COLOR FORUM

Colour Psychology and Colour Therapy:Caveat Emptor

Zena O’Connor*Environment-Behaviour Studies Research Group, Faculty of Architecture, Design and Planning, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

Received 17 April 2009; revised 9 September 2009; accepted 11 September 2009

Abstract: Information about colour psychology and

colour therapy abounds in popular culture. Articles found

in mass media as well as a plethora of Internet websites

are often devoted to colour and a range of psychological,

biological, and behavioral effects. The information avail-

able, which varies from scant summaries with catchy titles

to lengthy and comprehensive discussions, is often pre-

sented in an authoritative manner exhorting the reader to

believe a range of claims such as red is physically stimu-

lating and arousing and blue is calming, relaxing and

healing. However, empirical evidence or evidence of any

nature is only rarely cited and, when it is, it’s often in ref-

erence to findings that are inappropriately generalized or

out-of-date and superseded. This article discusses a range

of colour psychology and colour therapy claims found in

popular culture and notes the similarities between these

claims and the writings of early theorists such as Birren,

Goldstein, Gerard and Luscher. While these authors have

a valid if somewhat dated place in the literature on colour,

there are a number of key reasons to be wary of colour

psychology and colour therapy claims made in popular

culture. These reasons are discussed in some detail and

provide compelling support for applying the caveat emptor

principle to colour psychology and colour therapy claims

found in nonacademic sources. � 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Col Res Appl, 36, 229– 234, 2011; Published online 29 April 2010 in

Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20597

Key words: psychology; physiology; health; color theory

THE INTERFACE BETWEEN COLOUR AND HUMAN

RESPONSE: CURRENT RESEARCH

Academic publications include a broad range of studies

that discuss the effects of light, as well as the influence of

coloured light-waves in respect to human response. While

human vision is a complex and not yet fully understood

process, the receptor system for detecting light has been

found to be different from that associated with the circa-

dian cycle.1 Light influences the human circadian rhythm

and changes in light-dark exposure can desynchronize the

circadian cycle affecting the ability to sleep and wake, as

well as impacting on physiological and metabolic proc-

esses. Furthermore, disruptions to the circadian rhythm

may result in changes in mood and behavior as evidenced

by studies that focus on seasonal affective disorder

(SAD).2–4 Light has also been found to have an effect on

the human neuroendocrine system and may also suppress

melatonin and elevate cortisol production, both of which

may have negative impacts.4,5 Furthermore, a number of

recent studies have indicated that certain wavelengths of

light may have specific impacts. For example, blue light

may improve cognitive performance; different coloured

lenses may assist with reading difficulties such as dys-

lexia; and the human circadian system may be particularly

sensitive to short wavelength light.6–8 Despite many

advances in recent research, the precise roles of the rods

and cones of the retina as well as melanopsin in the con-

trol of circadian cycles remains to be determined.9

In addition, a plethora of studies exist which suggest

that colour may influence a range of psychological, physi-

ological, and behavioral responses, and the range and

diversity in terms of the findings from such studies is

highlighted by an analysis of 30 studies conducted by

*Correspondence to: Zena O’Connor (e-mail: zena.designresearch@

gmail.com).

VVC 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Volume 36, Number 3, June 2011 229

Mikellides.10 For example, it has been suggested that red

has a greater capacity for arousal than blue11,12; however,

findings from a more recent study suggest that there is no

statistically significant difference between these two col-

ours in terms of physiological arousal and that it may be

hue rather than saturation (intensity) of colour that has an

impact.13 In addition, recent studies have found that

responses to colour may vary depending on age, gender,

culture, and preference.14,15

It is important to note that while many of the recent

studies that focus on psychological, physiological, and

behavioral responses are scientifically rigorous, the find-

ings are often based on an extremely limited range of

colour samples and/or a small sample group. In addition,

while associations may exist between various colours and

a range of different human responses, it does not neces-

sarily follow that such colours can be effectively used in

therapy or related applications as some sources in popular

media suggest.

COLOUR PSYCHOLOGY AND COLOUR THERAPY IN

POPULAR CULTURE

Sources of information about colour psychology and

colour therapy in popular culture include mainstream

magazines, online magazines, and Internet websites.

These sources often provide information relating to var-

ious psychological, biological, and behavioral effects of

colour. Internet search engine Google currently provides

access to 365,000 websites for information relating to

‘colour psychology’ and 284,000 websites for informa-

tion relating to ‘colour therapy’. For example, www.

about.com and www.colortherapyhealing.com offer

numerous pages on colour psychology and colour heal-

ing, respectively, with the latter providing fairly detailed

information about the use of colour as a therapeutic

tool and a range of colour therapy workshops. Simi-

larly, www.colour-affects.co.uk offers detailed informa-

tion about the psychological properties of colour and

provides a summary of four personality types linked to

specific colours. In addition, mass media magazines and

online magazines, such as Conscious Living Magazine

(www.consciousliving.net.au) and WellBeing Magazine

(www.wellbeing.com.au) feature articles on colour psy-

chology and colour therapy.

The information available from popular culture sour-

ces can vary from broad, generalized articles to detailed

pseudo-scientific discussions. Occasionally, such articles

and discussions may be peppered with generalizations,

platitudes, and motherhoods statements such as ‘‘Colors

are the mother tongue of the subconscious’’ or ‘‘Color

heals.’’ A typical example is the following by Camp-

bell16 which featured in the online magazine Conscious

Living.

‘‘Color can repair and heal the body, when the

frequency of the color aligns with the emotion needed

to activate the microparticulars so healing can take

place . . . The use of color in visualization is most

effective, and easiest for the novice to utilise, as color

has a very strong radiating effect on the whole body.

Every other form of color therapy is fundamentally

symbolic.’’

In a similar vein, Wright17 suggests that ‘‘eleven

basic colours have fundamental psychological properties

that are universal, regardless of which particular shade,

tone or tint you are using. Each of them has potentially

positive or negative psychological effects and which of

these effects is created depends on the relationships

within colour combinations.’’ While, Rewell18 provides

a somewhat more detailed discussion about specific

responses to colour in the online WellBeing Magazine

as follows.

‘‘Babies cry more in yellow rooms. Tension increases

in people in yellow rooms and people who drive

yellow cars are more prone to become aggravating in

heavy traffic . . . Spend time exposed to a lot of

yellow and you’ll feel like time has sped up . . . A

rejection of yellow indicates a fear of change.

Red stimulates the physical and adrenalin. It raises

blood pressure, the heart rate and respiration.’’

Other sources of information about colour psychology

and colour therapy found in popular culture include ar-

chitectural and interior design books (for example, see

Kopacz19 and Mahnke20) as well as technical reports,

such as those by Hill.21 In addition, a range of short

and long term courses and workshops are available

such as the colour therapy workshops offered by the

Colour Therapy Healing organization in the UK.22 Sim-

ilarly, the International School of Colour and Design23

in Sydney incorporates a colour psychology component

within its basic, diploma and distance learning courses;

and the Nature Care College24 offers a number of

colour-related modules as part of its Diploma of Ener-

getic Healing and Aura Soma 1 colour practitioner

course.

DEFINING COLOUR PSYCHOLOGY AND

COLOUR THERAPY

The term colour psychology, often used interchangeably

with ‘‘the psychological effects of color’’ as suggested by

Van Wagner,25 tends to refer to a range of affective, cog-

nitive, and behavioral responses and associations linked to

specific colours. While this definition of colour psychol-

ogy remains fairly consistent across mainstream media

and internet websites, some sources extend the definition

to include a larger gamut of responses such as colour

preference, as well as precognitive and biology-based

responses, defined by Kopacz to mean the influence of

colour on human metabolism, circulation, and respiratory

systems (p 92).

In reference to colour therapy, Kopacz suggests that the

‘‘biological consequences of colour responses can be a

230 COLOR research and application

valuable tool in health management’’ for the treatment of

various ailments, and this appears to be a fairly common

understanding of the term (p 93). While Logan-Clarke

and Appleby26 suggest that colour therapy, or chromather-

apy, can be used prescriptively as an ‘‘holistic, noninva-

sive, and powerful therapy’’ (p 1).

Across most popular culture sources, the range of

responses linked to colour varies enormously by type and

extent. That is, symbolic colour associations and colour

meanings are often mentioned in conjunction with a range

of psychological responses to colour including affect,

preference, and cognitive judgements; and these in turn

are often comingled with biological and behavioral

responses to colour. An example of the intermingling of a

range of different types of response is provided by Van

Wagner as follows.

Red is a bright, warm colour that evokes strong

emotions; Red is also considered an intense, or even

angry, colour that creates feelings of excitement or

intensity.

Blue calls to mind feelings of calmness or seren-

ity. It is often described as peaceful, tranquil,

secure, and orderly. Blue can also create feelings

of sadness or aloofness. Blue is often used to deco-

rate offices because research has shown that people

are more productive in blue rooms.

Green is restful, soothing, cheerful and health-giv-

ing. Green is thought to relieve stress and help heal.

Those who have a green work environment experi-

ence fewer stomach aches. Green has long been a

symbol of fertility (p 5–7).

Similarly, symbolic associations of colour are inter-

mingled with psychological, physiological, and behavior

responses in the following example from Logan-Clarke

and Appleby.

Red is the colour for courage, strength, and pio-

neering spirit . . . It is the colour of anger, violence

and brutality.

Blue is calming, relaxing, and healing (but) not as

sedentary as indigo.

Green is the colour of balance and harmony and

can, therefore, be helpful in times of stress. If one

has experienced trauma, a green silk wrapped around

the shoulders can have a very therapeutic effect

(p 5,6,9).

Sources of information in popular culture tend to suggest

that an irrefutable, causal relationship exists between colour

and human response as an example from Hill illustrates:

‘‘Based on numerous studies by Drs. Morton Walker,

Gerard, and Faber Birren, the link between colour and

physiological responses has been well documented’’ (p 7).

In addition, most sources imply that the link between

colour and human response is universal irrespective of

individual or cultural differences. For example, Logan-

Clarke and Appleby assert: ‘‘Red . . . is stimulating and

energising, therefore, it is helpful for tiredness and leth-

argy, to stimulate low blood pressure, to boost sluggish

circulation . . . Red is energising and excites the emotions,

and can stimulate the appetite’’ (p 10). Similarly, Rewell

contends ‘‘Red stimulates the physical and adrenalin. It

raises blood pressure, the heart rate and respiration’’

(p32); and Kopacz suggests ‘‘Red is believed to

sensitise the taste buds and sense of smell, increasing the

appetite . . . all this occurs because the heart rate instinc-

tively quickens, which causes a release of adrenalin into

the bloodstream raising blood pressure and stimulating

the nerves’’ (p 76); and ‘‘the sight of the colour blue

causes the body to release tranquilising hormones when it

is surveyed, particularly a strong blue sky’’ and ‘‘many

believe (blue) can lower blood pressure, slow the pulse

rate and decrease body temperature’’ (p 79).

While a number of sources note that colour psychology

information is often based on anecdotal evidence, many

imply that various colour-related claims have sound em-

pirical support as in Hill’s assertion above. Similarly,

Kopacz notes the lack of evidential support but offers the

work of eight writers, psychologists, and designers includ-

ing Birren and Mahnke as well as Morton Walker (author

of Bald No More, Foods for Fabulous Sex, Your Guide to

Foot Health as well as The Power of Color) and Wright

(colour consultant of www.colour-affects.co.uk) as sup-

port for colour psychology and colour healing informa-

tion. Similarly, Mahnke notes the inconclusive nature of

findings from research that focuses on the interface

between colour and human response, and also refers to

the work of Birren and Goldstein among others as support

for the psychophysiological effects of colour.

In regard to colour healing, it is suggested that colour

can be used as a treatment tool in conjunction with the

seven chakras of the body.19,20,26 The notion of chakras,

considered to be energy centres within the human body,

belong to a belief system originating from the Hindu

scriptures known as the Upanishads, dating from the first

millennium BCE. Under the colour-chakra theory, a

colour is linked to each of the seven chakra and these col-

ours are associated with body functions and dysfunctions

within each chakra area. For example,

Red: Activates the circulation system and benefits

the five senses; used to treat colds, paralysis, anaemia,

ailments of the bloodstream and ailments of the lung;

Blue: Raises metabolism; is used to stabilize the

heart, muscles and bloodstream; used to treat burns,

skin diseases, glaucoma, measles and chicken pox,

and throat problems;

Green: Strengthens bones and muscles, disinfects

bacteria and virus, and relieves tension; used to treat

malaria, back problems, cancer, nervous disorders,

and ulcers, and to manage heart problems and blood

pressure.19

The allocation of colours to each of the chakras is rem-

iniscent of the doctrine of the four colour-linked humors

of the body from ancient Greek medicine: black bile,

Volume 36, Number 3, June 2011 231

yellow bile, green phlegm and red blood. The linking of

colour with the humors, the four elements (earth, fire,

water and air) as well as the seasons, was a belief system

that continued through to the Renaissance as evidenced

by the colour correspondences depicted in the engraving

by Nicoletto Rosex.27

Aside from ancient belief systems, much of the infor-

mation currently available in popular culture about colour

psychology and colour therapy echo, if not directly quote,

the work of a number of key earlier theorists such as

Birren,28,29 Gerard,30 Goldstein,31,32 and Luscher.33

BIRREN, GERARD, GOLDSTEIN, AND LUSCHER

Extensively quoted by Kopacz and Mahnke mong others,

Faber Birren published more than 40 books and over 250

articles on colour psychology, colour therapy as well as

functional colour and colour vision. Tunney34 advises that

Birren was a leading authority on colour in the mid 20th

century who was retained as a colour consultant by

Dupont, General Electric, Sears & Roebuck and the

United States Navy. In Color psychology and color ther-

apy, Birren28 suggests that an unambiguous and universal

causal link exists between colour and human response,

and he cites Goldstein’s assertion that ‘‘It is probably not

a false statement if we say that a specific color stimula-

tion is accompanied by a specific response pattern of the

entire (human) organism.’’ (p 144).

Kurt Goldstein published The Organism31 in 1939 and

was considered a highly influential authority on the psy-

chological aspects of colour by Birren, who included sev-

eral excerpts from Goldstein in his Color psychology and

color therapy publication such as ‘‘under the influence of

red light, time is likely to be overestimated. Conversely,

under the influence of green or blue light, time is likely to

be underestimated’’ and ‘‘under red light, weights will be

judged as heavier; under green light they will be judged

lighter’’ (p 211). Birren as well Mahnke cite Goldstein’s

1942 study,32 which discussed the perceived stimulating

effects of red and the opposite effects of green.

Robert Gerard,12,30 whose 1958 doctoral thesis (Differ-

ential effects of colored lights on psychophysical func-

tions) was subsequently presented as a conference paper

(Color and emotional arousal), is also frequently cited by

Birren and Mahnke. Gerard’s key findings from his study

on the arousal properties of red, blue, and white illumina-

tion, as reported by Wise et al.,35 include: ‘‘statistical dif-

ferences between red-blue (illumination) conditions for all

physiological measures except heart rate-responses to the

white light varied but most often were similar to those of

the red condition’’ (p 5). Wise et al. also note that

Gerard, whose study involved a small sample of 24 male

university students, advised caution in terms of the gener-

alizability of his findings. It is unfortunate that Gerard’s

advice was not reported by subsequent authors such as

Birren or Mahnke.

Max Luscher,33 who developed and published the

Luscher Color Test, included four basic colours (which he

referred to as psychological primaries) in the colour test:

Orange-red, bright yellow, blue-green and dark-blue; as

well as four auxiliary colours: violet, brown, black, and

neutral grey. Luscher, citing anecdotal evidence, assigned

specific associations and affective characteristics to each

colour. For example, ‘‘red has a stimulating effect on the

nervous system, blood pressure increases, respiration rate

and heartbeat both speed up; while blue has the reverse

effect, blood pressure falls, heartbeat and breathing both

slow down’’ (p 12). The Luscher Color Test is essentially

a colour preference test and its use in personality testing

and assessment has been cautioned by Walters et al.36

While the theories of Birren, Gerard, Goldstein, and

Luscher have their place in the literature on colour, it is

important to note that their theories have, to a large

extent, been superseded. It is unfortunate that despite the

breadth and depth of contemporary empirical studies that

focus on the interface between humans and colour or col-

oured light, the findings of these studies rarely, if ever,

appear in the information currently available in popular

culture. This and a number of other reasons discussed in

detail below provide a compelling case for applying the

principle of caveat emptor in respect to colour psychology

and colour therapy information found in popular culture.

Caveat emptor

Latin for buyer beware, caveat emptor implies that in

the absence of a warranty, the buyer is at risk and the

onus for carefully assessing goods and services before

purchase remains with the buyer. There are a number of

key reasons why the principle of caveat emptor should

prevail in regard to colour psychology and colour therapy

information found in popular culture.

First, while findings from research suggest that colour

influences human response, the existence of an irrefutable

and universal causal link between colour and an unlimited

range of psychological, biological, and behavioral

responses remains an unsupported hypothesis. Wise et al.

assert that ‘‘there are no ‘hard-wired’ linkages between

environmental colours and particular judgemental or emo-

tional states’’ (p 46). In addition, as aforementioned, a

range of studies exist which support a link between colour

and human response; however, the findings are limited

by, and contingent on, the setting and context of the

study, the size and composition of the sample group, as

well as the limited range of colours used in the stimuli.

Furthermore, the findings of many such studies are

also limited because of the methodological weakness of

studying a complex and subjective phenomenon such as

colour in isolation.

Another reason to be wary of some colour psychology

and colour therapy claims is the notion that the ancient

wisdom embedded within some claims represents eviden-

tial proof. For example, Kopacz cites the link between

colour and charkas per ancient Hindu scriptures; and Van

Wagner suggests that chromatherapy was practiced by

several ancient cultures, including the Egyptians and

232 COLOR research and application

Chinese. The implication being that not only is the wis-

dom of the ancients above question but it provides evi-

dential proof of the veracity of some colour-related

claims. It is important to note that ancient belief systems

are not always a guarantee of veracity as evidenced by

the superseded beliefs that the world is flat, and the sun

and moon orbit the earth. While not intending to dispar-

age the wisdom of the ancients, a fair proportion of this

wisdom has been superseded by later scientific discovery

and the existence of a link with ancient wisdom should

not of itself be used as evidential proof of any claim.

A third reason to be cautious about colour psychology

and colour therapy information is the practice of occa-

sionally presenting ‘factoids’ as facts. Coined by author

Norman Mailer, factoids are suppositions or inventions

presented as fact as illustrated by the Ferrell and McKay37

line in Anchorman: ‘‘It’s anchorman not anchor-lady, and

that’s a scientific fact!’’ Colour psychology and colour

therapy information available in popular culture occasion-

ally appear to be factoids presented as facts, such

Rewell’s18 assertions that: ‘‘We are hard-wired to yellow

as a stimulus . . . If your environment is boring and time

passes slowly, surround yourself with small amounts of

yellow’’ and ‘‘People who dislike yellow often favour

blue to calm themselves and feel secure. If you drink cof-

fee for a pick-me-up, try drinking it from a yellow cup.’’

Similarly, Van Wagner25 claims: ‘‘Yellow can also create

feelings of frustration and anger. While it is considered a

cheerful colour, people are more likely to lose their tem-

pers in yellow rooms and babies tend to cry more in yel-

low rooms.’’ Without substantiation or empirical evi-

dence, such claims remain factoids not facts.

An additional reason to be wary of colour psychology

and colour therapy information found in popular culture

has to do with the level of external and ecological validity

embedded within such information, whether or not such

information is supported by empirical evidence. To

explain, while various studies exist that focus on the inter-

face between human response and colour, Arygrous,38

Campbell and Stanley,39 and Coolican40 consider it

empirically and methodologically unsound to draw gener-

alised conclusions from such studies and transfer them to

different settings or contexts.

The fallacy of the single cause, which provides a fifth

reason to be cautious about colour psychology and colour

therapy claims, suggests that one single cause for an out-

come represents causal oversimplification. Under the post-

positivist paradigm, recent theorists such as Hard and

Sivik41 consider the interface between colour and human

response to be highly complex and open to the influence

of a wide range of factors and mediating variables. While

correlation may indicate the existence of an association

between one variable (such as colour) and human

response, proving a causal link without allowing for medi-

ating variables and other influences is now considered

empirically and methodologically unsound.38,40

Furthermore, key mediating variables in terms of the

interface between colour and human response include an

individual’s personality, cultural experiences and affective

state. For example, an individual’s stimulus screening

ability is rarely mentioned in colour psychology and

colour healing information found in popular culture. Meh-

rabian42 found that individual differences exist in terms of

stimulus screening ability, and high screeners are able to

automatically screen out less important components of

environmental stimuli such as colour and sound as

opposed to low screeners. Therefore, it is likely that an

individual’s stimulus screening ability may negate claims

may about responses to colour in popular culture.

Finally, a seventh reason to question some colour psy-

chology and colour therapy information is the inherent

bias that is often evident. Referred to as subjective valida-

tion, this occurs when two unrelated events are perceived

or judged to be related because of an expectation of such,

or that an existing hypothesis demands a relationship. For

example, to apply the notion that ‘‘green relieves stress’’

to the following claims: ‘‘green silk wrapped around the

shoulders can have a very therapeutic effect’’ and ‘‘Those

who have a green work environment experience fewer

stomach aches’’ indicates subjective validation and ren-

ders the internal validity of such claims flawed.

To conclude, colour psychology and colour therapy

claims information found in popular culture suggest that

colour prompts a range of different human responses: psy-

chological, biological, and behavioral. Many of these

claims lack substantiation in terms of empirical support,

exhibit fundamental flaws (such as causal oversimplifica-

tion and subjective validation), and may include factoids

presented as facts. In addition, such claims often refer to

outdated research without referring to current research

findings. It is therefore advisable to apply the principle of

caveat emptor when evaluating magazine articles and

Internet websites that focus on colour psychology and

colour therapy, plus check with a medical practitioner or

psychologist before accepting or acting upon such

information.

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