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1 Green Cities, Competitive Cities – Promoting the Role of Green Space in City Branding Cecil C. Konijnendijk Professor, D.Sc., ir Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen Rolighedsvej 23, 1958 Frederiksberg, Denmark E-mail: [email protected] , Tel.: +45 3533 1809, Fax: +45 3533 1809 Abstract In a globalised world, cities are competing fiercely for money and attention, for talent, innovation and creativity. Both within and across national boundaries, cities need to market their (potential) strengths and distinct qualities. Marketing, or ‘branding’, of a green identity has become popular in this respect. But when is a city ‘green’? This question is especially relevant when everybody wants to be green, for example concerning climate, energy efficiency, and sustainable development – and green becomes a rather ‘empty’ term. This presentation focuses on ‘green city branding’ specifically through a city’s parks and other green spaces, areas which contribute to a healthy and attractive urban environment. More than just nice words are needed when cities want to strengthen their green profile and brand. It is important, for example, to link green space to some of the major political topics of our time, to think strategically, to develop both internal and external partnerships, to think innovatively, and to focus on quality and benchmarking. Marketing and branding Marketing has helped companies and organisations to keep up to speed with changes in society. At organisational level, marketing integrates various functions of a company or organisation, connecting the company to its consumers and stakeholders. But marketing also plays an important role at societal level, where it helps build a bridge between production and consumption systems. Marketing has transformed over the years to focus more on customer orientation, quality, and at incorporating the perspectives of different stakeholders (Juslin, 2004). One of the most powerful concepts within marketing is ‘branding’. A brand is the proprietary visual, emotional, rational and cultural image that one associates with a certain company, product or service (Paliwod ans Thomas, 1998). Branding’s power is illustrated by the worldwide success of brands such as Coca Cola, Nike, Barcelona and Leonardo Messi. Branding is done by combining a name, logo and other brand characteristics. Good branding will lead to good (first) impressions and evokes positive associations. People want to be associated with certain brands that connect to their personalities and preferences (e.g. Leventhal, 1996; Kohli et al., 2005). Apple and its loyal customer base are a good example of this. Branding comes in many forms. Apart from traditional product branding, there is also a form of branding focusing on the level of service to customers (not surprisingly called service branding). Banks and insurance companies, for example, want that people associate their services with good quality and value, customer care, easy access, and so
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GreenCities,CompetitiveCitiesPromotingtheRoleofGreenSpaceinCityBranding
CecilC.Konijnendijk
Professor,D.Sc.,irDanishCentreforForest,LandscapeandPlanning,FacultyofLifeSciences,UniversityofCopenhagenRolighedsvej23,1958Frederiksberg,DenmarkE-mail:[email protected],Tel.:+4535331809,Fax:+4535331809
Abstract
Inaglobalisedworld,citiesarecompetingfiercelyformoneyandattention,fortalent,innovationandcreativity.Bothwithinandacrossnationalboundaries,citiesneedtomarkettheir(potential)strengthsanddistinctqualities.Marketing,orbranding,ofagreenidentityhasbecomepopularinthisrespect.Butwhenisacitygreen?Thisquestionisespeciallyrelevantwheneverybodywantstobegreen,forexampleconcerningclimate,energyefficiency,andsustainabledevelopmentandgreenbecomesaratheremptyterm.Thispresentationfocusesongreencitybrandingspecificallythroughacitysparksandothergreenspaces,areaswhichcontributetoahealthyandattractiveurbanenvironment.Morethanjustnicewordsareneededwhencitieswanttostrengthentheirgreenprofileandbrand.Itisimportant,forexample,tolinkgreenspacetosomeofthemajorpoliticaltopicsofourtime,tothinkstrategically,todevelopbothinternalandexternalpartnerships,tothinkinnovatively,andtofocusonqualityandbenchmarking.
Marketingandbranding
Marketinghashelpedcompaniesandorganisationstokeepuptospeedwithchangesinsociety.Atorganisationallevel,marketingintegratesvariousfunctionsofacompanyororganisation,connectingthecompanytoitsconsumersandstakeholders.Butmarketingalsoplaysanimportantroleatsocietallevel,whereithelpsbuildabridgebetweenproductionandconsumptionsystems.Marketinghastransformedovertheyearstofocusmoreoncustomerorientation,quality,andatincorporatingtheperspectivesofdifferentstakeholders(Juslin,2004).Oneofthemostpowerfulconceptswithinmarketingisbranding.Abrandistheproprietaryvisual,emotional,rationalandculturalimagethatoneassociateswithacertaincompany,productorservice(PaliwodansThomas,1998).BrandingspowerisillustratedbytheworldwidesuccessofbrandssuchasCocaCola,Nike,BarcelonaandLeonardoMessi.Brandingisdonebycombininganame,logoandotherbrandcharacteristics.Goodbrandingwillleadtogood(first)impressionsandevokespositiveassociations.Peoplewanttobeassociatedwithcertainbrandsthatconnecttotheirpersonalitiesandpreferences(e.g.Leventhal,1996;Kohlietal.,2005).Appleanditsloyalcustomerbaseareagoodexampleofthis.
Brandingcomesinmanyforms.Apartfromtraditionalproductbranding,thereisalsoaformofbrandingfocusingonthelevelofservicetocustomers(notsurprisinglycalledservicebranding).Banksandinsurancecompanies,forexample,wantthatpeopleassociatetheirserviceswithgoodqualityandvalue,customercare,easyaccess,andso
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forth(GraceandOCass,2005).Companieshavealsostartedapplyinginternalbrandingtocreateacertaincompanyculture.Employeesshouldfeelthattheyarepartofandrepresentthisculture,thusstrengtheningtheinternalorganisation.CompaniessuchasMcDonaldsandNike,forexample,traintheirstaffandmakethemfamiliarwiththecompanyidentityinspecialacademies,integratingemployeesintotheinternalbrand.Ratherthanbecomingpartofawidercompanybrand,however,individualscanalsostriveforbrandingofthemselves,calledpersonalbranding.Thisisallaboutsellingyourself,andyourdistinctivequalities,onforexamplethelabourmarket.Personalbrandingcantakeratherextremeforms,asinthecaseoffamoussportandmoviestarsthatbecomeaonepersoncompanywithahugecustomerbase.CEOsofsomecompaniesarestrongpersonalbrandsaswell.VirginsRichardBranson,forexample,issuchastrongpersonalbrandthattheentireVirginconglomeratehasbecomeassociatedwithhisadventurousandrebelliouscharacter.
Recentlythebrandingtypesofsensebrandingandemotionalbrandinghavebeengivenincreasingattention.Theformer,astypeofbrandingwhichappealstoallsenses,andnotonlytoseeingorhearing,hasevokedconsiderabledebate.Marketershaveusedmanipulativetechniquestoappealtopeoplesenses.TheDanishsensebrandingguruMartinLindstrmmentioned,forexample,that92%ofallnewcarsmellsisactuallyaddedartificially(Hvilsom,2005).Emotionalbrandingaimstoappealtopeoplesemotions,strivingtodeveloptightbondsbetweenbrandandcustomer.Bycreatingabaseofloyalcustomers,costofmaintenancemarketingisreduced.EmotionalbrandingliesalsoatthebasisoftheLovemarkconceptdevelopedbyKevinRoberts(2004).Lovemarksaredefinedasproductsandexperiencesthatcreatelong-termemotionalrelationshipswithcustomers.Mystery,sensualityandintimacyarefundamentalLovemarkelements,withmysteryforexampleenhancingthebrandexperiencebydrawingonthepast,present,andfuture,thevalueofmythsandicons,thepowerofinspiration,andbytappingintodreams.
Atypeofbrandingofparticularinteresttothisarticleisplacebranding,sometimesalsoreferredtoasdestinationbranding.Thisisaboutsellingabundleofgoodsandservices,orevenjusttheimageitself,associatedwithacertaincountry,city,regionorlandscape(e.g.Liping,2002).Someregionshavebecomeverysuccessfulinthis.TuscanyinItaly,forexample,isgenerallyassociatedwithvisionsofrollinghillsbathinginsunshineandthetasteofgoodwine.Otherregions,suchasformalindustrialcities,havehaddifficultiesingettingridoftheirnegativebrandimage.CountriessuchasMalaysiahaveinvestedheavilyintheirnationalbrands,asforexamplereflectedinthetouristcampaignMalaysia,TrulyAsia,whichbuildsonthecountrysethnicandculturaldiversitywhichreflectslargepartsofSoutheastAsia.
Itisimportanttorealisethatbrandingandthedominanceofbrandsineverydaylifehavealsobeencriticised,forexamplebyNaomiKleininherlandmarkbookNoLogo(2001).Kleinarguesthatcompanieshavegraduallymovedfromprimarilyproducingthingstoproducingimages.Brandshavecometodominateourspaces,choicesandjob;theyhavebecomethetrueuniversallanguage.Butbehindthem,statesKlein,areinjustice,abuse,environmentaldegradation,andthelike.Jones(2001)mentionsthatmanypeoplehavestartedfeelingdisillusionedwithbrands,astherearetoomanybrandsaround,andtheyrepromisingmuchmorethantheircompaniescandeliver.JonesarguesthatitistimetofocusonBigIdeas,onthecorporateideasofcompanies,sharedbythesecompaniesandcustomersalike.
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Citybranding
Asmentioned,placebrandinghelpsforexamplecitiestocompetewithoneanotherforbusinesses,citizens,visitors,talent,orsimplyforattentionintheglobalworld(e.g.Boisen,2007).AccordingtoRichardFlorida(2008),citiesarecompetingforthreekeyeconomicfactors:talent,innovationandcreativity.Manycitiesfocusonthecreativeclass,atermcoinedbyFloridaforthepeopleincreative,innovativeandknowledgegeneratingprofessions,asthesepeoplemakecitiesmorevibrantandcompetitive.Floridashowsthataclusteringofsuccessfulcityregionshasoccurred,notintheleastbecauseofattractivenesstotheCreativeclass.Ourworld,saysFlorida,isaspikyworld,whereafewsuccessfulcityregionsdominate.Arelativelysmallnumberofcitiesarehometomostinnovationsandinventions,forexample,helpedbytheirsuccessinattractingtalentandinvestment.
Forattractingtalent,innovationandcreativity,tourists,andsoforth,citiestrytostrengthentheirexistingimageoridentity(ifitisagoodone),createanewimage,and/orgetridofabadone.Citiesaimtobuildonspecificstrengths,opportunitiesandclaimstofame.Assistedbymarketingexperts,theypackagetheirgoodcharacteristicsintooneormorecitybrands.
JoelKotkin,anAmericanurbandevelopmentscholar,hasarguedthatthesuccessofcitiesovertimeanduntilthisverydayhasdependedonthreekeyroles(Kotkin,2005).First,citiesshouldbesacred,whichrelatestothehistoricalroleofcitiesasreligiouscentres,butalsohastodowithidentityandcitizensidentifyingthemselveswithacity.Second,citiesneedtobesafe,offeringasafeenvironmentandhighqualityoflife.Thethirdrolehastodowithcitiesbeingbusy,actingascentresofcommerce,cultureandsociallife.Citiesbrandthemselvesbasedonaspectsofthethreeroles.Inaddition,inmoderntimestheephemeral(entertainment)cityhasemerged,whencitiesareespeciallygearedtowardstouristsandownresidentsseekingtobeentertained.AsKotkinargues,however,theephemeralcitycannotsurvivebyonlycateringtothenomadicpopulationsthataretourists.Itstillneedsastrongbaseofcommittedcitizenrytocontinuetoexistasreal,workingcities.ThisisoneoftheproblemsfacedbyVenice,Italy,whereatrueexodusofnativeresidentshasoccurred,e.g.duetoexplodinghouseprices.Thereisariskthatonlyvisitorsandpart-timeresidentswillremainandthatoneoftheattractionsofVenice,namelyitsparticularformofcultureanddailylifewilldisappear.
Whendiscussinghowwedecidewheretolive,Florida(2008)identifiedplaceasakeydeterminantforpeopleshappinessandsuccess.Thecreativeclass,forexample,isattractedtoacitybyhighqualitylivingenvironmentsthatincludegoodparksandpublicareas.TheimportanceofofferingagoodqualityoflifetocitizenswasalsostressedinarecentEuropeandevelopmentprojectcalledTheSAULPartnership.Itsfinalreportstates:Competitivecityregionsareonesthatcanattractandretainviablebusinessesandtheiremployeesbyofferingagoodqualityoflife(SAULPartnership2005).
Citybrandingandgreenspace
Thatcitiesneedtofocusonofferingahighqualitylivingandworkingenvironmenttoattractpeople,moneyandactivitieshasbeenknownforquitesometime.Startingmanycenturiesago,kings,emperorsandotherrulesinitiatedgreeningeffortsfordifferentpurposes,butnotintheleasttopromotetheirownprestige,e.g.throughhuntingparks,estatesandparades.Manyofourcurrenturbanparksandothergreenspacesareresultsoftheseefforts.Whencitiesandmunicipalauthoritieshadgainedmorepower,greenspaces
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alsostartedplayingaroleincitybrandingefforts.ManyEuropeancities,forexample,purchasedparksandothergreenspacesduringthelate19thcentury,partlytomaintainanattractivesettingforthemorewell-to-do(i.e.importanttaxpayers).Citiesalsohadnewparksestablished,withNewYorksCentralPark,designedbyOlmstedandVaux,asperhapsthebestknownexample.
Citygovernmentsweresometimesassistedintheireffortsbyindustrialists,whohadaninterestinpromotinghealthyandsocially-acceptablerecreationbehaviouramongsttheirworkers.Inothercases,theyjustwantedtobuildstrongerandpositivetieswiththelocalcommunity.
Greenbrandingofcities,however,hasoftenbecomearatherabstractactivity.Greenspacesareseldominfocuswhencitiestrytopromoteagreenimageinabroadsense.Theyattempttoconnectto,forexample,theclimateagenda,aimingtobecomecarbonneutral,savingenergy,andsoforth.Everycitywantstobegreen.AccordingtoAmericanwriterThomasFriedman(2008),greenwasthesinglemosttrademarkedtermsintheUSAin2007.Insomecases,specificactivitiesorcampaignsareconnectedtothegreenimagepromotion.FriedmanoffersexamplesofNewYorkCity,whereanextensiveschememademanyofthefamousyellowcabsmoreenvironmentallyfriendly.Localchampionsandoftenthelocalmayorcanbeamaindriverofthegreeningprocess,astheexampleofDalian,Chinashows(Friedman,2008).Themayorofthatcityhasonlyallowedindustriesintothecitythatareenergysavingandenvironmentallyfriendly.
Examplesofsuccessfulbrandingthroughgreenspace
Chicago,USA,isoneofthebest-knownsuccessstoriesofhowgreenspacesandtreeshavebeenincorporatedinsuccessfulcitybranding,orperhapsrather:re-branding(e.g.Beatley,2004).Duringthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,thecitysufferedfromitsrathernegativeimageasanindustrialcity.Largepartsofthecityhadbecomeratherrun-down.Inamajorturn-aroundmove,mayorRichardDaleyinitiatedgreeningactivitiesatdifferentlevelsandmadethemanintegralpartofcitypolicy.Treeswereplanted,neighbourhoodgreeningcampaignsstarted,NGOssupported,andgreenroofspromoted,withthehigh-profilegreenroofofChicagosCityHallasexample.Theseefforts,togetherwithe.g.urbanrenewalschemes,successfuleffortstoattractbusiness(e.g.Boeing)andpersonalbrandingbyPresidentObamahavehelpedreshapeChicagosimage.
Bolsteredbyitsnewimage,Chicagoevencampaigned(beitunsuccessfully)forthe2016OlympicGames.Greening,urbanforestryandtheOlympicshavebeencloselyconnected,especiallysincethe1984GamesinLosAngeles.UsingtheOlympicsasavehicle,alarge-scaletreeplantingcampaignwasundertakentakenunderthetitleOneMillionTreesforLA(MillionTreesLA,undated).ThecampaignwasledbytheenvironmentalNGOTreePeople,butinclosecollaborationwithcityauthorities.SubsequentGameshavealsobrandedtheirgreenimage,e.g.the2000SydneyGamesandthe2008BeijingGames(e.g.UNEP,2007).Althoughgreenbrandinghascometorelatetomoregeneralissuessuchascarbonneutrality,energysavingandsustainability,treeplantingandthedevelopmentofnewgreenspaceshascontinuedtobeamajorcomponent.London2012followsaverysimilarstrategy(e.g.BBCNews,2007).
ButcitiesdonotneedOlympicGamestoenrolgreenspacesinagreenbrandingeffort.ApowerfulexampleisthatofNewYorkCity,whichisintheprocessoftransformingitsFreshKillsdumpsiteintoanew,large-scalelandscapepark.Interestingtonoteisthatasubstantialpartofthebudgetforthenewparkhasbeendedicatedtoalarge-
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scalemarketingcampaign,especiallygearedtowardsNewYorkers(Czerniaketal.,2007).Thecampaignaimstoestablishalinkbetweenthecityandthenewlandscapepark,buildinge.g.onhistoricallinks.
Elsewhere,citiesarecompetingforprestigiousgreeningawardsinrecognitionoftheireffortstoimprovequalityoflifeandenvironment.IntheUSA,forexample,citieswithasoundprogrammeforurbanforestrycanbeawardedtheTreeCityUSAcertificate(ArborDayFoundation,undated).Chinesecitiesputalotofenergyintobeingawardedgreencityawardsbythecentralgovernment(Liu,2009).Europeancitiescompeteforarangeofdifferentgreeningawards,includingthetitleofGreenestCityofEuropeawardedbytheEntenteFloraleorganisation.Thelatterorganisesnationalcompetitionsforcitiesandvillagesaswell.Winnersofthesenationalevents,whichinvolveassessmentofgreeningprograms,activitiesandoutputsbyexpertjudges,cancompetefortheEuropeancrown.TheDutchcityofArnhem,alreadymentionedabove,waselectedGreenestCityofEurope2009.
CitiessuchasHelsinki,Finland,butalsoe.g.TropicalGardenCityKualaLumpurusetheirextensivegreenspacesinmarketingeffortstargetedtowardstourists.Butthequalitiesofindividualurbanforestsandothergreenspacescanalsomakecitiesmorecompetitiveandinteresting.ManytouristsscheduleinavisittoNewYorksCentralPark,KualaLumpursLakeGardens,SingaporesBotanicalGardenorLondonsroyalparks.Somegreenspacesarethusdestinationbrandsoftheirown,beingpromotedthroughbrochures,websitesandon-sitesigns.Inthecaseofforestsandnatureareasinornearcities,imagesofawildernessatastonesthrowofurbanmayhemareoftenevoked.
Individualgreenspacescanbemademoreinterestingandspecialbygrantingthemaspecialstatus.InStockholm,forexample,theDjurgrdenparkhasbecomepartofSwedensfirstNationalUrbanPark(Konijnendijk,2008).UrbanforestsandnatureareasincitiessuchasViennaandWarsawhavebeengrantedthestatusofnationalpark.ZurichsSihlwaldisnowanurbanwildernesspark.Therecouldbeariskhere,however,asthesetypesofA-levelgreenspacesaregivenmostoftheattentionandfundingbyplannersandmanagers,leadingtoneglectofnormalgreenspacesatforexampletheneighbourhoodlevel.Theselocal,everydaygreenspacesdoplayaveryimportantrole,e.g.intermsofofferingnearbyrecreationenvironmentstolocalresidents.
Theroadtosuccessfulbrandingthroughgreenspace
Greenspacesandurbanforestrycanandoftendoplayanimportantroleincitymarketingandgreencitybrandinginparticular.Greenisgenerallyseenassomethingpositive,andresidents,visitorsandbusinessesplacehighvalueonhighquality,greenurbanenvironments.Greenspaceoffersarangeofspecialopportunities,forexamplerelatedtosensebranding:avisittoalocalwoodlandorparkappealstoallsenses.Treeshavemany(mostlypositive)associations,e.g.tostabilityandsustainability,asalinkbetweenlifeanddeath.
Inorderforgreenspacesandtreestomakeameaningfulcontributiontocitybranding,itiscrucialtolinkuptotheBigPicture.Greenspaceplannersandmanagersneedtofindouthowgreenspacescancontributetoacitysmainagendas.Today,forexample,thisrelatesverymuchtotopicssuchasglobalcompetitiveness,socialcohesion,lifestylechanges(andhealthchallenges),andclimatechange.Greenspaceslinkuptoalloftheseagendas.Asshownabove,forexample,greencitiesaremoresuccessfulinattractingtalent,innovation,investmentandvisitors.Greenspaceshavebeenfoundto
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offerimportantpublicspacesactingassocialmeetingpointsforthecitysdifferentresidentgroups.Useof,andsimplyhavingaviewof,greenspacespromotespeopleshealthandwellbeing.Moreover,althoughurbantreeshelpsequestergreenhousegases,urbanforestrysmaincontributiontotheclimatechangeagendarelatestomakingcitiesmoreresilient.Treesandgreenspacesmoderateurbanclimates,provideshare,andhelpinstormwatermanagement,forexample(e.g.Tyrvinenetal.,2005;Konijnendijk,2008).
Inordertoconnecturbanforestrytocitybranding,partnershipsarecrucial.Manyoftheexamplesmentionedaboveinvolvedlocalauthorities(oftenheadedbyoneormorechampionsofgreening),interestgroupsandtheprivatesector.Forgreenspacecitybrandingtosucceed,itiscrucialnotonlytofocusonexternalbranding(i.e.forexternalaudiences,suchastourists),buttotakeinternalbrandingseriouslyaswell.AsarguedbythelikesofKotkin(2005),buildingastrong,engagedcitizenryisveryimportanttomoderncities.ExamplessuchasthatofFreshKillsinNewYorkshowthatcitiesseemawareofthistask.
Brandingshouldnotonlyinvolvegreenphrases,butinvolvelong-termcommitmentandstrategy.Itshouldcombinetheworkofgreenspaceprofessionals,planners,andprofessionalmarketers.Sufficientfundsshouldbeallocatedalsotoenhanceacitysgreeninfrastructure.Actionplansandon-the-groundpilotprojectsshouldshowtoresidentsandvisitorsalikethatthecityreallytakesitsgreenheritageseriously.Jones(2006)stressestheneedforplacemaking,withaplacebeingalocationwithameaning.Inorderforaplacetohavemeaningandaclearidentity,thatmeaningneedstobesharedamongmany,andtobebasedonreality.
Iftheseeffortssucceed,greenspacesandlandscapemanagementcanmoveupontheladderofpoliticalandpublicattention,beingtakenseriouslyaspartofacityskeyinfrastructure.Brandingcanalsohelpinbuildingrelationshipswithaseriesofnewusers,suchasethnicminoritiesandchildren.Withthoseandexistingcustomerslong-termrelationshipscanbeestablishedthatreflecttheideasbehindLovemarks(Roberts,2004).Greenspacesareaboutemotions,aboutspecialandsometimesmysticexperiences;theyareassociatedwithawiderangeofsymbolicvalues.
Finally,brandingcanhelptostrengthentheinternalorganisationofmunicipalandprivategreen-spaceorganisations.Thisalsorelatestotheneedtostrengthentheprofileofurbanforestryasaprofessionofitsown.
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