修平科技大學編印ir.hust.edu.tw/bitstream/310993100/7088/1/修平學報第30期.pdf ·...

HSIUPING JOURNAL

HSIUPING UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

修平學報

第三十期

修平科技大學編印中華民國一○四年三月出版

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1. 從東海防空識別區看中日競逐及台灣因應之道 ........................................白兆偉 1

2. 中小企業社會網路對合作聯盟與財務績效影響之研究 ............................陳淑真 33

3. 習慣對社群網站持續使用之影響研究-以 Facebook為例 ............ 李淑美、陳怡芳 63

4. 1935年新竹-台中地震之慰靈祭典�有關於台中州地震記念碑及慰靈祭典� ...................................................................... ……………………………塩川太郎 91

5. 行動入口網站使用者滿意度量表之建置研究 ........................... 李淑美、沈婉婷 117

6. 台灣智慧資本研究：以 TSSCI管理學門期刊為例 ...................................黃淑媛 147

7. 試論愛倫坡的生態論述：〈沉默：寓言一則〉中的生態地域敘事 ............... 羅宜柔 177

Contents1. The Competition between China and Japan in Northeast Asia and Taiwan’s

strategy – An exploration through the establishment of East China Sea Air

Defense Identification Zone ......... .........................................................Pai Jaw-Wei 1�2. The Study of SMEs� Social Networks on the lmpact of Collaborative Alliances

and Financial Performance ......... .......................................................Shu-Jen Chen 33�3. The Role of Habit in Continue Usage of Social Network Sites: an example of

Facebook .............................................................. .....Shwn-Meei Lee, Yi-Fang Chen 63�

4. 1935��-��

��- .................................................................................................. 塩川太郎 91

5. Development of a Multiple-Item Scale for Measuring User Satisfaction in

Mobile Portal ......................................................... Shwn-Meei Lee, Wan-Ting Shen 117�

6. Intellectual Capital Research in Taiwan: A Case Study on TSSCI Management

Journals ........................................................................................... Shu-Yuan Huang 147

7. Edgar Allen Poe’s Ecological Discourse:A Bioregional Narrative in “Silence:

A Fable” ....................................................................................................... Yi-jou Lo 177�

HSIUPING JOURNAL VOL.30, pp.1-32 �March 2015� 1

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Jaw-Wei Pai, Institute of China and Asia-Pacific Studies National Sun Yat-sen University Received 3 July 2014; accepted 1 October 2014

The Competition between China and Japan in

Northeast Asia and Taiwan’s strategy – An

exploration through the establishment of East

China Sea Air Defense Identification Zone

Jaw-Wei Pai

Abstract

Chinese Ministry of Defense announced the establishment of “East China Sea Air Defense Identification Zone”(East China Sea ADIZ) without prior notice on November 23, 2013. The Chinese military will adopt "emergency defensive measures" in response to aircraft that refuse to identify its flight plan or follow the instructions. Since the area overlaps with not only half of Japanese ADIZ, but also a small extent with the South Korean and Taiwanese ADIZ, this sparks protests of those relevant countries and the United States also shows concerns over this announcement. Without doubt, it will have impact on the future security in Northeast Asia.

The announced East China Sea Air Defense Identification Zone intersects Japanese and Taiwanese ADIZ. What is important is that it includes the controversial Diaoyutai Islands and is quite close to the Pengjiayu airspace. Hence, it is regarded as provocative actions by Taiwan and Japan and cause concern in the international society. Japanese Foreign Ministry lodged a stern protest with China, and Taiwan’s Defense Ministry also expressed regret about that. Scholars believe that China has gotten ready for "military struggle" on the issue of Diaoyutai Islands, and this has added to the uncertainty of the situation in Northeast Asia.

Currently, more than 10 countries,. including Taiwan, U.S., and Japan, have ADIZ. The issue of overlapping area is usually settled by negotiation. However, the announcement of the ADIZ by China drew attention and international criticism due to its claim on sovereignt-

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y over the Japanese-controlled Diaoyutai Islands. As a result, this paper aims to explore the competition between China and Japan in the East China Sea and Taiwan’s strategy through the establishment of East China Sea Air Defense Identification Zone.

Keywords: Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ), Diaoyutai Islands, International Civil Aviation Organization Airport Code (ICAO), United Nations Charter.

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Shu-Jen Chen, Lecturer, Department of Applied English, Hsiuping University of Science and Technology Received 19 October 2014; accepted 12 January 2015

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The Study of SMEs’ Social Networks on the Impact of Collaborative Alliances and

Financial Performance Shu-Jen Chen

ABSTRACT In recent years, the global economy has shifted markedly in emerging markets. SMEs

in many countries have played a vital role; nevertheless, they also face much riskier situations from domestic and international economic challenges. In Taiwan, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), playing a very important role to the country’s economic growth, accounting for almost 98% of overall enterprises and employing almost 78% of all employees. However, SMEs still have to overcome resource limitations and trade barriers to the internationalization process. The research questions in this study addressed the increasing external social networking behavior of top managers, and how these constructs help manufacturing SME build collaborative alliances in order to overcome resource and capability constraints and to enhance financial performance in Taiwan. More specifically, the present study aimed to examine the effects of independent variables (i.e., social networks and alliances) and dependent variable (i.e., financial performance).

The present study aimed to integrate and highlight theories: Social network theory and resource-based theory. Hypotheses were tested using multiple regression analysis to answer research questions. The empirical results of hypotheses testing revealed that two of the study’s hypotheses were supported, and one hypothesis was not supported. The results of the data analysis showed that social network was significantly related to alliances in this study. Having collaborative alliances was found to be related to an SME and financial performance.

Keywords: SME, Alliances, Financial Performance, Social Network Theory, Resource-Based Theory.

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35 The Study of SMEs’ Social Networks on the Impact of Collaborative Alliances and Financial Performance: Shu-Jen Chen

1. INTRODUCTION The advantages of the small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) of being faster and

flexible are concerned by the deficiency of resources and abilities to advance businesses in the network. Successful development in some economies, primarily in Asia, has been based on effective connection participation of SMEs as an approach to cover the shortages they face (Díaz, Rietdorf, & Dornberger, 2011). This study outlines SMEs increase alliances through top managers’ existing social networks. SMEs play an important role in the economic development of many countries. Nevertheless, SMEs face more complex and competitive economic contexts now than ever before, and they experience competitive pressures from domestic and international sources. SMEs have to be aware of the approaches that exist in social networks. Participation in alliances has become an increasingly popular technique of entering into an international market, thus helping SMEs stay competitive. Successful collaboration in alliances requires assessment of the environment, strategy, capability, and performance of a potential merger.

The present study emphasizes Taiwanese SMEs specifically in the manufacturing industry, as they contribute 71.62% of the total SME export revenue in 2011. Although SMEs typically lack the capacity to compete with large corporations, manufacturing SMEs are a viable cornerstone for implementing change, which enables them to maximize performance and enhance their profitability (Taiwan’s Ministry of Economic Affairs, 2012). Taiwan has only recently been regarded as an industrialized country. Despite its novel status, it is renowned for its entrepreneurship. Indeed, Taiwan has very productive and highly-integrated SMEs with an international production sphere (Hu, 2003). Before becoming a vital player in the information technology region, Taiwan had a reputation for high-quality equipment firms, as it contracted for many Japanese and American firms (Saxenian & Hsu, 2001).

Taiwan’s Ministry of Economic Affairs (2014) indicated that the definition of SMEs’ structure is denoted by the number of employees or amount of assets which include both paid-in capital and sales revenue. Micro enterprises refer to SMEs with fewer than 5 employees and are subsumed under the umbrella category of SMEs in Taiwan. SMEs, the larger substructure under which micro enterprises fall, have fewer than 200 employees or less than NT$80 million, which equals 2.42 million U.S. dollars for manufacturing, construction, mining, and quarrying industries. This means that if either criterion is met, the

36 ��

business qualifies as an SME. In service and commerce sectors, micro enterprises are defined by having fewer than 5 employees while SMEs must have fewer than 50 employees, and a preceding year sales revenue of less than NT$100 million, which equals 3.03 million U.S. dollars (Taiwan’s Ministry of Economic Affairs, 2014). Chen and Huang (2004) found that Taiwanese SME owners recognize market opportunities abroad, but they are also aware of their own limitations. Owing to the relative lack of resources of SMEs, internationalization becomes an increasingly lofty goal (Knight, 2001). It is easy for an SME to overlook its intangible resources, though they can be crucial for facilitating internationalization. Intangible resources include goodwill, patents, licenses, and knowledge (Arregle, Hitt, Sirmon, & Very, 2007; Sirmon & Hitt, 2003). Yet, another intangible resource is social capital (Adler & Kwon, 2002; Liao & Welsch, 2005). In the literature, certain researchers explained networks as cooperation among three or more firms and alliances as cooperation between two firms (Lunnan & Nygaard, 2011). In our context, this study also contained cooperation between two companies in the definition of networks.

This current study discussed social networks in relation to alliances and performance, in addition to critically reviewing the gaps between existing theoretical literature and reality. Moreover, this current study examined elements and factors pertaining to arguments on SME barriers. There is much relevant literature to establish the basis for this study. Social network theory was utilized and involved in the overall inter-relation between business constructs. Like the resource-based view (RBV) of the company, company resources are rare, valuable, unique, and imperfectly imitable structures working toward a company’s sustainable competitive advantages, such as human capital, physical capital and organizational capital resources (Barney, 1991). The theoretical basis of the present study connected the concept of RBV to enter foreign markets for investigating the effects of social networks to increase alliances for better optimal performance. With this perspective, managers can operate businesses more effectively. The objective of this current study was to clarify the effect of social networks on forming alliances. The focus country and industry in this study were Taiwan and manufacturing SMEs.

This current study was based on the premise that SMEs are limited in their capital resources and can benefit from external social network relationships. The major research questions for this study were designed to describe the external social networking behavior of top managers and how they help SMEs overcome resource and capability limitations using alliances to increase financial performance. Thus, research questions were created to


illustrate and analyze aspects of the social networking behaviors of top managers affect business strategies within Taiwanese manufacturing SMEs. The effect of these variables was to overcome limitations in both resources and capabilities of SMEs attempting to increase their financial performance.

2. Challenges Facing Taiwanese SMEs SMEs play a crucial role in the economic development of Taiwan. The current trend of

economic growth and rapid industrial development has established Taiwan as one of the most open economic entities in Asia. Taiwan’s government has designed the SME development plan to assist SMEs in facing new business challenges in the competitive foreign environment. Moreover, in the current globalizing era, developing an SME business and maintaining it is tougher than it has been in the past few decades. Thus, an SME has to restructure its business to off-shoring, out-sourcing, and transforming technologically. Additionally, Taiwan’s SMEs have to consider increased competitive pressure from mainland China. Teoh and Chong (2008) revealed that the barriers to SMEs further include insufficient business trust and restricted access to business social networks. Faced with a lack of information and a dearth of resources about foreign markets, SMEs may be cautious in committing substantial resources. Researchers have probed two methods to increase SME performance: Social networks and alliances. As previously mentioned, however, there is a deficit of studies on alliance issues.

3. Purpose of Study The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of social networks of

individual contacts by empirically testing Taiwanese SMEs’ alliances and financial performance. Besides, this study aimed to integrate and highlight two different theories: (1) social network theory and (2) resource-based theory into a conceptual framework that can be utilized to supposedly link between theories and the study’s theoretical model on identifying determinants of success for manufacturing SMEs in Taiwan.

4. Review of the Literature

4.1 Social Networks and Alliances

In the social network, potential partners become aware of needs, capabilities, and

38 ��

alliance requirements. The firm can incorporate partners’ networks into its alliance formation. A variety of social network structures have developed and supported different levels of organizational connections. In 1998, Loasby explained that marketplaces are like a society representing how to enhance a firm’s own business opportunities and how to expand their investment through inter-organizational relationships with close strategic partnership. Chen, H. and Chen, T. J. (2002) revealed that the empirical study also showed that the business network method was utilized to implement alliances by companies from Taiwan. In addition, it attracts other Taiwanese companies to increase its sphere of partnerships through social networks. Taiwanese companies are most likely to pursue alliances where they secondary to their leading partners; however they employ alliances to develop new opportunities (Chen, H. & Chen, T. J., 2002).

Social networks may consist of informal and formal ties as well as partnering alliances with other companies, customers, suppliers, and intermediaries from any point in the complex chain of SME activities (Lloyd-Reason & Mughan, 2002). The social network contact methods may be formal, i.e. sending representatives to other companies’ internal workshops, panels, or other meetings; or they may be informal connections, i.e. phone or e-mail. The network relations helped SMEs share new knowledge and increase essential resources as well as enhance their sustainability (Hitt, Ireland, Camp, & Sexton, 2002). When considered from a resource-based view (RBV), the goal and reason for existence of a business network is to acquire the resources of other companies, and to retain and to create one’s own resources by joining them with the resources of other firms (Das & Teng, 2000). In addition, Mohammad, Hassan, and Suk (2005) recommended that network connections provide advantages to SMEs of helping them develop closer relationships with more business partners, creating more channels of communication.

Successful social networkers (i.e., top managers) are generous with sharing information, resources, and contacts; as social networks are not only interested in getting what a firm needs, but they are also interested in aiding others with what they need. There are five considerations in building a network: (1) connecting someone with a friend, (2) connecting someone with a vendor, (3) connecting someone with a customer, (4) connecting someone with a resource, and (5) connecting someone with an organization. As a firm compounds its existing network over time, the exponential increase heightens its value by creating more effective connections and building a solid network (Lynch, 2009). Furthermore, if SMEs build positive business networking relationships amongst


organizations, finally they can initiate successful business (Farinda, Kamarulzaman, Abdullah, & Ahmad, 2009).

According to King (2006), social networks were changing how companies function as a business with social networks. Currently, companies have access to an estimated 45% of active Web users who form groups as sites (King, 2006). For example, there are some companies in the process of adopting social network analysis software to reveal relationships among employees with top managers at companies to facilitate the sales process rapidly. The reason for this is to foster interaction among employees at different locations and form alliances partnerships. Based on Mintzberg (2009), chief executives (i.e., top managers) perform a similar role in that they also foster relationships among both colleagues and associations; they increase extensive networks, furnishing different information and new opportunities. In addition, top managers continue contact with experts to offer guidance. In order to function successfully, Mintzberg (2009) encouraged top managers not only have to integrate all of these demands, but also to find common denominators among them to reduce workload. Top managers also engage in joint ventures and alliances, such as informal networking with other managers and other outside people.

Inter-organization, defined as two companies in a collaborative business relationship (Snow, Fjeldstad, Lettl, & Miles, 2011) can leverage their capacities through collaborative activities including organizational learning, market access, and exchange of information. According to Verma and Zoumpa (2012), firms can be advised to study diverse aspects of inter-organizational networking before shaping alliances with the potential partner. The empirical methodology established in their study can be used to find the positive elements in biotech networks and other partner firms. By utilizing empirical equations, companies can compute their innovation output regarding each alliance. Moreover, Jenssen (2013) clarified that a company could gain the benefits of sharing resources in areas that need close cooperation and the benefits of access to various information resources that do not need close relationships. Because this structure would help resource transfers, small, knowledge-intensive companies should strongly emphasis on the growth of networks. In order to reap the most benefits, this study investigated how firms leverage their network resources to build alliances with different partners and to have global reach.

4.2 Social Networks and Financial Performance

Social networks have quickly become the fundamental structure for the world, so a

40 ��

primary understanding of social networks and their behavior is important to manage a twenty-first-century enterprise. According to Cooper’s examination of research on networks, the extent and number of social network ties are positively related to company performance (Hitt, Ireland, Camp, & Sexton, 2002). These social networks may engage financial, logistic, legal, governmental, and human systems. The social network develops into an asset (Crook, 2009). Top managers must consider risk estimates, how to lower transaction costs, and a comparison of benefits between collaboration and competition.

Gulati (2004) proposed that social networks are valuable channels of information that offer both opportunity and constraint for firms and have significant behavioral and performance implications. By channeling information, social networks enable firms to find new alliance opportunities, and can influence how often and with whom those firms enter into alliances. Additionally, Wong (2005) found that strong business networking in technology and marketing helped a firm’s performance advantages. According to Wong’s analysis (2005), suppliers engage in more proactive strategic behavior in social networking than do buyers in networking relationships. Wong’s results indicated that manufacturers with greater numbers of partnerships with other companies within their industries perform better than companies in similar businesses with fewer cooperative activities (2005).

Ultimately, top managers and academic researchers illustrate the significance of social ties and connections to firms’ performance via achieving a sustainable competitive advantage (Ordóñez de Pablos, 2005). According to the study of Farinda, Kamarulzaman, Abdullah, and Ahmad (2009), social networks increase SMEs’ value to business contexts when they are developed within business communities through exchanging thoughtful and rich experiences among firms in a variety of ways. Research exploring how the business networks are able to add value in SMEs’ optimal performance is scant. In their study, they found social networks as an important feature to SMEs and comprised of six pillars (i.e., stability, necessity, efficiency, asymmetry, legitimacy, and reciprocity). Because SMEs face challenges in a competitive economy or industry’s environment, they need to seek business opportunities for cultivating social networks and for maintaining profitability growth (Farinda et al., 2009). Social capital and networks positively impact the performance of companies from emerging economies, such as China and Russia (De Clercq, Danis, & Dakhli, 2010).

The prior research in the literature proved that SMEs in transition economies advantage significantly from different and robust network ties via increased knowledge of


overseas markets and improved performance in markets (Musteen, Datta, & Butts, 2014). The study outcomes of Semrau and Werner (2014) stressed increasing network size and relationship quality are at least to some level substitutable in their effects on resource access. Their study not only meant that nascent entrepreneurs tried to increase the possibility of gaining access to specific resources, but also implied that they should choose the one that facilitated them to most efficiently gain access to the needed resource.

4.3 Alliances and Financial Performance

Alliances have played a significant role in expanding business activities in recent years, and have become a popular means to expand companies’ reach. Resource-based view (RBV) is a theory that describes two organizations creating a relevant promotional alliance and using resources to advance their capabilities in combination with value creation, rareness, and inimitability as the characteristic of an RBV perspective that is theoretically the resource of a sustainable competitive advantage (Barney, 1995). According to Barney (1991), a company resource has value if it adds to business opportunities toward enhancing the company’s performance. The benefit of the RBV lies in its illustrative power to maintain the structure of inter-organizational alliances, as well as its framework for estimating alliance effects according to the production and cost minimization of a sustainable competitive advantage (Eisenhardt & Schoonhoven, 1996). Furthermore, the management operation of an alliance performs toward achieving successful relational elements for example, trust, commitment, and collaborative communication (Sarkar, Echambadi, Cavusgil, & Aulakh, 2001).

Ireland and Miller (2001) recommended that key decision makers should consider the RBV theory regarding alliance formation to pursue business opportunities and utilize company resources effectively. Hence, considerable agreement is important for companies exploring the role that alliances have for gaining and achieving competitive advantages because the RBV approach is a significant foundation for understanding successful alliances. Moreover, an accurately planned alliance relationship in an external business setting can support the collaborative development of tailored assets with potentially superior profit (Child, Faulkner, & Tallman, 2005). However, alliances have many inherent risks for those fearing opportunistic activities that may cause detriment to the alliance, as their strengths lie in their own opportunistic nature (Das & Teng, 2001).

Sadler-Smith, Hampson, Chaston, and Badger (2003) provided evidence that a positive

42 ��

relationship exists between institutional capabilities and SMEs’ business performance. Alliances can bring firms to develop a competitive advantage with others that they cannot make alone. The most important factor is an efficient transmission and sharing of knowledge that allow firms to achieve and maintain competitive advantages over their rivals (Donate-Manzanares, Guadamillas-Gómez, & Sánchez de Pablo, 2006). Companies perform restructuring processes in most manufacturing industries in order to overcome environmental uncertainty and alliances become a key factor for a competitive advantage in a business arena (Donate-Manzanares et al., 2006). Steinhilber (2008) concluded that a global business linked world markets by shortening business life cycles, flattening value chains, and building alliance capabilities to maintain profits.

Some earlier work pertaining to successful alliances collected data on alliances between companies and concluded that the more alliances companies have for sharing capabilities, the higher performance these companies experience (Anand & Khanna, 2000; Simonin, 1997). A company’s alliance experience has a positive relationship with its alliance achievement. The increase in a company’s performance may be attributed to its alliances, because there is most likely an internal knowledge feedback system from prior experience that enables the firm to either increase involvement with its existing alliance partners or expand into new alliances (Anand & Khanna, 2000). Furthermore, Ulubasoglu, Akdis, and Kok (2009) examined that the preference for internationalization is significant among the SMEs and specially, marketing and financing issues as key factors why SMEs seek to form alliances with foreign capital; their findings are consistent with Gomes-Casseres (1997) and Chen and Huang (2004) concerning internationalization and alliance behaviors of SMEs. The recent researchers analyzed that strategic alliances have a strong impact on company performance, while absorptive capacity affect both firm performance and success of strategic alliances (Flatten, Greve, & Brettel, 2011). In addition, Pittino and Mazzurana (2013) studied the link between alliance organization and alliance performance in SMEs and revealed that the degree of complexity of the alliance goals influences the best choice between governance instruments.

5. Research Model, Questions, and Hypotheses This study explored whether manufacturing SMEs in Taiwan can increase their

alliances to gain profit by utilizing social networks in the industry sector. The survey instrument used in this experiment consisted of three different scales that were previously


developed. The present study developed a questionnaire that was adapted to a sample of business owners and managers to investigate aspects of the performance in their firms. According to the theoretical background, the conceptual model proposed in the current study model was shown in Figure 1 to probe the relationships of social networks and alliances on SMEs in Taiwan and conducted empirical test.

Figure 1. Conceptual model of this study: The relationships of social networks, alliances, and financial performance.

Three hypotheses in current study were created to test the proposed framework. The hypotheses were tested via an online survey. Traditionally, managers required superior self-confidence to select strategic management tools and decision-making to approach successful results. This study examined how the social networks of Taiwanese top managers developed and pursued organizational goals to achieve performance. Managers were influential in the effectiveness of managerial process due to the exposure to real world business experience. Therefore, a questionnaire was developed on a sample of managers to investigate particular aspects of performance in their companies. In addition, this study aimed to determine whether collaborative agreements are significant tools to enhance SMEs’ competitive position. The purpose of this study was to illustrate the social networking behavior of top managers and how they help SMEs mitigate resource and capability limitations via alliances for enhancing performance. The relationships between the extent of social networks, alliances, and financial performance have not been investigated in the past. This framework indicated in Figure 1 contained three components for understanding the optimal path to achieve profitability.

These research questions were designed to investigate the proposed relationships among the extent of social networks, alliances, and financial performance as follows:

Alliances

Financial Performance

Extent of Social Networks

H1(+)

H2(-)

H3(+)

44 ��

Question 1. Does increasing the extent of social networks of top managers lead to an increase in the alliances of manufacturing SMEs? (H1) Question 2. Does increasing the extent of social networks of top managers contribute to higher financial performance of manufacturing SMEs? (H2) Question 3. Do alliances affect financial performance of manufacturing SMEs? (H3)

Through the use of social networks, SMEs compensate for their limited financial and other resources. Social networks can provide the compensatory function of the resource-based theory that aids in the selection of export strategies. Social networks can minimize challenges and overcome their resource-based weaknesses. The literature addressed earlier supports the conceptual framework of this study, which included a firm’s strategic market entry mode in relation to its alliances. The financial performance was positively impacted by the extent of top managers’ social network formation. The study hypothesized that incorporation of these factors would increase the likelihood of alliance partners to make a sustainable profit. The present study proposed the following three hypotheses to answer the research questions. The purpose of this study is to present the proposed theoretical outcomes into several testable hypotheses. Based on the application of current theories in the literature, this study developed three testable hypotheses. Hypothesis 1: The extent of social networks of top managers is positively related to alliances of their manufacturing SMEs. Hypothesis 2: The extent of social networks of top managers is positively related to the financial performance of their manufacturing SMEs. Hypothesis 3: Alliances are positively related to the financial performance of manufacturing SMEs.

6. Research Methodology

6.1 Sampling Methodology

Owing to the limited availability of SME data through survey research, SME data for the present study were obtained from a variety of government organizations and industrial associations. Data were collected randomly and were based on the following website data sources: (1) Small and Medium Enterprise Administration, (2) Industrial Development Bureau, (3) Taiwan External Trade Development Council, (4) The Bureau of Foreign Trade, (5) Taiwan Institute of Economic Research, (6) Taiwan Importers & Exporters Chamber of Commerce, and (7) various industrial associations in different cities and counties (e.g.,


importers and exporters associations in Taipei, Taichung, and Kaohsiung). A limit of one response per manufacturing enterprise was imposed.

6.2 Data Collection Procedures

Two thousand questionnaires using the Chinese version of a web-based survey were distributed by email to potential participants. A total sample of 543 responses was collected from business owners, presidents, vice presidents, general managers, managing directors, and managers of small and medium-sized manufacturing enterprises in Taiwan. Nevertheless, only 365 responses were used in data analysis, because 116 responses had too much missing data which could not be replaced. Those 116 responses were therefore dropped from data analysis. Additionally, sixty-two responses were from big companies (number of employees was greater than 200), and these responses were dropped because they were not in the target population.

The number of responses was received from 122 respondents on alliances and the number of responses was reported from 365 respondents on social networks because some SMEs didn’t have alliance engagement. Therefore, it is likely that Taiwanese manufacturing SMEs reported less alliance engagement or owing to fewer respondents (N = 122) reporting alliances compared to the respondents (N = 365) reporting social networks. The data were exported from Qualtrics by the researcher into an SPSS data file in order to analyze data normality, check for missing data, and for a preliminary review of item correlations. Identifying information was not required of the respondents, as the survey was anonymous.

6.3 Data Analysis Methodology

The quantitative analysis of the data included SPSS regression estimates in order to answer the research questions and to test the hypotheses. The data was then transferred from Excel to SPSS for statistical analysis. The dataset showed that relative to the three constructs (social networks, alliances, and financial performance) shown in Figure 1, 365 valid responses revealed social networks; 122 valid responses disclosed alliances; and 364 valid responses reported financial performance, with results listed in Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3. Before conducting regression analysis for testing the research hypotheses, validity, and reliability were assessed by using factor analyses and values of Cronbach’s alpha. Additionally, multicollinearity was checked for correlations between independent variables.

46 ��

Table 1 Mean, Standard Deviation, Item, and Reliability Statistics on Extent of Social Networks

Predictor Variable ( 7 Items) M SD Cronbach's Alpha (�) N

Extent of Social Networks

Q2 Interact_Supplier 3.49 1.04

.67 365

Q4 Interact_Customer 3.39 1.06

Q6 Interact_Other Industry 3.62 1.72

Q7 Number_Research Institute 1.92 1.06

Q8 Interact_Research Institute 3.20 2.20

Q9 Number_Trade Member 2.09 1.03

Q10 Interact_Trade Member 3.56 2.14

Note. N = 365.

Table 2 Mean, Standard Deviation, Item, and Reliability Statistics on Alliances


Alliances

Q20 Often_Network_Objectives 3.19 1.53

.69 122

Q21 Often_Alliance_Other Countries

3.98 1.85

Q27 Satisfaction_Alliance 5.19 .99

Q28 Alliance_Reduce Risk 5.27 1.16

Q29 Sales Increase_Alliance 5.73 .69


Table 2 (continued) Mean, Standard Deviation, Item, and Reliability Statistics on Alliances


Alliances

Q30 Alliance Increase_Foreign Mkt

5.75 .83

.69 122

Q31 Alliance_Competitive Advantage

5.76 .88

Q32 Objective_Form Alliance 5.39 1.00

Q33 Outcome_Alliance Satisfactory

5.30 1.04

Note. N = 122.

Table 3 Mean, Standard Deviation, Item, and Reliability Statistics on Financial Performance

Predictor Variable (3 Items) M SD Cronbach's Alpha (�) N

Financial Performance

Q48 Sales Growth 3.81 1.37

.92 364Q49 Sales Revenue_Outstanding

4.02 1.43

Q50 Sales Growth_Outstanding

3.99 1.49

Note. N = 364.

6.4 Control Variable Effects

In accordance with prior research (Autio, Sapienza, & Almeida, 2000), the current study controlled for the effects of firm age (years of existence) and firm size (number of employees) on and financial performance. This study examined whether the relationship between years in existence and number of employees affected an SME financial performance, by using Pearson R correction. No indications of a control variable effect on firm age and firm size seemed to impact financial performance of manufacturing SMEs in Taiwan. According to the dataset tested, an SME’s years in existence were not associated with its financial performance (no significance, r = -.052, p = .318). Based on the dataset analyzed, an SME’s number of employees was not associated with its financial performance

48 ��

(no significance, r = .081, p = .121). Alpha is normally conducted with several Likert-type items that were computed to build a composite score. In a study by Leech, Barrett, and Morgan (2011), Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was broadly applied because it offered a measure of construct reliability when they applied it to their study.

Calculating, interpreting, and reporting of this study used Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient for 7-point Likert-type scales. Before running statistical tests, the researcher separated Likert-type items from open-ended scales, and renamed the three variables (i.e., social_sum_likert_2, alliances_sum_likert_2, and financial_sum_likert_2) and then computed and summated the items. Next, the three variables were tested for reliability, validity, and multicollinearity of each construct. To test reliability, Cronbach’s alpha needed to be greater than .65 (Simpson & Joe, 1993); to test validity, the correlation ranges needed to be between -1.00 and +1.00 (Little & Rubin, 2002); and to test multicollinearity, the variance inflation factor (VIF) needed to be less than 10 (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998).

The results of the multiple regressions showed that Cronbach's alpha for reliability of the extent of social networks was .67, which was a reasonable degree of reliability for this construct. Table 1 displays the coefficient and number of items for extent of social networks. The alpha coefficient and number of items comprising the alliances scale are presented in Table 2. The reliability of alliances was confirmed by internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha, � = .69), indicating reasonable degrees of reliability for the construct. The alpha coefficient and number of items comprising the financial performance scale are presented in Table 3. The reliability of financial performance was confirmed by internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha, � = .92), indicating reasonable and relatively high degrees of reliability for the construct.

6.5 Instrument Validity

Utilizing three new Likert variables created and summated by the researcher (i.e., social_sum_likert_2, alliances_sum_likert_2, and financial_sum_likert_2) the validity of the measurement was assessed by correlations among predictors. The correlation matrix presented the correlations among the three variables and explored the correlations between various combinations of variables. As presented in Table 4, Pearson’s correlation coefficients (r) on financial performance as dependent variables indicated a correspondence or convergence of scales among similar constructs and indicated discriminant scales among


dissimilar constructs.

Table 4

Correlation Matrix and Significance Levels Among Predictors on Financial Performance Model

Predictor 1(r) Sig 2

(r) Sig 3(r) Sig

1 financial_sum_likert_2 1.000 -

2 social_sum_likert_2 -.081 .189 1.000 -

3 alliances_sum_likert_2 .288 .001** .224 .006** 1.000 -

Note. N = 122.a. Predictors: (Constant), social_sum_likert_2, alliances_sum_likert_2. b. Dependent Variable: financial_sum_likert_2. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

6.6 Checking for Multicollinearity

Multicollinearity (or collinearity) occurs when two or more predictors comprise much of the same information. Preliminary multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the multicollinearity using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer (2001) explained that a formative measurement model among items is based on a multiple regression and that multicollinearity should be not present in the same constructs. It is critical to check multicollinearity when conducting multiple regression (Leech, Barrett, & Morgan, 2011).

The outcomes showed that all of the VIF values were even lower than 2, with the value of test statistics ranging from 1.06 to 1.29 for the financial performance model, as presented in Table 5. Based on the rule of thumb, standard VIF tests of all the variables confirmed that no major multicollinearity problem was detected in this research model. Consequently, the potential multicollinearity among variables was not expected to affect the outcomes of multiple regression analysis.

50 ��

Table 5 Descriptive Statistics Among Predictors Financial Performance Model

Predictor M SD Collinearity

NTolerance VIF

financial_sum_likert_2 11.67 4.28 - -

122social_sum_likert_2 23.48 5.50 .940 1.064

alliances_sum_likert_2 45.57 5.57 .772 1.295

Note. N = 122. a. Predictors: (Constant), social_sum_likert_2, alliances_sum_likert_2. b. Dependent Variable: financial_sum_likert_2.

6.7 Results of Research Model Testing

Multiple regression analysis was the technique used to examine the relationship between the three independent variables and international performance and financial performance. The multiple correlation was used to evaluate the combined relationship of multiple independent variables with a single dependent variable through the assumption of linear regression (Creswell, 2005).

Descriptive statistics are provided in Table 5 for all three sum_likert variables, and N is 122 because multiple regression applies only the participants who completed data for each variable in a scale. The model summary in Table 6 demonstrates that the multiple correlation coefficient (R), showing all the predictors simultaneously, is also .33 (R² = .11), and the adjusted R² is .08, indicating that 8% of the variance in financial_sum_likert_2 can be predicated from social_sum_likert_2 and alliances_sum_likert_2 combined. The adjustment is also affected by the magnitude of the effect and the sample size. Table 6 indicates that F = 4.645 and is significant (p < .01) at � = .05. In all, the results of the multiple linear regression suggest that a statistically significant proportion of the total variation in financial_sum_likert_2 was predicted by social_sum_likert_2 and alliances_sum_likert_2 combined, F (3, 118) = 4.645, p (.004) < .01.


Table 6

Model Summary on Financial Performance

Model R R² Adjusted R²

Std. Error of the

Estimate

Change Statistics

R²Change

FChange df1 df2 Sig. F

Change

1 .325 .106 .083 4.095 .106 4.645 3 118 .004**

Note. N = 122. a. Predictors: (Constant), social_sum_likert_2, alliances_sum_likert_2. b. Dependent Variable: financial_sum_likert_2. ** p < .01.

6.8 Assessment of Mediation Model Effect

In the present study, a mediation model is one that seeks to identify and explain the mechanism or process that underlies an observed relationship between social networks and financial performance via the inclusion of alliances, known as a mediator effect. Hence, the researcher in the study tested mediation with multiple regression analysis for alliances. According to Baron and Kenny’s study (1986), this research model presumed the relationships among variables and alliances as a mediator of the relationship between social networks and financial performance.

Using multiple regression tests, it was determined whether alliances were mediators in this study. According to Gupta (2000), R-square indicates proportion of variation in the dependent variable (e.g., financial performance) in this study that can be interpreted by the independent variables (e.g., social networks and alliances) in this study. R-square coefficients fall between 0 and 1, and a higher value is better when using multiple regression. As seen in Table 7, R² values yielded large differences in mediator effect between extent of social networks with alliances and without alliances in the two models measured. Thus, alliances as a mediator effect can be considered a major factor for Taiwanese manufacturing SMEs to employ in order to enhance their financial performance. Forming alliances may therefore boost an SME’s performance.

52 ��

Table 7

Summary of Results of Assessment of Mediation Effect by Multiple Regression

Predictor R² Change in R² Mediation EffectSocial Network�Financial Performance with Alliances .106

Social Network�Financial Performance without Alliances .021 Difference from .106 Mediator

7. Results of Research Model Testing and Hypothesis Testing The key purpose of the regression was to maximize the predictive power of the

multiple independent variables (social networks and alliances) toward the dependent variables of financial performance. Research Question 1 was, “Does increasing the extent of social networks of top managers lead to an increase in the alliances of manufacturing SMEs?” Hypothesis 1 was, “The extent of social networks of top managers is positively related to alliances of their manufacturing SMEs.” Table 4 (extent of social networks, and alliances toward financial performance) indicated that the r = .224, p = .006, showing a statistically significant correlation between extent of social network and alliances. Hence, hypothesis 1 was supported.

Research Question 2 was, “Does increasing the extent of social networks of top managers contribute to higher financial performance of manufacturing SMEs?” Hypothesis 2 was, “The extent of social networks of top managers is positively related to the financial performance of their manufacturing SMEs.” Table 4 (extent of social networks, and alliances toward financial performance) indicated that the r = -.081, p = .189, showing no statistically significant correlation between extent of social network and financial performance. As a result, hypothesis 2 was not supported.

Research Question 3 was, “How do alliances affect financial performance of manufacturing SMEs?” Hypothesis 3 was, “Alliances are positively related to the financial performance of manufacturing SMEs.” Table 4 (extent of social networks and alliances toward financial performance) indicated that the r = .288, p = .001, showing a statistically significant correlation between alliances and financial performance. Consequently, hypothesis 3 was supported.


8. Conclusions and Discussion Conclusions are based on the research findings in order to address the study’s research

questions and hypotheses, and the researcher offers possible explanations of each conclusion. The researcher also links her findings to the theoretical frameworks of this study. Regarding the study’s conclusions, each main conclusion is discussed and compared to those of similar studies by other scholars.

Hypothesis 1 was, “The extent of social networks of top managers is positively related to alliances of their manufacturing SMEs.” Hypothesis 1 was supported. The finding indicates that social networks have become more important in the world’s economic sector. Social networks provide companies with access to various skills found in different countries, and the companies participating in these networks have distinct advantages over other companies. The present study’s finding is consistent with those of previous relevant research. Farinda, Kamarulzaman, Abdullah, and Ahmad (2009) posited that if SMEs establish positive business networking relationships amongst various organizations, they finally can start creating a successful business. Social networks provide viewpoints based on shared resources that assist firms in choosing export strategies (Oviatt & McDougall, 2005). As a result, SMEs benefit by forming alliances through business networking to ensure their survival. For example, Taiwanese companies are most likely to pursue alliances in which they are secondary to their leading partners; however, they employ these alliances to develop new opportunities (Chen, H. & Chen, T. J., 2002). In addition, Chen, H. and Chen, T. J. (2002) asserted that a Taiwanese firm attracts other firms in order to increase its sphere of partnerships through social networks. Examples of business alliances include those comprised of original equipment manufacturer (OEM) agreements, original design manufacturer (ODM) agreements, licensing contracts, and marketing contracts between both manufacturers and sales agents. Alliances may promote the position of Taiwanese firms in international business networks and enhance their capabilities to share resources within social networks.

Hypothesis 2 was, “The extent of social networks of top managers is positively related to the financial performance of their manufacturing SMEs.” Hypothesis 2 was not supported. The finding was not consistent with earlier literature cited. The possible reasons for this inconsistency are that the samples from this study and from other studies were collected from different countries, different cultural background, different manufacturing industries,

54 ��

using different formats of survey instrument. In addition, various networks have different structures (extent and size) and different power of ties.

According to previous studies, social networks of top managers positively impacted their companies’ financial performance. For instance, social networks have been found to enhance benefits that are provided to their partner members (Gulati, Shortell, & Westphal, 1997). Wong (2005) found that strong business networking in technology and marketing facilitated a firm’s performance benefits. Additionally, the extent and number of social networks to which a manager was connected positively impacted company performance (Hitt, Ireland, Camp, & Sexton, 2002). Carpenter (2011) emphasized that firms may expand external social networks to include customers, suppliers, and other stakeholders who are more likely to increase a profit from the social capital via the creation of new social networks. Social networks may leverage the social capital of SMEs, and, thus, it is vital to assess the relationship between social networks and the performance of companies.

Furthermore, Gulati (2004) proposed that social networks are valuable channels of information that provide both opportunity and constraint for companies and have important behavioral and performance implications. Finally, top managers and academic researchers have demonstrated the importance of social ties and connections to companies’ performance through attaining a sustainable competitive advantage (Ordóñez de Pablos, 2005). Nevertheless, Zhao and Aram (1995) asserted that there is a cost existing in establishing networks (e.g., managers’ time and fiscal responsibility). It is possible that the additional investments in establishing social networks, both in terms of energy and time, may cause reducing returns.

This paper investigated the established Taiwanese SMEs having more social networks to enhance performance. However, social networks weren’t positively related to financial performance. Several factors may account for insignificant impacts of the social network variable. The important impact is due to different business contexts. The majority of prior studies examined social networks for new companies or big firms whereas the current study investigated the social networks for established Taiwanese SMEs. The majority of social network studies have been conducted in the Western context. Nevertheless, this study attempts to bring the researchers’ attention to social network theme in Taiwan where it is taken into account in the infant stage. In this study, business performance was measured through social networks by unsupportive because SMEs were not prepared to publish their accounts especially in Taiwan.


Hypothesis 3 was, “Alliances are positively related to the financial performance of manufacturing SMEs.” Hypothesis 3 was supported. The finding was supportive of those from earlier studies in review of literature cited. Numerous studies have found that companies with market plans are greater exporting players. Alliances can be shaped for the long-term with organizational goals, or in short-term relationships for achieving financial performance. Sadler-Smith, Hampson, Chaston, and Badger (2003) demonstrated that a positive relationship exists between organizational capabilities and SMEs’ business performance. In particular, the resource-based alliance formation explains how companies employ alliances to position themselves with the optimal resource relationships in which to maximize the value creation of their resources, relative to other potential combinations (Das & Teng, 2000). Therefore, inter-organizational alliances are employed to extend a collection of value-creating resources that a company cannot provide alone. Partnering companies can be both domestic and international (Drucker, 1996). Moreover, the increased sales resulting from alliances should help SMEs’ financial performance (Reuer, Ariño, & Olk, 2011).

9. Limitations The particular nature and focus of this study create some limitations in generalizing the

findings beyond the study’s sample. A broader sampling of the Taiwanese manufacturing sector may yield different results regarding SMEs; however, wide-ranging SME data collection is difficult to obtain in developing countries, such as Taiwan. Nevertheless, like all research, the present study had some limitations that may deter the generalization of its findings, and these should be taken into account in the interpretation of the findings. The limitations of this study are listed as follows: • The population of this study was limited to Taiwanese manufacturing SMEs. Hence, the

findings of this study cannot be generalized beyond Taiwan. Similar studies of SMEs are recommended to examine SMEs from other countries and to extend the generalizability of the outcomes of this study to the context of other developing countries (e.g., Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, etc.).

• Since the sampling criteria for this study required that a company has 200 employees or fewer to be considered an SME, the findings may not be generalized to larger companies. Additionally, the data in this study were primarily limited to manufacturing SMEs. It is possible, then, that the empirical results of this study might apply only to manufacturing SMEs. The findings in this study cannot be generalized to all industries or organizations

56 ��

in Taiwan. Furthermore, this study’s sampling targeted Taiwanese SMEs from a restricted region, which may limit the ability to generalize the findings to other regions or countries.

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62 ��


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Shwn-Meei Lee, Department of International Business Management, Hsiuping University of Science and Technology Yi-Fang Chen, Student, Department of Information Management, National Taiwan University Received 12 November 2014; accepted 5 January 2015

The Role of Habit in Continue Usage of Social Network Sites: an example of

Facebook

Shwn-Meei Lee, Yi-Fang Chen

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the role of habit in continues usage of social network sites. We combine habits and continued use of the information technology extension model, because habit is an abstract construct and is harder to master, we combine habit and it’s antecedents and continue use and present a mode of habits on the impact of the continued intention to use mode. While past studies didn’t concern group norm as usage factor, based on social network sites context, this study adds group norm as habit’s antecedents and summarized the antecedents of social networking site habit factors were: frequency of prior behavior, satisfaction, and group norms.

With user using Facebook in Taiwan as research subjects, data analysis is conducted via LISREL statistical analysis, with 222 valid questionnaires returned. This study concludes two main results, including: (1) Habit has positive effect on continue intension to use. (2) Frequency of prior behavior, satisfaction, and group norms has positive effect on habit. In the whole, implications were provided.

Keywords: Information system continue usage, Social network site, Facebook, Habit, Group norm.

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Shwn-Meei Lee, Department of International Business Management, Hsiuping University of Science and Technology Wan-Ting Shen, Student, Department of Information Management, National Taiwan University Received 28 November 2014; accepted 26 January 2015

Development of a Multiple-Item Scale for Measuring User Satisfaction in Mobile

Portal

Shwn-Meei Lee, Wan-Ting Shen

Abstract

The maturity and population of wireless communication technology soars the number of mobile internet users , and drives the development of mobile service. Mobile portal is a critical part of mobile service value chain, nevertheless, there is a lack of applicable quality measurement scale for mobile service. Therefore, this study focuses on the development of the measurement of mobile portal user satisfaction.

This study integrates system quality, information quality, service quality, and mobile value, and develops original items for measuring the user satisfaction of mobile portal. Besides, it develops corresponding items from original dimensions. And this study use Internet questionnaire to perform the verification of items.

According to the developing process of scale, this study purifies scale. After this process, it develops a scale including thirty-six items and six dimensions. Through reliability and validity analysis, it also proofs that the scale can be used to measure the user satisfaction of mobile portal.

Keyword : Mobile Portal, User satisfaction, Mobile value.

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Shu-Yuan Huang, PhD Program in Business Feng Chia University, Ph.D. Student Received 13 December 2014; accepted 15 January 2015

Intellectual Capital Research in Taiwan: A Case Study on TSSCI Management Journals

Shu-Yuan Huang

Abstract

In the era of knowledge-based economy, enterprises have entered a new competition where victory depends on intellectual capital. Over the past 20 years, scholars and experts in Europe, the U.S., Japan and Taiwan have researched intellectual capital, and published numerous articles in academic journals to present their important findings. This paper aims to review the research results of relevant papers (78 in total) concerning intellectual capital issues under the management category of journal literature (5,632 in total) of Taiwan Social Sciences Citation Index (TSSCI) from 1998 to 2013. These articles are divided into such 3 subcategories as management, measurement and report to understand the research overview and trends of research in the areas of Taiwan’s intellectual capital field.

Keywords: Intellectual Capital, TSSCI, TICRC.

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Yi-jou Lo, Associate Professor of Department of English and Deputy Dean of Office of Research and Development at Wenzao Ursuline University of Languages Received 26 August 2014; accepted 23 December 2014

��

Edgar Allen Poe’s Ecological Discourse: A Bioregional Narrative in “Silence: A

Fable”

Yi-jou Lo

ABSTRACT

In “Silence: A Fable,” the Demon, similar to most of Poe’s characters, refused to communicate but aspired for singular attention upon him. However, a myriad of species and plants are listed in “Silence: A Fable” as if to make an eco-circle as a contrast of the lonely Demon. The Demon did not acquire the tentative focus and thus this fable distinguishes itself in its “rounding narrative without essentializing the idea of self” (Cheney 339). Cheney in his “Postmodern Environmental Ethics: Ethics as Bioregional Narrative” dubs the discourse with the term, “bioregional narrative.” Based on Cheney’s bioregional narrative and development, this paper intends to explore Poe’s eco-systematical depiction and bioregional perspective to see how the postmodern bioregional narrative is applicable in the interpretation of an American Romanticist, Poe’s works.

Keyword: Bioregional Narrative, Great Chain of Being, Silence.

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179 Edgar Allen Poe’s Ecological Discourse: A Bioregional Narrative in “Silence: A Fable”: Yi-jou Lo

A Bioregional Narrative Fritjof Capra in The Tao of Physics declares the world is “a complicated web of

relations between the various parts of the whole” (71). A relational personhood, as a result, catches scholars’ attention. Nurit Bird-David claims a relational kinship after her ethnographic fieldwork in India. Bird-David deems that “I think, therefore I am” should be replaced by “I relate, therefore I am” and “I know as I relate” (78). For centuries, human beings have always thought boastfully of themselves under God and angels only. Sueellen Campbell, yet, states that “human beings are no longer the center of value or meaning” (133) and such a human-centered opinion is “illusory” (134). Aldo Leopold supports, "We are plain members and citizens of the land-community, not rulers of the earth” (240). Arne Naess reiterates that, “Organisms as knots in the biospherical net or field of intrinsic relations. An intrinsic relation between two things A and B is such that the relation belongs to the definitions or basic constitutions of A and B, so that without the relation, A and B are no longer the same things” (Tobias 39). To this extent, it is required for mutual understanding between A and B. Christopher Manes proposes that we human beings have to “learn a new language (24) and that we have to “relearning ‘the language of birds’ – the passions, pains, and cryptic intents of the other biological communities that surround us and silently interpret our existence” (25). Jim Cheney, in his “Postmodern Environmental Ethics: Ethics as Bioregional Narrative,” claims that “we must stand in relation to it [the land]; it must define us, and we it” (34). As a result, Cheney proposes “contextual discourse” in a “bioregional narrative” to illustrate the postmodern environmental ethics. Cheney firstly quotes from Conrad Aiken’s poem “The landscape and the language are the same./ And we ourselves are language and are land” to include the ecology in the narrative environment. To Cheney, a bioregional narrative “account[s] not in a coherent, historically continuous, stable identity” but “in the geography, demography, and architecture of the communities” (333). The interaction between the locus and us is highly emphasized. “Self and geography are bound together in narrative which locates us in the moral space of defining relations” (334). In consequence, the language used should be a language “intermediate between self and world” (334). He gives Native American vision as an example and concludes it should be tales “not of universal truth, but of local truth, bioregional truth” (337). C. A. Bowers shows his affirmation to Cheney’s contextual language by expounding that, “[Contextual language] both names relationships that go unnoticed in the more abstract and totalizing discourse of the modern individual and it encodes the cultural group’s knowledge * (wisdom) of

180 ��

sustainable relationships as the moral code that defines current relationships” (35). Like the previously mentioned scholar’s statement, Bowers puts his emphasis on the study of “sustainable relationships” by pointing out the commonly abstract and totalizing discourse as the problem which [the problem] according to Manes, may be traced back to the idea of scala naturae or “Great Chain of Being.” To Manes, Great Chain of Being depicts a world of “lower and higher forms” (20) and “[draws] on humanity’s position in the Great Chain between ‘dumb beasts’ and articulate angels” and thus, the natural world is abused (20). Cheney concludes that “Our position, our location, [should be] understood in the elaboration of relations in a non-essentializing narrative achieved through a grounding in the geography of our lives” (337).

With relation as the orientation, Cheney proposes “The notion of socially constructed selves gives way to the idea of bioregionally constructed selves and communities” (338). Such kind of bioregional narrative thus employs contextual language but not totalizing language. Contextual language is defined by Cheney as,

The language must also articulate a process of human interaction with the land which ensures the health both of the land and the community. Contextualized language is turned to quite specific situations and forgoes the kind of totalizing coherence with which we have been so preoccupied in the mode modern world. (326)

Josephine Donovan expounds that within the discourse, dialogue, conversation, and consensus used should be “fostering a nonviolent apprehension of difference and a receptiveness to the living being of the Other” (74). The receptiveness helps to “assimilate language to the situation”—a condition reverses the usage of “totalizing language” which is “ to assimilate the world to it” (Cheney 329). By contrast to a totalizing language, contextual discourse, as a result,

is not fundamentally concerned with issues of overall coherence. Or, rather, . . . it strives . . . a mosaic of language which serves as a tool of many purposes at one. In the life of a tribal community, for example, it must articulate a sense of those processes which bind the community together and to the land; and it must do this in a language which functions effectively to call forth appropriate responses. . . (326)

By the using of contextual language, contents in a bioregional narrative are mostly from our own experience, daily life, and related to “spiritual…encounter” (Cheney 343). It is a narrative of interaction and of communicability but not “of false [and] distorting” voice.


(334) .

A Bioregional Narrative in American Literature As far as Edgar Allen Poe is concerned, seldom would issues of nature or ecology be

raised up in Poe study despite of the truth that Poe’s works are categorized into Dark Romanticism because of the aura of horror and terror. However, speaking of romanticism, there always comes association with nature. By deeper contemplation, the gloomy nature illustrated, and the fungus and the embedded poem, “The Haunted Palace” in “The Fall of the House of Usher,” reminds us of Poe’s possible vicinity to the natural region. Thomas P. Riggio in “American Gothic” uncovers that Poe’s nature depiction is more than expected. He finds more examples as “the giants of the forest” in Poe’s “The Sphinx,” “the lone lake” in “The Lake: To -,” “cystal lakes and over-arching forests” in “Politian” (522) and so on. It is true that in most of Poe’s works, nature and/or landscape is nightmare like, as being pointed by Riggio (522) even though human beings are the dominating narrators and center of the plot in Poe’s stories. However, surprisingly, in Poe’s “Silence: A Fable,” things are delicately changed. The title “silence” reminds readers of Rachel Carson’s Silent Springeven though this book is not “silent” at all on the ground that Silent Spring is full of Carson’s challenging “a government that allowed toxic chemicals to be put into the environment” (Lear xv). Nonetheless, they do share with some common points especially the nature illustration in Silent Spring resembles that in “Silence: A Fable.”

There was once a town in the heart of America where all life seemed to live in harmony with its surroundings. … Along the roads, laurel, viburnum and alder, great ferns and wildflowers delighted the traveler’s eye through much of the year. (Carson 2) The waters of the river have a saffron and sickly hue; and they flow not onwards to the sea, but palpitate forever and forever beneath the red eye of the sun with a tumultuous and convulsive motion. For many miles on either side of the river's oozy bed is a pale desert of gigantic water-lilies. They sigh one unto the other in that solitude, and stretch towards the heaven their long and ghastly necks, and nod to and fro their everlasting heads. (Poe 221)

The first citation above is from Carson’s first chapter of Silent Spring; the second, from “Silence: A Fable.” Carson entitles the first chapter as “A Fable for Tomorrow” and thus it makes a surprising coincident by two authors simultaneously have “fable” in their

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illustration (further analysis will be related in the later part of this paper). Secondly, in the description, both Carson and Poe depict a lot of natural beings: in less than five lines, Caron mentions laurel, viburnum and alder, great ferns and wildflowers while Poe has depicted about waters, river, sea, sun, and water-lilies. Thus the two authors’ writing styles and even contents are not as dissimilar as readers had thought.

Recall back to American literature, it will be even easier to understand how and why Poe is under the bioregional narration lineage. Landscape has been a focal point in the depiction of American literature writer. Due to the influence of Puritans to whom nature was often of symbolic meaning to the way to salvation such as in Edward Taylor’s Preparatory Meditations, Anne Bradstreet’s Contemplations, Phillis Wheatley’s poems to even St. Jean de Crevecoeur’s Letters from an American Farmer-- land and nature are frequently two of the most popular topics in their writing.

As far as American Romanticism is concerned, Hawthorne and Melville as well as Poe are deemed as the most influential American Romantic writers. Being influenced by Puritanism, Hawthorne also explores a lot the typological Puritanical symbols. The red bud out of the jail in Scarlet Letter tells Hester’s future may be associated with part of the nature. Moreover, Hawthorne’s picturesque illustration is highly praised by Leo B. Levy who expounds that Hawthorne’s picturing of hills, falls and even storm is his “power to organize the visual experience of nature” (391). Similarly, Melville’s depiction, especially that of the ocean is out of question. Lawrence Buell indicates that Mellvile’s “sensitivity to physical environments was acute” (4). From the epic-like Moby Dick, allegorical Mardi to the psychologically complicate Pierre, Buell maintains that Melville has developed a theme of “human ferocity against animal nature” (4) to prove how human beings cannot ignore the existence of Nature.

From Edward Taylor, Anne Bradstreet, Phillis Wheatley, St. Jean de Crevecoeur, Hawthorne, Melville even to Poe, interaction between human and other beings is never forgotten in their literary illustration.

“Silence: A Fable” The Story

“Silence: A Fable” is narrated by a demon who told an unknown listener how he observed stealthily near Zaire River in Libya. During his observation, he had viewed a strong man sitting on the rock silently. Despite the river, the flower and so on showed their


dynamicity, the strong man never said anything. As if being irritated and ignored by the man and the natural surrounding, the Demon at first called the hippopotami which shouted loudly but the beings are not disturbed at all. Finally, the Demon seemingly angry, cursed “with the curse of silence, the river, and the lilies, and the wind, and the forest, and the heaven, and the thunder, and the sighs of the water-lilies” (223). Thus, he scared away all the natural beings.

During the peeping (the demon used the word as “observation”), the Demon had seen a rock engraved with “solicitude”; after the shouting and curse of the Demon, the word was transformed into “silence” (223). The stout man was scared away too. In the end, “the lynx which dwelleth forever in the tomb, came out there from, and lay down at the feet of the Demon, and looked at him steadily in the face” (224).

Great Chain of Being and Silence The starting of the Demon’s narration preludes this story of a different hue in

comparison with most of Poe’s narrations. A first person point of view is used as it is in most of Poe’s stories but at the first and last paragraphs only. The truth is, for the rest paragraphs, “Silence: A Fable” is unusually centered by the link of biological beings. From the waters of the river, sea, the sun, water-lilies in the second paragraph, the forest, primeval trees, dews, poisonous flowers, gray cloud, a cataract, and wind in paragraph three, to the moon, mist, gray rock, stone, lilies, and morass in the fifth paragraph, obviously, the bioregional beings had formed a mysterious circle.

Previously, Manes has pointed out the defect of the Great Chain of Being which makes elephants higher than earwigs; salamanders, advanced than sparrows (22). In a bioregion, the chains are still constructed only that it is of no hierarchal stratum. In Poe’s “Silence: A Fable,” it is by means of his catalogue-like list that how beings are chained without stratum discrimination is depicted. Such a catalogue-like writing apparently is favored by most of the nature writing or ecological authors. Previously, Carsons’ writing has been cited for an example. Even Leopold is also fond of a similar catalogue presentation,

A dawn wind stirs on the great marsh. With almost imperceptible slowness it rolls a bank of fog across the wide morass like the white ghost of a glacier the mists advance, riding over phalanxes of tamarack, sliding across bog meadows heavy with dew. A single silence hangs from horizon to horizon. (underline added, 98)

Again, natural scenes are categorized one by one and all of them are of the same importance.

184 ��

The categorization of different beings is listed to manifest the variety of the ecological circle. It depicts entities in the place is of a “constant recontextualizing” with each other (Cheney 333) by “including all of nature within the moral community” (Cheney 334). Most of the time, in categorizing, human beings either are not included or are kept distance away from them. As in “Silence: A Fable,” if the Demon had not disturbed them, the natural beings would have continued their life—even it is a life of desolation.

The word engraved in the rock from “desolation” to “silence” may tell the regulation of residing in the bioregion. According to Online Oxford Dictionary, desolation is under the situation of “uninhabited and giving an impression of bleak emptiness.” Contrary to the definition, the Demon observes a place with various plants and beings. Obviously, it is a desolated wilderness based on the Demon’s definition only. Yet, Henry David Thoreau renders, "In Wilderness is the preservation of the World" (221.). The place of desolation, far away from the hustle-bustle civilization, would in fact, preserve our innocence and vitality for life. the Demon, unfortunately, has lost his innocence to appreciate the scenery. Thus, there comes the second word, “silence” as a remainder and warning.

Silence in most of the colonial discourse often emblems repression or something being suppressed. As a result, to articulate is often encouraged for healing. However, in a bioregional narration, the ability to listen is much more important; in consequence, knowing the time to be silent is a requirement to keep the relation with the resident region. This explains why both Carson and Leopold admire the moment of silence. The Demon in “Silence: A Fable” thus becomes a counter-example. At the very beginning, the Demon asked to be listened (221) to show he was unable to be ignored. Later on, in his peeping of the natural context, feeling being neglected, the Demon started to induce a hippopotami’s “roar[ing] loudly and fearfully beneath the moon” (223); thus the environment was disturbed but still no attention was swerved to the Demon. The Demon even started to curse “the curse of silence” and all beings there (220). These behaviors tell the Demon is not one who can tolerate silence. Yet, the power of silence is invincible. In silence, the dynamic vitality continues. On the contrary, in noises, we see boredom. Tao Te Ching (${D) remarks, “Color's five hues from the eyes their sight will take; /Music's five notes the ears as deaf can make; /The flavors five deprive the mouth of taste” (“�||�/}��d|�

~��|�-�”, trans. ctext.org). The sensual stimulation would only ruin our pure sense and sensibility. It is only in terms of silence can we regain our original pureness. Chuantzi adds, “He sees where there is the deepest obscurity; he hears where there is no


sound. In the midst of the deepest obscurity, he alone sees and can distinguish (various objects); in the midst of a soundless (abyss), he alone can hear a harmony (of notes)” (“>

��ñ�I�6��I��^��”, trans. ctext.org). Chen adds, “We would undoubtedly be happier and our life richer when we learn how to understand and appreciate more the beauty of silence” (48).

On the one hand, the “silence” on the rock in “Silence: A Fable” outlines the importance of silence in a bioregional ecosystem. On the other hand, the silence is a reprimand onto the Demon that kept on annoying the ecology by his shouting and cursing. Therefore, Confucius once was angry when Tzi Gong asked him to speak out something. Confucius thus replied in The Analects of Confucius (��), “Does Heaven speak? Yet the

four seasons continue to change, and all things are born. Does Heaven speak?” (“��Æ

�x�V/��1�)��Æ�”�trans. Muller Online). Philip Cafaro, after reading A Sand County Almanac, is amazed that, “it is striking how often Leopold praises the virtues of the nonhuman world…a natural wisdom which silences the people who walk below” (3). Likewise, the silence in “Silence: A Fable” may imply the Demon should be silent among the ecosystem to admire the “natural wisdom,” but not be immersed with a self-centered narrative.

The Indistinct Man Contrary to the Demon, the Demon observed a tall man who may have been the

protagonist if it is in other storyline. Yet, the following narration again argues a different direction. Hamilton Wright Mabie summarizes Nathaniel Hawthorne’s writing by outlining that “the moment a figure appears in the landscape, the landscape begins to relate itself to the figure” (21). In “Silence: A Fable,” the man was “tall and stately in form” (270) as if he was about to have the landscape to relate to him. Yet, the Demon next illustrated how the man was melting into the region with other beings harmoniously by rendering how “indistinct” (270) the man is in the Nature. The showing of the man is always accompanied by the rock that he sat on and the “the night waned” (270). So, the landscape does not relate itself to the figure. In “Silence: A Fable,” it is the man that relates to the landscape. Countering to the colonial narrative where humane society is most of the time the only narrative center, a bioregional narrative illuminates a relative identification. Bird-David affirms that “the relatedness reconstitute[s] all the participants as…a person” (77). Namely, by “maintaining relationships,” personhood is reproduced (73). In addition, different from

186 ��

the Demon who asked for attention, the unknown man just kept on looking at the surrounding: “He looked down into the low unquiet shrubbery, and up into the tall primeval trees, and up higher at the rustling heaven, and into the crimson moon” (222). Furthermore,

And the man turned his attention from the heaven, and looked out upon the dreary river Zaire, and upon the yellow ghastly waters, and upon the pale legions of the water-lilies. And the man listened to the sighs of the water-lilies, and to the murmur that came up from among them. And I lay close within my covert and observed the actions of the man. And the man trembled in the solitude; --but the night waned and he sat upon the rock. (222)

Different from the Demon who never took a rest among the nature, the man, after looking around, took a seat upon the rock as if performing a contextual communication in which “a process of human interaction with the land which ensures the health both of the land and the community” is articulated (Cheney 326). Also a contrast to the Demon who requested for listening, the man was always looking, listening but never speaking. It is as if the man is performing his “interspecies meditation” (Kowalski 121) to inter-communicate with species by not disturbing the locale.

The Lynx and the Link In “Silence: A Fable,” the Demon similar to most of Poe’s characters, refused to

communicate but aspired for a spot-light on him. He thus scared away all species, including the divine man and the unknown listener. It seems the Demon in fact has done no harm at all in the environment. Richard Sylvan proclaims a re-definition of “doing harm.” He argues that the liberal philosophy of the Western world maintaining that the idea of anyone being able to do what he wishes only that he does no harm to others as “human chauvinism” (49). He argues who can decide whether it is harmful and secondly, the so called “others” in the previous statement generally refers to other human beings but not other beings. What the Demon had done in “Silence: A Fable” indeed did not harm to him at all. It seems the rhino was not hurt by the Demon either. However, that the rhino made no objection did not mean the rhino felt no hurt at all. Moreover, the successive running away of all nature beings tells that the Demon’s interruption should be harmful to the environment. Paul W. Taylor therefore claims that, to show respect for nature, we all have recognized a life-centered environmental ethics, namely, lives of all entities not just human beings” (74). What the Demon has done, thus, is far away from showing his respect to life—let alone a close


formulation of the bounding between self and geography as depicted by Cheney (334). Just when every thing and every one drew back, the lynx came out in front of the

Demon, “look[ing] at him steadily in face” (224). The river of lynx of course connotes of forgetfulness which, Barbara Cantalupo adds, the Demon asking for attention would be forget ultimately. After all, Cantalupo renders, silence but not the Demon, should be the focal point (1). Even more ironically, Cantalupo connects lynx with link (with a similar pronunciation) to stipulate the importance of relativeness. Despite the Demon refused to be related to the circumstance, the link of all beings is not neglected. It is of course not a link with hierarchal system but a link of “we-ness” as coined by Brid-David. In her study, she explores, by the example of the Ojibwa custom, within the link of “we-ness” (73) every species retains a personhood as animal can have animal person, and wind with wind person (71); namely, every existence is considered as singular as a person as important as being linked together to form a “we” community.

Among Poe’s short stories, he has finished one fable on silence and one parable on shadow. Michael Williams elucidates that parable is of more mythic abstraction and therefore “Shadow: A Parable” “veers toward a skeptical recognition” (624). Contrary to the abstraction in “Shadow: A Parable” is a myriad of substantial beings in “Silence: A Fable.” Jack Goody outlines that alphabetic writing “changes the nature of representations of the world” because it allows humans to lay out discourse and “examine it in amore abstract, generalized and ‘rational’ way” (37). In other word, this human-invented abstraction puts human world into a world of shadow, and a world of generalization. These invented abstract words become Martin Heidegger’s fallen language which may uproots itself away from the primordial language, the latter of which “articulate a process of human interaction with the land” (Cheney 345) and “encodes the … knowledge of sustainable relationships” (Bowers 35). As a result, it also explains the locale of Zaire in “Silence: A Fable.”

Mozelle Scaff Allen assures the setting of “Silence: A Fable,” Zaire, should be inspired by Voltaire’s play, Zaïre (67) despite of the fact that Poe has specified it from Libya. L. Moffitt Cecil concludes that the locus of Zaire form Libya asserts “Poe employs a curious mélange of supernatural agents to intensify the wonder in his fictional world” (68). It is a pity that Cecil furthermore claims that it is unnecessary for readers to admire the beauty of the island and/or valleys because the beauty of “Silence: A Fable” should be located in “harmed isolation or are conjured up overnight through some magic spell” (67). The exotic locus of a river from Libya in “Silence: A Fable” may be connoted with imagination or even

188 ��

fantasy. However, the specific illustration of species and the item-by-item categorization assert the existence of these beings. As Cheney reaffirms, a bioregional narrative is not concerned with “issues of overall coherence” (344) and is a “non-essentializing narrative” (337). Therefore, the setting in “Silence: A Fable” is “a dreary region … by the borders of the river Zaire. And there is no quiet there, nor silence” (221). The place without silence in a story about silence thus deconstructs itself to refuse to be categorized into the essential narrative. It is only by means of extinguishing the self that the related chain of beings is formulated in the bioregional ecosystem.

Works Cited Allen, Mozelle Scaff. “Poe’s Debt to Voltaire.” Studies in English 15 (July 8, 1935): 63-75. Bird-David, Nurit. Animism” Revisited: Personhood, Environment, and Relational

Epistemology.” Current Anthropology 40.S1: (February 1999): S67-S91. Bowers, C. A. Educating for an Ecologically Sustainable Culture. N.Y.,Albany: State U of

New York P, 1995. Buell, Lawrence. The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the

Formation of American Culture. Cambridge, MA: Belknap P of Harvard UP, 1995. Cafaro, Philip. "Thoreau, Leopold and Carson: Toward an Environmental Virtue Ethics."

Environmental Ethics 23 (2001): 3-17. Cantalupo, Barbara. “The Lynx in Poe’s ‘Silence’.” Poe Studies/Dark Romanticism 28.1-2

(June-December 1995): 1-4. Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring with Essays by Edward O. Wilson and Linda Lear. 2002. Cecil, L. Moffitt. “Poe's ‘Arabesque’.” Comparative Literature 18.1 (Winter, 1966): 55-70. Chen, Shudong. “Searching for a Voice of Silence Across Cultures: Does Silence Speak?”

East-West Connections: Review of Asian Studies 6.1 (2007): 37-52. Cheney, Jim. “Postmodern Environmental Ethics: Ethics as Bioregional Narrative” Memory,

Identity, Community: The Idea of Narrative in the Human Sciences. Ed. Lewis P. Hinchman and Sandra K. Hinchman. Albany: State U of New York P, 1997. 328-50.

de Groot, Wouter T. Environmental Science Theory: Concepts and Methods in a One-World, Problem-oriented Paradigm. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1992.

Donovan, Josephine. “Ecofeminist Literary Criticism: Reading the Orange.” Ecofeminist Literary Criticism: Theory, Interpretation, Pedagogy. Ed. Greta Gaard and Patrick D. Murphy. Urbana and Chicago: U of Illinois P, 1998. 74-96.


Goody. The Domestication of the Savage Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.

Kowalski, Gary A. The Souls of Animals. Walpole: Stillpoint, 1991. Lear, Linda. Introduction. Silent Spring with Essays by Edward O. Wilson and Linda Lear.

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New York: Ballantine, 1970. Levy, Leo B. "Hawthorne and the Sublime," American Literature 37.4 (1966): 391-402. Mabie, Hamilton Wright. “Nathaniel Hawthorne.” The North American Review 179.572

(Jul., 1904): 13-23. Muller, A. Charles, trans. The Analects of Confucius. Revised 2011.01.17. Web.

http://www.acmuller.net/condao/analects.html Online Oxford Dictionary. http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/desolate Poe, Edgar Allan. “Silence: A Fable.” Poe: Poetry and Tales. New York: Literary Classics

of the United States, 1984. 221-24. Riggio, Thomas P. “American Gothic: Poe and an American Tragedy” American Literature

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