Ceded Cyprus: its history, condition, products, and prospects

Ceded Cyprus: its history, condition, products, and prospectsAuthor(s): Lake, John JosephSource: Foreign and Commonwealth Office Collection, (1878)Published by: The University of Manchester, The John Rylands University LibraryStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/60230142 .

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CEDED CYrEUS:

ITS

iistog, Ciratoitftm, Iratacts, mts

12-123

BY i REcy

OHN JOSEPPE^ABB^G .0

Fellow of the Meteorological Society, London, and A uthor of

' THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION : ITS PHILOSOPHICAL PRINCIPLES AND ITS ENEMIES J " AND " ISLAM : ITS ORIGIN, GENIUS. AND MISSION "

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ii^

LONDON:

EFFINGHAM WILSON, ROYAL EXCHANGE.

1878.

All rights reserved.

** This content downloaded from 62.122.79.69 on Mon, 16 Jun 2014 19:57:21 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions


By the same Author.

THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION ITS PHILOSOPHICAL

PRINCIPLES AND ITS ENEMIES Crown 870 7a 63

TSLAM • ITS ORIGIN. GENIUS, AND MISSION. JL Crowu 870 63

SAMUEL TINSLEY & Co., 10, Southampton Street, Strand, "W C

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*te This content downloaded from 62.122.79.69 on Mon, 16 Jun 2014 19:57:21 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions


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MEMOBANDA.

This "brochure is issued to meet the requirements of the moment, in anticipation of a work that will

embrace a wider field, which, if health permit, the

author hopes to produce.

The extraordinary and opposed statements and

discrepancies in reference to Cyprus that occur

even in works of reputed authority are very

remarkable, and would represent the island as an

anomaly in the Mediterranean, and totally different

to what a considerable experience in some of the

other islands would have led the author to infer.

He has, however, been relieved of his perplexities in this respect by the kindness of Mr. Williamson, late Consular Agent at Cyprus, 110, Brompton Eoad,

whose explanations show that the island, instead

of being a land of horrors, is even more advan¬

tageously situated than the localities with which

the author is acquainted; and he here begs to

thank Mr. Williamson for the valuable assistance

he has rendered him.

i2



England's mission in the East is not yet accom¬

plished, and the results of good government in

this island will, in the course of a few years, exercise a wide, moral, and reforming influence in

Western Asia.

There are those who wish Cyprus to prove a

failure in our hands, but with the able represen¬ tatives our Government has appointed, indepen¬ dent of the gold diggings, the copper and quick¬ silver mines, and the results of irrigation conducted by Western enterprise, there is little

chance of this.

It is really quite time that the working men of

the world—the merchants, the manufacturers, and wealth producers generally—should speak out. Here is a splendid island, the portal of a

continent teaming with wealth if properly handled, both crying out to the civilised world, " Come

and help us " and when a hand is put forth for

the purpose, with a prospect of success that has

never before appeared, it is attempted to thwart

the effort, as though the late horrible war had not

caused sufficient destruction and misery.



_J~

^.^fiDED CYPRUS.

Geography.—Cyprus, which has so suddenly

acquired a great interest to this country, is a

large island in the Mediterranean sea, lying in a

bight between the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor, between the latitudes 34° 30' and 36° N. and longi¬ tudes 32° and 35° E. Its length, from Cape Sanf

Andrea at the north-east extremity to its most

western point, Cape Epiphanio, the ancient

Akamas, is 145 miles. Its greatest breadth, from

Cape Gatto (Kurias) on the south to Cape Khor-

makiti on the north, is about 55 miles. It

gradually narrows to the east and is not more

than five miles broad at Cape Sant' Andrea. The

ancients described its form as that of an animal's

skin spread out.

There is not perhaps an island that has

possessed so many aliases as Cyprus. In ancient

times it was Kupros, said by some to have refer¬

ence to the abundance of copper found in it.

Others say that the name was borrowed from a

shrub, the Lawsonia inermis of Linnaeus, the henne

or lianna of the Arabs, the henna of the Turks,

kupros of the Greeks, and Jcopher of the Hebrews.

From this tall shrub, which abounded in the

island, its ancient inhabitants made an oil, of an

exquisitely delicate flavour and taste, that was an

article of great importance in their commerce, and is still of repute amongst Eastern nations.



Some consider that another form of the name

Kiipris was derived from the Greek cryptos, bidden, because the island was often concealed from sailors by the waves, a proof of the small size of their vessels. Others suppose it to have X been formed from Cyrus, who is said to have founded the city of Aprodisia, but this cannot be correct, for in the time of Homer it was known as Cyprus. Amongst other names were Colinia, or Collinia, from its many hills; Spheciae, from its ancient inhabitants the Spheces; Erosa, or Copper Island, from its copper mines; Kerastis, or Kerastia, Horn Island, from the multitude of narrow capes or points by which it is surrounded; Macaria, or Fortunate Island, from its excellent and happy situation; Karantis, Asphedia, Pafo, Salamina, and by the poets, Cithyra, after the goddess Venus. _ 4

Cyprus, in ancient mythology, was the reputed '

scene of the arrival of Venus. Sprung from the foam of the sea near the island she was wafted to it by the zephyrs, and received on the shore by the Seasons, the daughters of Jupiter and Themis. As the Cyprian, Idalian, and Paphian queen, she was worshipped by the whole island, but more

particularly at Paphos, where a hundred altars

daily smoked with male animals offered up in

sacrifice, and perfumed with richest odours of Arabian frankincense.

The nearest point of Syria is 65 miles distant. To Latakia it is 68 miles. Cape Zephyrium, on the coast of Cilicia or Karamania, is the nearest ^

point of Asia Minor, and is distant about 44 miles. There are such discrepancies as to the

A



supposed area of the island that it is' useless to

refer to it. The descriptions vary from 1,000 to

upwards of 7,000 square miles; but about 5,400 miles would probably be nearest the truth.

Three-fifths of the island are mountainous, and

on one-fifth of these are splendid forests of oak

and walnut. The remaining two-fifths of the

island consist of magnificent plains and fine open

country. The sides of the mountains are bold and

rugged. The mountains consist of two ranges, Stavros

Vuno and Santo Croce. The highest point is

Mount Olympus, 24 miles north of Limasol.

This mountain is otherwise called Trodos, Troodos, and Thrados. This is the third Olympus of the

ancients (the first being in Macedonia, and the

second in Anatolia*), and on it stood a temple of

Jupiter. It being in ruins at the time of the

Empress Helena, she had a church built on the

site, and deposited in it a piece of the " true

cross." Hence the modern name Santo Croce. •

The following are given as the heights of

several of the most prominent mountains :—

Olympus 6,590 feet.

Adelphi (Maschera) 5,380 One of which the

ancient name has

not been determined 4,730

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* Mount Olympus, according to Cyprian traditions, has some renown. It is stated that its summit was the point from which Atlas moved the world ; and further, that it was here, and not on Caucassus, that Prometheus was chained whilst a vulture devoured his liver, which grew again as fast as consumed.



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Buffevanto,* 5 miles from Cerini 3,240 feet.

Elias 2,810 „

Pentadaktylos 2,480 Santo Croce (Oros

Stavros) 2,300

The whole are covered with snow during the

winter, and this with the cold influence of the mountains of Karamania renders that season

generally severe.

Messaria, the most extensive plain in the

island, is in the centre between the two mountain

ranges. It is watered by the river Pedia, the ancient Pediasus.

The population is stated to have been formerly nearly 1,000,000. It is said to have been 100,000 in 1848, namely, 70,000 Greeks and 30,000 Mussul-

men; but there is so much exaggeration in this

part of the world for political purposes that these numbers are not to be depended on, and statistics are generally in a very loose state.

The Phoenicians divided the island into four

provinces: Saliminia, on the east; Amathusia, in the south; Papphia, in the west; and Lapytha, in the north.

In the days of Strabo the towns of Cyprus were as follows :—On the north-coast, east of Cape Akamas (St. Epiphanio), were Arsinoe, Soli, with a harbour established by Phalerus and Akamas of Athens, and Limenia, inland.

East of Cape Krommyon (Khormakiti) first

* Near the north coast, with a monastery and old castle, from which a splendid view is obtained.



Lapathus, built by the Lacedemonians; next,

Agideus, Aphrodisium, and Karpasso; east of

this a mountain or cape called also Olympus,

upon which was a temple of Venus that women

i were forbidden to enter. Facing Cape Andreas

are the two small islands, Pandera, also called

~p Kleiades or Keys of Cyprus. Towards the south

was Salamis, at the mouth of the Pediseus, said

to have been built by Teucer. Further south was

another Arsinoe, with a port, and the Leucolia,

near Cape Pedalium, a lofty table-land, called the

table of Venus. Kitium was west of Pedalium, and had a harbour that could be closed. It was a

large town, and the country of Zeno the Stoic and

Apollonius the Physician. West of Kitium was

Amathus and Palaea inland.

Bound Cape Kurias (Gatto) to the west was

- Kurium, with a port constructed by the Argives. * Further along the coast to the west were Treba,

Bossoura, and Old Paphos, the latter probably where the village Koukha now stands. Cape

Zephyrium succeeded, and then an Arsinoe with

port, temple, and sacred grove, and New Paphos, built by Agapenor, an Arcadian chief, who,

according to Pausanias, when returning from the

siege of Troy, was driven ashore during a storm

and founded a small kingdom here. New Paphos,

corrupted into Baffo by the Venetians, was for¬

merly a place of importance, but its harbour was

unsafe and only frequented in summer. A castle

commands it, and there are the ruins of another

^ on a hill above the town. New Paphos was de¬

stroyed by an earthquake in the time of Augustus, but was soon rebuilt.



10

Old Paphos, supposed to have been built by the

Phoenicians, was noted in remote times for its

temple of Venus. Homer speaks of it as her favourite abode. In the town, in Strabo's time, was annually held a procession of men and women from New Paphos and the other towns of the island. Between Larnaka and Famagosta was the Iclalian Forest, where, according to my¬ thology, Adonis was killed by a wild boar and

changed into a flower by Venus. The chief towns of Cyprus at present are

Lefkosia or Nikosia, near the ancient Letra or

Leucotra; Famagosta on the east coast, a few few miles south of Old Salamis; Larnaka on the south coast, on the site of the ancient Kitium; Limasso or Limasal, also on the south coast, near the former Amathus ; Old Paphos; New Paphos or Baffo ; Cerini (Cerinia).

Of these, Lefkosia has been hitherto the

capital and residence of the Turkish governor. It was formerly the abode of the Lusignan kings of Cyprus, and was then much larger than at

present, the Venetians having destroyed part of it to strengthen what was left.

The situation of Lefkosia is agreeable, being in the centre of the island in a plain surrounded by mountains; the soil is excellent, and it is well watered. It is surrounded by fine gardens. The palaces are remarkable for beauty, but are

suffering from time and neglect. The church of St. Sophia is a fine edifice in the Gothic style, said to have been erected by the Emperor Justinian at the time its namesake in Constanti¬

nople was built. It has three large naves, but

i



11

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the choir and altars were destroyed when the city was taken by the Turks, from their hatred of the

idolatrous services carried on by the Byzantine

Christians, and converted into a mosque. The Christian kings of Cyprus were formerly

crowned in it, and it contains the tombs of

the Lusignans and of several Cypriots and noble

Venetians. There is no other place in Cyprus

worthy of notice, and this island, formerly divided

into nine kingdoms, and famous for its superb

edifices, its elegant temples and its riches, can

now boast of nothing but ruins that tell of the

greatness from which it has fallen.

Famagosta stands on the site of one of the Arsi-

noes built by Teucer, the son of Telamon. It is

also not far from where the ancient Tamassus,

once famous for its copper mines, stood. It was

strongly fortified by the Genoese and Venetians,

but is now decayed. Its port would make an

excellent harbour if cleared of the filth with

which it has become blocked up. It is well /v

sheltered, but at present can only accommodate a/O few small craft. fo

Larnaka is the most thriving and busy place iaO

the island, the residence of the European consulsX*

and factors, and the chief seat of trade.

A Greek bishop resides in the town, and there

are also some Latin priests. The houses are built

chiefly of clay, and only one story high above the

ground floor, owing to the island being subject to

earthquakes. The rooms are paved with white

marble, and almost every house has a garden, of

which the Cypriots are very fond.

The Gulf of Larnaka affords^an excellent road-



12

stead for vessels of any size, and is the most

frequented in the island. The plains about Lar¬ naka were formerly covered with olive-trees, and in the neighbourhood are still to be seen large cisterns constructed for the preservation of the oil. The gardens round the houses are enclosed in lofty walls, and contain every kind of delicious fruits and flowers.

About a mile and a half south from Larnaka, on the coast, is the town of Salinas, which takes its name from the cluster of salt lakes in its

vicinity. It is the port of Larnaka where the merchants have their warehouses and almost all commercial transactions are carried on.

Limasso, or Limasol, is near the ancient Amathus. The country is very fertile, and no doubt rich in metals, and the mines will now be developed by British enterprise. Ovid speaks of it as gravida metallis.

Cerini (Cerinia) has a small fort and harbour ; from the last a limited traffic is carried on with the opposite coast of Karamania. Its ruins bear

testimony to its past grandeur. The Cypriot men are commonly well formed, of

good stature and noble appearance, sober, and

temperate. The women are plain, and generally have fine eyes. They have a tendency to corpu¬ lency, of which they seem rather proud, and make no effort to conceal it by tight-lacing. Where old families congregate, as at Larnaka, there are some of rare beauty and noble person. They are not very industrious, but lead a quiet, soft life.

They live long, and frequently re-marry, although already great-grand-parents. It is a remarkable

r



13

fact that the climate is of that character that at

forty years of age the women are still young, which is quite different in Egypt, where women

are old at twenty-five, and even earlier.

The dress of the town inhabitants is like that

of European nations, and the ladies are rather

given to go to extremes in the matter.

History.—The earliest notice we have of the

inhabitants of Cyprus is derived from Josephus. Kittim (Cethimus) possessed the island Cethima ; it is now called Cyprus ; and from this all islands

and the greatest part of the sea-coasts are called

Cethim (Chittim, Kittim) by the Hebrews; but

there is only one city that has been able to

preserve its name, Kitius or Kitium.

According to Ptolemy, Chittim (Kitium) was

the most ancient jnty in the island, but it could

not have been a city in the slightest degree accord¬

ing to one sense of the word, and was probably

only a collection of huts. By his account, Kittim,

seeing his brother Tarshish settled in Cilicia, where he built the city of Tarsus, was resolved

upon a similar enterprise, and established himself

and followers on the opposite island, and either

he or his descendants founded Kitium. Cyprus not being large enough for his followers, as they lived only by hunting and on the fruits the earth

produced spontaneously, he left as many as desir¬

able in the island, and passed with the remainder

into Macedonia.*

* Bryant intimates that the Cuthites were amongst the first

settlers in Cyprus. It is more than probable that all kinds of

wild men assembled there, as we find to be the case at our gold



14

Such was the aboriginal state of things—a state such as we find our geological discoveries refer to— when, according to Eratosthenes the island was discovered by the Phoenicians B.C. 1045, two or three generations, according to Sir Isaac Newton, before the time of Asterius^and Minos, kings of Crete.

One of the most ancient heroes of Cyprus was

Cinyras, or Kinyras, referred to by Homer

(II. xi. 19). He established himself from Syria as a king and priest; but he appears to have been more than these. Of him it is related that he invented the hammer, anvil, tongs, and other tools for metal work; that he was, in reality, a

royal smith. He ruled at the time of the Trojan expedition, and presented Agamemnon with armour that is said to have proved worthless; but scandal reports that Palamedes, Agamemnon's messenger, retained the good articles sent by Kinyras, and substituted worthless ones. It ap¬ pears that Kinyras had hospitably entertained

Agamemnon on his way to Troy, and promised much. Palamedes alleged that he promised a hundred ships that never came, and Agamemnon was exceeding wrath because he did not fulfil his

undertaking to supply provisions during the war, a commissariat delinquency that is neither the first nor the last on record.

The " promising" character of Kinyras is

further developed in what is stated as to his

engaging to supply Menelaus with fifty ships. He

diggings aud other places where the pioneers of the more civilised class congregate. One Belus is mentioned as reigning in Cyprus in pre-historic times.



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sent one with the remaining number on board,

with their crews, in terra cotta.

But apart from this, Kinyras and his people

appear to have been excellent metallurgists. An

armourer of Cyprus made two suits for Demetrius

Palorcetes, which he is said to have tested by

shooting darts at them at twenty paces from an

engine constructed for the purpose.

Kinyras transmitted his sceptre to his son

Adonis, but the names of his other descendants

are unknown.

Teucer, the son of Telamon, laid the foundation

of Salamis, on his return from Troy, and assumed

a sovereignty over the district, which he called

Saliminia, that soon surpassed all others in the

island. His immediate descendants left not a

wreck of a name for many generations.

Cyrus, b.o. 559, found the island divided

amongst several petty kings and subdued them,

leaving each in his kingdom as a tributary, subject to annual payment, and to send supplies of men,

money, and ships when required. About b.o. 550 the Egyptians under Amatis

appear to have held the island until they were

dispossessed by Cambyses. The Cyprian princes remained subject to the

Persians until the reign of Darius Hystaspes, when they attempted to throw off the yoke, but

without success.

Nicocreon, b.c. 525, is mentioned as the father

of Euelthon, who is said to have been the first

who surrendered the independence of his country to the Egyptians and afterwards to the Persians

under Cambyses. After this, Siromis, Chersis,



16

and Gorgus successively reigned in Salamis tribu¬

tary to Persia. Onesilaus, the brother of the latter, feeling his country's disgrace under this

subjection, conjured Gorgus to throw off the yoke and vindicate the dignity of his throne. He was

enraged at the prudence or cowardice of his brother, who shrank from the danger. He drew a number of his countrymen into a conspiracy, drove his brother from his kingdom, who fled to Persia, roused the other States of Cyprus to unite against the common enemy, persuaded the Ionians to join him with their fleet, and, at the head of the confederates, met the power of Persia on the plains of Salamis. Onesilaus behaved well on that day, though his conduct could not vindicate his usurpation, and showed himself

worthy of a better cause. He slew the leader of the Persians, led his countrymen to brave, and maintain themselves against, a superior power, and when the defection of Stesnor, king of Kurium, and part of his own forces, snatched from his hand the victory he had almost secured, he fell on the field amidst heaps of his enemies.

His brother again mounted the throne, and was succeeded by his son Nicocratus, who was followed by his brother Timarchus, and he by Evagoras I., son of Nicocratus. In his reign the Athenians formed the design of confining the Persians to their own dominions, united all the States sub¬ jected to their power to vindicate their indepen¬ dence, and sent Cimon with a fleet of two hundred vessels to drive them from Cyprus. He not only expelled the Persians from many of the Cyprian

L

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cities, but attacked Artabazus, who commanded their fleet of three hundred sail; took a hundred of his ships, and destroyed many more, pursuing the rest to the coasts of Phoenicia.

On his return he landed his forces in Cilicia, defeated Megabazus at the head of 300,000 Per¬

sians, and again embarked and set sail for Cyprus, and, landing there, laid siege to Kitium. Eva-

goras joined the Persians, and, endeavouring to raise the siege, was defeated with great slaughter. Artaxerxes, not approving of a little but trouble¬ some war, renounced his claims on Greece and

Cyprus, and thus the kings of the latter received the freedom of which they had proved themselves

unworthy. Evagoras was shortly after driven from his throne by his nephew Protagoras, and under him and his son Nicocreon II., who was famous for his cruelty, the Cyprians enjoyed inde¬

pendence until Artaxerxes Mnemon again sub¬

jected them to the Persian yoke. Neocles, who succeeded Nicocreon, was expelled from his

country by one Abdymon, a stranger, who had

been kindly received and entertained by the monarch whose throne he usurped. The son of

Neocles, Evagoras II., endowed with every quality of body and mind that could form him for sove¬

reignty, rose up to avenge the wrongs of his father and recover the crown of his ancestors ; but, whilst he was preparing for the attempt, one of the

principal citizens struck the blow, and seized the throne of Abdymon, whom he had murdered. But the son of Neocles, returning from exile, roused

the Cyprians, who flocked to his standard, delivered

his country from the usurper, under whose cruelty



18

they groaned, and expelled the Persians, who

endeavoured to support him. Flushed with his

success, he attempted to reduce the whole island

to his authority, and almost succeeded in his

purpose. But the Amathusians, Solians, and

Kitians, who alone opposed him, begged assistance

from Persia. The Persians, remembering former

injuries, promised their aid, made peace with the

Greeks, and collected their powers to expel him

from the country. Evagoras saw the storm his

ambition had raised, and prepared to arrest it in

its course. The Athenians, whom, after their

defeat, he had protected, the Egyptians, Lybians, Arabians, Tyrians, and all who were at war with

Persia, he invited to his assistance; and when the fleet of the enemy threatened his shores, and

poured upon the island a very large force, with Tiribazus at their head, to sweep the interior

country, he dared to meet the overwhelming torrent, and entirely dissipated it. When, however, he attacked them at sea, he lost the battle, but not his

reputation. After performing prodigies of valour, he found himself not only blocked up and beseiged at Salamis, but was obliged to yield up his con¬

quest at the command of Persia, though he

preserved the independence of his paternal territories. He was soon after murdered by Thrasideeus, one of his eunuchs. The only thing remarkable with his son, Neocles II., who suc¬

ceeded, was his friendship for Isocrates, who lived

during his reign, and experienced his bounty. Evagoras II. succeeded his father, Neocles; but the government was soon wrested from him

by his uncle, Protagoras, who seized the sceptre,

1



19=

_J and, joining the Egyptians and hcenicians,

attempted to throw off the Persian yoke. In con¬

sequence of this Ochus espoused the cause of the exiled monarch, joined his Persians with Phocion,

^ who commanded the Greek mercenaries, made a descent upon the island, and beseiged Salamis. But the kings of Cyprus, nine in number at that

time, united under Protagoras to vindicate their

freedom; and the king of Persia meeting with

greater resistance than he had anticipated, and bent upon the reduction of Egypt, granted their

demands, and left Protagoras in possession of the throne. From this period the kings of Cyprus remained idle under the shade of Persia until Alexander reduced the island to subjection.

On the partition of Alexander's dominions at

his death, Cyprus fell to Antigonus ; but whilst that prince was at war with Cassander, Ptolemy, * the son of Lagus, made a descent upon the island, and forced the kings to submit to him. At this

time, Neocles, who held the chief power amongst the kings of the island, engaged to assist Anti¬

gonus to recover it, but this being discovered, he slew himself to avoid the punishment prepared for him by Ptolemy; his wife, Axiothea, after

slaying all her daughters, imitated the example of her husband, lest they should fall into the hands of her enemies, and thus ended the royal race of Teucer. Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, at the command of his father, collected an army in

Cilicia, to wrest the island from Ptolemy. He

\ landed on its shores, took some of the inferior

cities, and advanced to besiege Salamis. He scattered in a fierce battle the forces of Menelaus,

1 B 2



20

brother of Ptolemy, who endeavoured to stop his progress, pursued the vanquished to the gates of Salamis, and invested the city. But hearing that Ptolemy, to aid his brother, had sailed from

Egypt with a hundred and forty ships of war, two

hundred transports, and ten thousand soldiers, he

took the command of his fleet, consisting of a

hundred and eight ships, gave battle to the enemy off the coast, and, after a long and doubtful fight,

completely defeated them. The island now sub¬

mitted, and his father, Antigonus, mounted the

throne. On the death of the latter, Demetrius

succeeded, but at the end of eleven years, when he was at war with the Athenians and Lacede¬

monians, Ptolemy landed on the island, and seized the capital, before Demetrius received any informa¬ tion of his design. It seems to have remained

now some time under Egypt, when it was taken from that country by Syria. It was, however,

again found under the Egyptians, who held it until the death of Ptolemy Lathurus. On this event his kingdom was divided between his two

sons, and Cyprus fell to Ptolemy. The Ptolemies appear to have made it a sort of

storehouse for their jewels and plate until it was taken by the Bomans 58 b.o. The immediate cause of the island coming into the hands of the latter people was the revenge of Clodius, a Boman noble, who had been taken prisoner by pirates, and for whose ransom Ptolemy, son of Ptolemy Lathurus, had refused to advance sufficient money. When Clodius had obtained his liberty he was elected a tribune, and procured a decree, which the senate did not oppose, that

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Ptolemy, by his vices, was unfit to reign, and that the kingdom of Cyprus belonged to the Bomans because Alexander, late king of Egypt, had be¬

queathed his dominions, including Cyprus, to that nation. This, though mentioned at the time, had

passed unheeded on account of its injustice, but was now revived to gratify the vengeance of an individual and the rapacity of the republic. Cato was commissioned to execute this decree, took

possession of the island, and seized the treasures,

amounting to 7,000 talents, or about .£1,356,250

sterling. The king laid violent hands on himself. The history of the island from this period is

involved in that of the different powers who held it.

Amongst the Boman governors of Cyprus were Lentulus and Cicero. Caesar returned it to the Ptolemies for a short time, as did also Antony to

Cleopatra, but Augustus definitively attached it

to Borne b.c. 30. In the reign of Trajan, the Jews made an

insurrection and massacred a vast number of

Greeks. After this Cyprus enjoyed great tran¬

quillity down to the seventh century, when it was

taken (a.d. 648) by Mohaviato, lieutenant of the

Khalif Othman, who destroyed Salamis. The

Byzantine emperors re-established their power some time after, but the isle fell gradually into the

power of the Arabs (a.d. 867). Nicephorus Phocas re-attached it to the empire,

and its governors afterwards attempted to render

it independent, in which Isaac Comnenus suc¬

ceeded in 1184.

During the third Crusade the authorities of the



-22

island had the imprudence to drive off the English fleet when forced there by a storm, and so brave

the vengeance of Bichard Cceur de Lion, who took it in a few days and sold it to the Templars. The

knights, however, found that in consequence of the difference of religion between them and

the natives they would probably lose their acquisi¬ tion, returned it to Eichard, who conferred it on

Guy of Lusignan as a solatium for the loss of the

kingdom of Jerusalem. Under this family it flourished for three cen¬

turies, obtaining some distinction against the

Arabs and Turks. Intestine discords delivered it to the Genoese, who took Famagosta in 1373, and exercised a supremacy in it for ninety years, until James III., called the Bastard, retook it by the aid of the Egyptians. This prince afterwards

sought the alliance of the Venetians, and married

Catherine Cornaro in 1471. Catherine, having lost her husband and her son, abdicated in favour of Venice in 1485. Through marriage with Charlotte Lusignan, who died in 1487, the house of Savoy assumed the title of kings of Cyprus.

Venice maintained peaceable possession for

eighty years when the Sultan Selim (1571) took Nikosia and Famagosta, and the island became

finally an Ottoman pachalik. The Cypriots made an unsuccessful rising in 1764, which took three

years to subdue, and another in 1823, when there was a fearful massacre of the Greek population. It has remained with the Ottomans until the new

Anglo-Turkish arrangement, except that in 1832 the Pacha of Egypt occupied it militarily, but returned it to the Sultan in 1833.

^

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23

Language.—From the position of Cyprus there has been necessarily a great mixture of

Semitic, Aryan, and African races, and their

languages must have been to some extent mixed, and some of them, as far as the island is con¬

cerned, lost. The pertinacity of the Greeks has maintained

theirs, although more or less corrupted, particu¬

larly in pronunciation, by Italian, during the

Venetian dominion. But, apart from this, Mariti

considers the language to have been preserved in

greater purity than in any part of Greece. The

Cypriot language is now a Greek dialect with a

Doric tendency. Kappa is pronounced ts. Thalassa,

sea, thalatia. Words of Semitic origin prevail

extensively. In historical times the literary lan¬

guage was Greek. The ordinary Greek alphabet was probably employed by the writers; indeed, this seems to have been taken for granted until

inscriptions in a totally unknown character were

discovered. The latter were usually written from

left to right and syllabic, some characters repre¬

senting different forms of vowels and others

consonants only. Italian is the language most in use in commerce,

and it and Turkish are spoken commonly by the

better class. French is used very little. The

Orientals pick up Italian with much greater

facility than any other European language.

Climate.—The chain of mountains that in¬

tersects Cyprus towards the south produces a

material difference of temperature in the two

divisions of the island. In the north region the



24

heats of summer are moderated by the winds that blow from the high regions of Karamania. These

preserve the snow on some of the high spots during the greater part of the year, but are

piercing cold in winter. On the south of the island the winds are impeded by the mountain

barrier, and the heat is increased by reflection from the shelving rocks which form the declivities of the hills. The southern portion is exposed to winds from almost every other point of the

compass: from the deserts of Kurdistan on the

north-east, from the sands of Palmyra on the

east, from the great desert of Arabia on the south¬

east, and from Egypt and Lybia on the south and south-west.

The climate of the island is essentially healthy. The great heat of summer is very trying to those who lead irregular lives, a peculiarity not special to any climate, but particularly affecting one that

approaches a tropical character. Cleanliness, regular living, early hours, generous diet, but without excess, are essential in Cyprus for the

preservation of health, more especially on first arrival. Exposure to the sun during the heat of the day should be avoided as much as possible.

The lower class of the inhabitants to protect the head from the sun wear large fig or cabbage leaves or large straw hats. The Indian helmet is the best protection.

The eating of over-ripe and unripe fruit, par¬ ticularly during the summer, should be avoided whilst the sun is above the horizon ; also exces¬ sive eating of any fruit or anything of an

indigestible character, amongst which may be

t-

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25

specially named cucumbers, melons, and water¬

melons. The Cypriots are very careful of their

diet. Like other people, they are fond of the

good things of life in moderation. They are

particularly partial to eggs, butter, cream, milk, and all sorts of pastry; and as far as butter is

concerned it has to be imported, because the

island does not produce sufficient for its own con¬

sumption. Malignant fevers are very rare, and

fevers generally are not common. They are in¬

termittent, There are cases of ague, but they are not frequent or severe. Exposure to draughts,

by checking the perspiration, is a cause of fever.

As regards clothing, linen and cotton should

not be worn next the skin, because, when wet

with perspiration, it is apt to produce a chill.

Light woollen materials in summer are best, as

no effect of this kind arises therefrom. Warmer

clothing is required in winter, as the cold is then

very considerable, Bain is very scarce in summer, and the rivers

very shallow, but very few of them become alto¬

gether dry, being supplied by the melting of the

snow which remains on the mountains where

exposed to the Karamanian winds the greater part of the year. Water is preserved in cisterns, and

good wells are very numerous. Irrigation is

neglected, but the contemplated construction of

canals, when carried out, will promote this and

effect a vast change in the productiveness of the

land.

Religion.—We have no information regard¬

ing the religion of the original wild inhabitants of



25

Cyprus, who lived by hunting, and on the fruits of the earth that grew spontaneously. It is probable that in the life they led the religion they had

derived from their forefather Japhet had expired, and that when the Phoenicians and Cilicians came

amongst them they found nothing but fetishes. The latter introduced the worship of Aphrodite,

the early form of Venus. Engel, considering the

Cilicians to be of Semitic and not Aryan origin, as since ascertained, viewed the immigration of the two as that of one race. But they were different and had separate families of priests.

Kinyras, the son of Paphos and grandson of

Pygmalion, whom we have already noticed as

establishing a regal and priestly position at Old

Paphos, was the founder of the priesthood of the

Kinyradas, and some of the same family were

priests at Amathus. The oldest of the family was the leader.

The family of the Tamaridee held the priesthood of the Cilician worship, and with both these and the Kinyradaa it was carried on with all the abomi¬ nations that were practised in the Babylonian worship of the same goddess, whom they called

Mylitta. To these two cultes was added that of Jupiter,

which was introduced by Teucer, the son of Telamon.

These were the prevailing systems, but colo¬ nists from other countries introduced their own

practices; but as they all involved the same

general principles and customs, they no doubt worked smoothly together.

These idolatries continued undisturbed until

f-

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27

<?*? n

A

Paul and Barnabas were sent on a missionary

journey, and, arriving at Salamis, went through the island until they came to Paphos, and con¬

verted the pro-consul, Sergius Paulus, by their

preaching and the miracle performed on Elymas the Sorcerer, as detailed in Acts xiii.

The conversion of the island to Christianity now progressed ; but like the rest of the Church it gradually deteriorated.

x\t the present time the religion consists of Islam, which is said not to be the most flourishing, the

majority of the inhabitants being Greek schismatics- There are also many xirmenians and some Maro-

nites, who observe their several fasts and festas, but wanting their own particular churches frequent those of the Latins, the number of which is very small.

Cesnola tells us of a curious form of religion found among the inhabitants of the village Leo-Petro. They are very poor, and eke out a

scanty existence by trafficking in poultry, which

they buy in the neighbourhood mountain villages of Carpasso, and sell in the bazaars of Nikosia and

Larnaka. They are nicknamed Linobambika, that is, linen and cotton, a figurative expression

meaning Christian and Mussulman. By outward

appearance they are Turks, and are treated as such by the authorities,, But they are Christians whose ancestors at the time of the Turkish con¬

quest are said to have been forced to declare

themselves Mussulmen, and embrace Islam in

order to save their lives and properties. The ancestors of the Linobambaki had been

chiefly adherents of the Latin Church, though it



28

is still a matter of dispute between the Greek

bishops and Latin priests as to which Church they rightfully belong, each being desirous of

claiming them. On the birth of a male child they evade circum¬

cision by a present of money to the Hodja. They adopt generally neutral names for their children, such as are common to both Christians and Moslems. They number about 12,000, dis¬ tributed chiefly near Nikosia, Famagosta, and Limasol.

The patron saint of the island is Sant' Andrea, and similar practices and ceremonies are carried on on Palm Sunday and at Easter as are general in the Eastern churches.

At Larnaka is the chapel of St. Lazarus, who, it is said, flying from the rage of the Jews, was wrecked on Cyprus. A stone coffin or sarcophagus in a vault is said to have contained his ashes until they were carried off by the French to Marseilles.

Geology. — Some of the ancients were of

opinion that Cyprus Avas once joined to the con¬ tinent from which it has become detached, as Sicily has been separated from Italy, and other islands from different parts of the continents.

The highest part of the northern chain of mountains is Jurassic as far as Cape Elia, when it becomes tertiary chalk and marl. On each side of the Jurassic is what the Germans call Wiener - sandstein. The great central plain of Messaria is quaternary, which formation is also found as a fringe along the north coast from Cape Khorma-

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29

kiti, turning the point of Cape Andreas, and

including Pandera Islands.

At Cape Greco (Pedalium), on the east coast, is

a patch of Jurassic, and with it, but not reaching to Famagosta, a stretch of limestone and marl.

The quarternary formation keeps the coast

southward, past Larnaka, down by the Kurium

promontory, and also at intervals along the east

and south coasts as far as Pumo.

The great central chain is formed of greenstone, surrounded with tertiary limestone and marl.

On the outer parts of the latter are patches of

Wiener sandstein and greenstone, particularly between Castello and Cape Epiphanio. From

near Livadia to Strallus, in the neighbourhood of

Larnaka, is a patch of greenstone. Very con¬

siderable denudation is manifest over all these

strata. There are patches of gypsum near Laria and

Ardima, and from Vosiki to Tersiphano. Coal is found in the island, but to what extent is

unknown. There are the remains of a numerous

fauna in the quarternary, and corals in the chalk

at Cape Greco. Volcanic eruptions have long ceased, and it is

not known which mountain caused extensive

damage in the reign of Titus. The island is,

however, still subject to earthquakes. Paphos has suffered most from these, and Amathus next.

There have not been eruptions of gas for a long

period. The study of these geological formations are of

great interest. Very little, comparatively, has been

done beyond that accomplished by MM. Ungar and



80-

Klotchy in its examination. Casual visitors, as I know by experience, cannot deeply probe any locality. It requires continued residence and going over the ground clay by clay. I once met with a remarkable instance of this fact. One of our eminent

professors took an autumn trip into the Mediter¬ ranean, went home, and, of course, wrote a book, which, having the "hall-mark," had a good sale. He fell among people who were kind and enter¬ tained him well, but there was not one amongst them that was of the slightest use as far as science was concerned. In consequence, he passed very rapidly over sites of remarkable geological pheno¬ mena, about which he learned nothing.

Natural History.—When Cyprus was first known, it was covered with forests. These were attacked by the Phoenicians for the double purpose of clearing ground for cultivation and using the wood for smelting copper. Forests are, however, still extensive in the south-west district, and also exist at places in the north. They include trees of various species, resinous and not resinous. The chain of mountains, Santa Croce in particular, is covered with maritime pines of the most beautiful kind, and the cork-oak. Walnut-trees are also

very numerous. There is fine wood for building and other industrial purposes, and some valuable ornamental woods.

The following are the numbers of the genera and species of plants in Cyprus, according to

linger and Klotchy :—

t-

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Genera.

1. Conrpositse 70

2. Papilionaceas 32

3. Graminese 37

4. Labiatee 25

5. Umbelliferas 34

6. Cruciferee 29

7. Caryophvllacea, 13

8. Liliacese 13

9. Boraginaceae 12

10. Banunculaceas 9

11. Scrophulariacese 9

12. Orchidaceas 7

Species. 117 103

96 53 51

49 44 39 29 23 20 20

The list of plants special to Cyprus is very con¬

siderable. Olive-trees were formerly very numerous in

Cyprus, as is proved by the large reservoirs near

Larnaka for the reception of the oil. The trade

was then very important, but the island now

consumes all it produces. The culture of the mulberry has been much

abandoned, though there are some woods still

existing that afford nourishment to the silkworms.

The carob tree, denominated also the locust, or

St. John's Bread, is very plentiful. The pods are

exported extensively to Syria and Egypt. Great quantities of ferula Grceca are also found.

It is applied to various domestic uses. According to the poets, Prometheus taught the uses of this

plant to mortals.

Flowers of all kinds are very abundant, as

hyacinth, anemone, ranunculus, and narcissus.

They thrive upon the mountains without culti-



S2

vation and render the plains an immense par¬ terre.

Nutmegs, kerrnes, barley, rice, wheat, and

glasswort are amongst the vegetable products. The soil also produces pulse and all kinds of wild herbs, and thyme and other odoriferous plants.

Cyprus is the native place of the cauliflower, which has been obtained by the art of the

gardener from Brassica oleracea, the part used as food being the deformed flower-stalks.

Bail, snipe, pheasants, partridges, quails and thrushes are abundant, as also all the birds of

passage that make Africa their home during the winter.

The snakes of the island are not venomous. This is so much the case that the children catch them and play with them ; and a Cypriot would think himself very unfortunate if he killed one, believing it would bring him bad luck. The stories of the galley and venomous spiders are also myths.

Numerous cattle are fed on the pastures. They are small in size, but not thin. Great quantities of sheep and goats are reared, and purchased and

exported for the consumption of the Turkish army. The mutton is juicy and tender. It is said the Greeks never eat beef because they hold that the animal that tills the ground, as the servant of man and the companion of his labours, ought not to be eaten. This is quite incorrect, for that

people are not given to such sentimentalism, and I have always found them enjoy beef as much as

any Englishman. As legards flights of grasshoppers and locusts

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88

coming from the mainland, the flight of these creatures is so short that it would be impossible for them to cross the distance. Those in the

island are indigenous. A few may perhaps find^ •---.., a their way over through the mercantile intercourse^-

c ^/S. » between the island and Asia. £y ^ OK

Art.—The Cypriots do not appear to have ex- - ̂ £•/

celled in art. Notwithstanding, some names < \y are preserved, and it is probable that further researches will discover others. One sculptor named Styppax is known as a contemporary of Pericles. Another, a native of Saiamis, was

Simos ; and another native artist of Salamis was

Onasiphon, as proved by an inscription at Bhodes, where also occurs the name of Epicharmos of

- Soli. One Zenodotos is mentioned in a tablet T at New Paphos.

Embroidery appears to have been carried almost

to the position of a fine art. It is called Assyrian work by Pausanias.

Literature.—Although the Cypriots do not

appear to have excelled in art, they were rather

strong in literature. Euclos, one of the earliest

prophetic singers, was a native of the island, and some of his verses existed in the time of Pausanias.

The author of the Cyprian Iliad or Eypria, was born there. Stasinos, in conjunction with

y Hegesias, was the author of this poem. Herodotus refers to it as deficient in incident. Cesnola says

\ there must have been an important school of <?



84

Homeric (Heroic would" perhaps have been a hetter term) in the island, about the latter half of

the eighth century b.c, to which period this

poem is assigned. It consisted of eleven books, and the only fragment remaining is known as the

argument, and was preserved by Proems in Photius. From this may be gathered the main incidents of the poem. The subject is the events that produced the siege of Troy.

Cleon of Kurium is alleged to have written a

poem on the Argonauts, from which it is said

.Apollonius Bhodius borrowed for his extant poeni oh the same subject. Amongst other writers were the lyric poet Hermeius of Curium and

'Sopatros, the author of some comedies. Speci- .mehs of both are to be found in Athenasus. Of

prose writers there was Clearchus of Soli, a pupil of Aristotle, who wrote a work called Gergithios ; also biographies. Zeno, the philosopher, was born in .Citium.

*

Productions.'—The island of Cyprus, in

regard to its productions, is an unwrought mine of wealth. Under the vigorous government of Venice it was a source of considerable revenue, •but under the Ottomans and their vicious system of appointing governors it has sunk to a very low ebb. This result is also partly due to the per¬ sistent manner in which the savagery of the middle ages maintains its footing in South-eastern

Europe amongst the Christian as well as some Mohammedan races, presenting- a ghastly contrast to the civilisation that has now spread amongst -the western nations of Europe.

T



85

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m

o-

The soil of Cyprus is rich to a degree, and at

present does not require manure to produce its

crops. It is not likely this will continue when

British enterprise has attacked the land, but there

is no doubt it will last for some time.

Amongst the productions of the island are salt,

wine, cotton, corn, opium, tobacco, turpentine, silk, fruit, sulphur, madder, several dye-woods,

gum-arabic, and drugs, as gum-tragacanth, and

colocynth, copper, gold, an impure lead mixed

more or less with silver, quicksilver, and soda.

There are also many minerals and precious stones, of which may be named jasper, emeralds,

amethysts, malachite, opals, agates, &c, which

are found amongst the mountains. Asbestos and

rock-crystal are found in quantities near Baffo, and gold is found in the streams; the gipsies, of

whom there are a few in the island, occasionally

bringing into Larnaka a nugget of a pound weight.

Boring for metals was formerly forbidden by the

Ottoman rulers, but of late years this has been

changed. There are numerous plaster and marble

quarries, and talc is very common, in the neigh¬ bourhood of Larnaka particularly, where it is

converted into plaster for the houses. Cyprian

jasper was highly prized, and only surpassed by the Scythian.

A kind of crystallised quartz is found near Baffo

known as the Baffo or Paphian diamond. The

asbestos of that locality is of superior quality. It

is known as " cotton-stone " in the island ; it is

perfectly white and as flexible as silk; its fibres

are more delicate and finer than that of Sicily,

Corsica, or Norway. The ancients made it into c 2



86

cloth, which is incombustible. This is still done in certain districts in the island, the priests' sacramental garments being made of it. In some

parts of Siberia it is spun with flax, and, after the cloth is woven, the flax is burnt out.

During the Venetian dominion the sugar-cane was cultivated at a profit, but these and the factories were destroyed during the Ottoman

invasion, and the manufacture has not been much resumed since. There are at present only two or three factories.

The most important copper mines were at Tamassus in the centre of the island, Soli on the north coast, and Amathus and Cyriuni on the south coast. In these mines gold and silver have also been found.

Yellow ochre, umber, and terre-verte, are

amongst the minerals of Cyprus. Salt was a

good source of revenue during the rule of the Venetians. The chief seat of its collection was at Salinas.

The cottons of Cyprus are more esteemed than those of any other country of the Levant because of their whiteness, thickness, and length of thread, and consequently fetch a superior price when sold in Europe. There are various qualities, as the flower or very best, good mercantile, passable, and mercantile. To these four may be added a fifth, called scovazze, entirely consumed on the island. It is obtained from the seeds after they are re¬ moved from the crop.

Calicoes are of three sorts : dyed, bleached, and unbleached.

The cotton seed is sown as early as possible in A



J^

87,

April. The seeds are planted three and four

together at proper distances, and when the shoots

appear above the ground the strongest plant is

allowed to remain, and the rest removed; in some

cases, sheep are turned in to feed upon them.

The plants are hoed in June or July. The

cotton is collected in the months of October and

November. Silk is the second article of importance in

Cyprus ; and from the evenness of the weather

after the winter has passed it has advantages over

many other countries where silkworms are reared.

The colour of the silk differs in different places. The finest and whitest is from the neighbour¬ hoods of Famagosta and Karpasso, the lemon and

sulphur-coloured is found about Citerea and the

greater part of the northern villages, and that of

A a golden yellow is collected at Baffo and the '" surrounding places.

Wool is another important product, and the

greater part of that produced goes to Italy and

Trieste.

Wine. — There are two principal kinds of

wine produced in the island, Commanderia and

Muscadine. They are both white.

The former derives its name from being pro¬ duced in the district that formed the Commandery of Kolossi of the Templars, extending from Mount

Olympus to Baffo and Limasol. This wine is kept in casks to which the air has

V access. When it has remained in this way for a

year, it is considered to have passed proof. It is

j a custom here, as in other parts of the Mediter-



m

ranean, to bury wine when a child is born, to be drunk at its marriage festival in after years.

Commanderia in colour passes from topaz to

garnet, and then becomes the exact colour of good curac-oa. a

Muscadine, after a few years, attains the thick¬ ness of syrup. It is very sweet. This wine, as well as Commanderia, has a slight violet tinge when new. This they lose by age, when they acquire the colour of curacoa, which they both retain.

There is another wine very well known in

Cyprus, called " Mavro " (black), as all red wines

are styled in Greek. It is very dry, and equal in

colour and taste to Chateau Margaux. The

reason it is not much grown is that the inhabitants, and all Orientals, prefer sweet wines. Nearly all

Cyprus wines are very rich and sweet. Some old families have wine in their stores two

and even four hundred years old. It then becomes like syrup, which condition Muscadine ^acquires after a few years.

Mariti says the Cyprus wines are red when they come from the press and that they grow pale after five or six years.

He also mentions muscatel wine, which alone is white at first, but becomes red by age, and attains the thickness of syrup in a few years.

Cyprus wines are in best condition in spring and summer. Excessive cold destroys their flavour and colour.

I have never observed the pitchy taste they are said to acquire from being placed in leathern bags eovered with pitch.

•y.



89

k

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••*>

Colocynth is the pulp of the bitter apple, the

cucumis colocynth or citrullus colocynth of botanists,

but in the island known as colloquintida, the

plants spread over the ground like the water¬

melon and resemble it in leaf and flower and also

in fruit when the melon is young. In the time of the Venetians the spirit of

speculation ruined the trade in oil, and the

cultivation of olives was abandoned for that of

cotton; that of saffron, rhubard, and some

other valuable natural products, is also neg¬ lected. There was once a lucrative trade with

Syria in the oil extracted from the seed of the

jujube-tree (zizyphus jujaba). This is very useful

when olives are scarce. Oil of glasswort was

also used when the supply of these two was

insufficient. The principal articles of industrial produce are

Morocco or Turkish leather, embroidery, muslin,

calicoes, common pottery, Cyprian brandy, and

perfumes. Of these the first is the chief; it is

better prepared in this island than in any other

part of Turkey, and the colour is more brilliant

and durable. The workmen pretend that this is

done by a method they keep to themselves.

The Cypriots also manufacture a material made

of silk and cotton.

All kinds of ordinary trades are practised in

the island, but the British workman will find no

field in the country at present, as he could not

live in the way that the rate of wages allows. His

living and workmanship are of too high a class.

A Trade.—The"trade and resources of Cyprus



40

have never yet been fully developed. Probably they were most so under the Venetian Govern¬ ment. From the bad system that has so long prevailed in the island no proper revenue or other public accounts have been kept, conse¬

quently there is nothing upon which statistics can be based. Those who make reports and returns when instructed do their best, but for all

practical purposes those furnished are of no use. But British energy and capital, modern science

and good laws well administered, will soon remedy this evil, and remove the paralysing effects of the

past; and the flow of energetic and healthy minds now directed toward the island will rapidly change the whole.

The productions of the island have already been referred to, and we may briefly notice the imports now required: these are cloth, hardware, fine powder, small shot, oilmen's

stores, drapery, drugs not produced in the island, agricultural implements, household furniture, petroleum, wines, spirits, provisions other than

preserved meats, coal, glass, and other household materials. •?

London: 'Ewnxeiu.it Wilsos, 11, Royal Exchange, .C. X



Ceded Cyprus: its history, condition, products, and prospects

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Transcript of Ceded Cyprus: its history, condition, products, and prospects