Heath's Aristarchus of Samos 1913/97 Oxford University Press/Sandpiper Books Ltd; see p.11 of Popper's The World of

Parmenides Routledge 1998[8] Heath ibid pp26–8[9] See chapter 5 of Heath’s 1913 Aristarchus of Samos[10] For Xenophanes' and Parmenides' spherist cosmologies see Heath ibid chapter 7 and chapter 9 respectively, and Popper ibid Essays 2 & 3.[11] F. M. Cornford, Plato's Cosmology: The Timaeus of Plato, pp. 54–7[12] Neugebauer, History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, vol. 2, pp. 677–85.[13][13] Lloyd, "Heavenly aberrations," p. 173.[14] Neugebauer, History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, vol. 2, pp. 677–85.[15] Dreyer, History of the Planetary Systems, pp. 90–1, 121–2[16] Lloyd, Aristotle, p. 150.[17] Larry Wright, "The Astronomy of Eudoxus: Geometry or Physics," Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 4 (1973): 165–72.[18] G. E. R. Lloyd, "Saving the Phenomena," Classical Quarterly, 28 (1978): 202–222, at p. 219.[19] Aristotle, Metaphysics 1073b1–1074a13, pp. 882–883 in The Basic Works of Aristotle Richard McKeon, ed., The Modern Library 2001[20] "The final cause, then, produces motion by being loved, but all other things move by being moved" Aristotle Metaphysics 1072b4.[21] Neugebauer, History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, pp. 111–12, 148[22] Pedersen, Early Physics and Astronomy p. 87 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=z7M8AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA87#v=onepage& q=&

f=false,)[23] Crowe, Theories of the World, pp.45, 49–50, 72,[24] Linton, From Eudoxus to Einstein, pp.63–64, 81.[25] Taliaferro, Translator's Introduction to the Almagest, p,1; Dreyer, History of the Planetary Systems, pp.160 (http:/ / www. archive. org/

stream/ historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/ 160/ mode/ 1up/ ), 167 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/ 167/mode/ 1up/ ).

[26] Andrea Murschel, "The Structure and Function of Ptolemy's Physical Hypotheses of Planetary Motion," (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/1995JHA. . . . 26. . . 33M) Journal for the History of Astronomy, 26(1995): 33–61.

[27] Neugebauer, History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, vol. 2, pp. 917–926.[28] Grant, Planets, Stars, and Orbs, pp. 382–3.[29] Grant, Planets, Stars, and Orbs, pp. 526–45.[30] Lindberg, Beginnings of Western Science, pp. 249–50.[31] Lindberg, Beginnings of Western Science, p. 250.[32] Y. Tzvi Langermann (1990), Ibn al Haytham's On the Configuration of the World, p. 11–25, New York: Garland Publishing.[33] Edward Rosen (1985), "The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres", Journal of the History of Ideas 46 (1), p. 13–31 [19–20, 21].[34] Adi Setia (2004), "Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on Physics and the Nature of the Physical World: A Preliminary Survey" (http:/ / findarticles. com/

p/ articles/ mi_m0QYQ/ is_2_2/ ai_n9532826/ ), Islam & Science 2, , retrieved 2010-03-02[35] Bernard R. Goldstein, Al-Bitrūjī: On the Principles of Astronomy, New Haven: Yale Univ. Pr., 1971, vol. 1, pp. 6, 44–5[36] Grant, Planets, Stars, and Orbs, pp. 563–4.[37] Grant, Planets, Stars, and Orbs, pp. 328–30.[38] Huff, Toby (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West, Cambridge University Press, p. 175, ISBN 0521529948[39] pp. 55–57 of Ragep, F. Jamil (2001). "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science". Osiris. 2nd Series

16 (Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–71. Bibcode 2001Osir...16...49R. doi:10.1086/649338. ISSN 0369-7827.JSTOR 301979.

[40] Grant, Planets, Stars, and Orbs, p. 541.[41] Grant, Planets, Stars, and Orbs, p. 527.[42] Nicholas Jardine, "The Significance of the Copernican Orbs," Journal for the History of Astronomy, 13(1982): 168–194, esp. pp. 177–8.[43] Hilderich von Varel (Edo Hildericus), Propositiones Cosmographicae de Globi Terreni Dimensione, (Frankfurt a. d. Oder, 1576), quoted in

Peter Barker and Bernard R. Goldstein, "Realism and Instrumentalism in Sixteenth Century Astronomy: A Reappraisal, Perspectives onScience 6.3 (1998): 232–258, pp. 242–3.

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[44] Michael A. Granada, "Did Tycho Eliminate the Celestial Spheres before 1586?" Journal for the History of Astronomy, 37 (2006): 126–145,pp. 127–9.

[45] Bernard R. Goldstein and Peter Barker, "The Role of Rothmann in the Dissolution of the Celestial Spheres," The British Journal for theHistory of Science, 28 (1995): 385–403, pp. 390–1.

[46] Michael A. Granada, "Did Tycho Eliminate the Celestial Spheres before 1586?" Journal for the History of Astronomy, 37 (2006): 126–145,pp. 132–8.

[47] Grant, "Celestial Orbs," 2000, pp. 185–6.[48] Grant, Planets, Stars, and Orbs, pp. 345–8.[49] See Judith Field's Kepler's geometric cosmology for details of Kepler's cosmology[50] See p514–5 of Kepler's 1630 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy Vol.1 Bk4.2.3 for his arguments that the Sun has a driving soul on p896 of

the Encyclopædia Britannica edition[51] Macrobius, Commentary on the Dream of Scipio, transl. by William Harris Stahl, New York: Columbia Univ. Pr., 1952; on the order of the

spheres see pp. 162–5.[52] C. S. Lewis, The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1964, p.

116. ISBN 0-521-09450-X[53] Nicole Oreseme, "Le livre du Ciel et du Monde", 1377, retrieved 2 June 2007. (http:/ / expositions. bnf. fr/ ciel/ grand/ 1-025. htm)[54] Ps. 18: 2; quoted in Nicole Oresme, Le livre du ciel et du monde, edited and translated by A, D. Menut and A. J. Denomy, Madison: Univ. of

Wisconsin Pr., 1968, pp. 282–3.

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Natural Philosophy University of Pennsylvania Press 1982• Sorabji, Richard Matter, Space and Motion London: Duckworth, 1988 ISBN 0-7165-2205-6• Sorabji, Richard (ed) Philoponus and the Rejection of Aristotelian Science London & Ithaca NY 1987• Sorabji, Richard The Philosophy of the Commentators, 200–600 AD: Volume 2 Physics Duckworth 2004• Taliaferro, R. Catesby (1946). Translator's Introduction to the Almagest. In Hutchins (1952, pp.1–4).• R. Taton & C. Wilson (eds.)The General History of Astronomy: Volume 2 Planetary astronomy from the

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External links• Dennis Duke, Animated Ptolemaic model of the nested spheres (http:/ / www. csit. fsu. edu/ ~dduke/ ptolemy.

html)• Henry Mendell, Vignettes of Ancient Mathematics: Eudoxus of Cnidus (http:/ / www. calstatela. edu/ faculty/

hmendel/ Ancient Mathematics/ Eudoxus/ Astronomy/ EudoxusHomocentricSpheres. htm) Ptolemy, Almagest(http:/ / www. calstatela. edu/ faculty/ hmendel/ Ancient Mathematics/ VignettesAncientMath. html#Ptolemy)

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Article Sources and Contributors 13

Article Sources and ContributorsSeven Heavens  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481581537  Contributors: ***Ria777, Academic Challenger, Alai, Alfons2, Amalas, Appraiser, Astrologist, Awanta,Babbage, Bihco, Blaine62, Bloodkith, CambridgeBayWeather, Chrisptx, ChristRedeemer, CopperMurdoch, Darklilac, David H Braun (1964), David Latapie, Deusnoctum, DocWatson42,Eastlaw, Editor2020, Edoardore34, Ekotkie, Eliyak, Faheemk123, FayssalF, Gabrieli, Gekedo, Golbez, Goldenrowley, Greatmuslim10, Gyozilla, Housemost, Hrafn, Höstblomma, Imad marie,Imaginaryoctopus, JamesAM, Jimhoward72, Jordan Yang, Kaldar, Konstantinos, Lode Runner, MPerel, Maestlin, Malik2day, MisteryX, Mpatel, Pegship, Pictureuploader, PoisonedQuill,Qusaiab, Schmiteye, Shabanabasheer, SkipCallahan, Submitter to Truth, The Mysterious El Willstro, Thelazyleo, Toddhansen, Valley2city, Wasell, Wolfview, WurmWoode, Xgenei, Zahakiel,Zuvizu, 148 ,تسلیم anonymous edits

Celestial spheres  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481175560  Contributors: Astrologist, Camw, Chandlr, Charles Matthews, Coulatssa, D6, David J Wilson, Deor, Edward,Finell, Gaius Cornelius, GoldenMeadows, Headbomb, Icairns, Jagged 85, L0ngpar1sh, Lambiam, Leadwind, Logicus, Lumos3, Machine Elf 1735, Matthead, Michael Hardy, Minesweeper,PaddyLeahy, Paine Ellsworth, Radagast3, Ragesoss, RandomCritic, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rockfang, SchfiftyThree, Silly rabbit, SimonP, Singinglemon, SteveMcCluskey, SunCreator,Syncategoremata, Towsdfvui, WRK, 17 anonymous edits

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 14

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Ptolemaicsystem-small.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ptolemaicsystem-small.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: FastfissionImage:ThomasDiggesmap.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ThomasDiggesmap.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:Thomas Digges (1546?-1595)Image:PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Georg von PeuerbachImage:Kepler Celestial Spheres.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kepler_Celestial_Spheres.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Image scan, Library,University of Illinois Current file, SteveMcCluskeyImage:Paradiso Canto 31.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Conscious, Infrogmation, Jappalang,Mattes, Radagast3, Roomba, Sailko, Sdrtirs, Shakko, Syraceuse, Wikibob, Xenophon, 6 anonymous editsImage:Oresme Spheres crop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oresme_Spheres_crop.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original art, Nicole Oresme (artistunknown); Scan, Bibliothèque National de France; Current file, SteveMcCluskey

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