Casus BelliCasus Belli

1. 18712. Alliance system3. Nationalism4. Arms Race5. Sarajevo6. “The lights are going out”

18711871

• The world was a much better place in 1871• Capitalism had created abundant affluence• La belle époque (the golden age)• International law ensured everyone had rights

and they were respected by others• But there was a serious gap between reality and

theory –the Great Powers dominated- Britain, Germany, Austria, Russia, Italy, France

• They were spokesmen for the Concert of Europe

• Peace and stability was based on the balance of power• An attack against one was an attack against all• Liberal ideals were being replaced by more conservative

thoughts• Western Europe was considered solidified national units • The unification of Germany had involved 3 wars and

humiliated France• France lost the Franco-Prussian war and also Alsace

and Lorraine

• Alsace had been part of the HRE but had been French for over 200 years

• Lorraine was wholly French in population• The Germans hoped the French would accept the loss – wrong!• A modern Europe required a German state, but which lands

would that involve?• Nowhere did political frontiers match lines of nationality• Gladstone supported every countries’ claim to independence• Yet eastern Europe was a quilt of countries wanting

independence

• Rumania had been created in 1871 and had been ruled by the Turks, Germans, and Austrians

• Poland was a bigger issue because it lay in the borders of 3 other countries – Prussia, Austria, and Russia

• Bismarck had supported Russia repression of the Poles in exchange for Russian neutrality in the Franco-Prussian War 1870

• There where 4 great empires in eastern Europe:Germany, Russia, Austria, Turkey (Ottoman)

• There were also 4 independent countries:Serbia, Montenegro, Rumania, Greece• They all shared 2 traits:

a) hatred of the Turksb) the ability to be friends with Great Powers

AustriaAustria• Austria had an empire but it wasn’t a nation – it was

entirely comprised of minorities• 1860 Austria was defeated by the French • 1866 Austria was defeated by the Germans• By 1867 Austria was neither a German nor Italian power

but it had millions of both• In 1867 Austria-Hungary was created – 2 countries – 1

ruler, hence the Dual Monarchy• Hungary was ruled by the Magyars, very pro-German and

anti-Slav and anti-Russian

• Nobody could afford a war• There would be no winner• The growth of pacifism -war was a thing of the

past - we were civilized. • Europe had seen almost 100 years of peace

(1871 minor war)• It would be the localized Third Balkan War that

would become World War I

• Business prevented any island from being isolated• Foreign investment was so large• Better communication, cheap newspapers• Better educated people• Even victory would be expensive

Ivan Bloch - The Future of WarNorman Angell The Great Illusion (1910) won the Nobel Prize

• The problem was that there was no means for negotiating peace

European countries controlled the worldGermany - won the Franco-Prussian war,

gained Alsace and Lorraine, wanted to isolate France, economic stability, led by the Iron Chancellor Bismarck, little interest in colonialism, unified.

France - lost Alsace and Lorraine, weak military, imperialistic in Asia and Africa.

Great Britain - “splendid isolation”, colonial conflicts with France and Russia

Austria - wanted to limit Slavic nationalism on southern border and hostile nationalism within the borders

Russia - very imperialistic throughout the century – but overland: in the Balkans; disputes with Austria over Slavs; Ottomans; Japanese

Italy - interest in North Africa led to disputes with France.

The Balkans - a politically unstable region comprised of many ethnic groups. Mostly Christian.

United States - not involved in global affairs

AlliancesAlliances

The Russo-Turkish War 1877-8• Bulgaria revolted against Ottoman Empire

(Turks) “sick man of Europe”• Turks slaughter thousands of Slavs• Serbia and Montenegro declared war on

Ottomans• Russia declares herself protector of the Slavs• Treaty of San Stefano

Treaty of San Stefano• Increased Russian power in the Balkans and

threatened the Austrians• At the Congress of Berlin (1878) Bismarck(Honest

Broker) created:1 Independence for: Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania2 Austria received the right to administer Bosnia and

Herzegovina3 Russia gained control of Bulgaria

(windows to the west) and some regions of Turkey

The Driekaiserbund• 1879 Germany and Austria signed the Dual

Alliance - which remained in place for almost 40 years

• The Three Emperors’ League created by Bismarck to keep Austria and Russia at peace

• Germany - Kaiser William• Austria - Emperor Francis Joseph• Russia - Tsar Alexander

• 1881 Driekaiserbund was revived:a) Acknowledged Russia had interest in Bulgariab) Austria had interest in Bosnia-Herzegoveniac) promised neutrality if anyone was attacked by a fourth power

• 1881 France makes Tunisia a protectorate• Italy seeks allies• 1882 Triple Alliance - Germany, Austria, Italy

a) both would help Italy if Italy attacked by Franceb) Italy would help Germany if France attackedc) the treaty did not apply to Britain

• Germany has treaties with Austria, Italy, Russia, and on good terms with Great Britain

• 1883 Austria and Rumania (later Germany added)• 1887 Driekaiserbund not renewed because of problems

between Austria and Russia• 1887 Germany -Russia sign Reinsurance Treaty

a) extremely secretiveb) in the event of war both would stay neutral except: if Austria is attacked by Russia or France is attacked by Germanyc) Germany promised to promote Russian goals in the Balkans

Reinsurance Treaty (1887)• Russia dissolved Three Emperors’ Treaty

because of tensions in the Balkans• Signs new treaty with Germany - both stay

neutral unless: Germany attacks France or Russia attacks Austria

• 1890 Bismarck is dismissed• France signs a military alliance with Russia

– aimed at Britain in the Med.

• 1896 Kaiser William sent a telegram to Transvaal President Kruger offering support

• Germany also starts to increase naval power• The Fashoda Crisis forced France to reevaluate their foreign policy• 1902 Britain signs the Anglo-Japanese Alliance• 1904 Anglo-French Entente

Britain recognizes French claims to MoroccoFrance recognizes British claims to Egypt

• 1900 German prestige had deteriorated drastically• “Weltmacht” (world power) Germany wanted to be an equal of

Britain and France

Nationalism

• 1900 there were 25 sovereign states in Europe - none would admit to a higher authority

• Alliances created states less willing to compromise• There was a huge build up in armament after the Franco-

Prussian War• Each nation should have its own state• France wanted Alsace-Lorraine returned• Italy wanted Austrian land• Patriotic literature motivated people “my country, right or

wrong”

• The French wanted to establish a protectorate over Morocco and gained the support of other European countries

• The Germans defended the rights of the Moroccans• January 1905 German Chancellor Bulow told Morocco

of German support• The Dreyfus affair had wrecked France

France’s ally Russia was busy with JapanFrance was in no position to negotiate

Moroccan Crisis

• Jan 16 Algeciras Conference - Germany optimistica) Britain was France’s only allyb) Italy, Austria-Hungary, US supported Germanyc) Believed Spain would switch sides

• German inept diplomacy alienated everyone• Germany was now isolated• Prime Minister of Britain Lord Grey discussed

with France and Belgium the possibility of war

• 1905 - Russia defeated by Japan and loses credibility

• 1905 Failed revolution in Russia causes countrywide instability

• The Treaty of Berlin had given Austria the right to administer Bosnia-Herzegovina

• In 1908 Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina - Serbia could do nothing without Russian help

• Russia and Austria made a deal for mutual prestige

• Russia acknowledges Austria’s right to Bosnia• Austria agreed with Russian control of the

Dardanelles• Austria took control of Bosnia• Russian control of the Dardanelles was rejected• Serbia threatened to invade Bosnia to liberate

the Serbs• Austria-Hungary threatened to destroy Serbia• Germany supported Austrian claims to Bosnia• Russia supported Serbia

• 1911 Tripolitan War - Italy takes Libya from Turkey

• 1912 Bulgaria, Serbia, and Greece wage war on Turkey - First Balkan War

• 1913 Greece Serbia, Rumania and Turkey wage war against Bulgaria - Second Balkan War

The Arms RaceThe Arms Race

• By 1908 the German army was getting the most money• By 1914:

a) Germany had the second largest navy - behind Britainb) Had pushed Britain closer to France and Russiac) Had wasted considerable money because the fleet was bottled up for most of the ward) If those resources had gone to the army Germany would have won the war

• William II was a proponent of the arms race• 1890 German army was 20,000

1913 German army was 800,000

• William was envious of the British• A navy would:

a) protect trade routesb) express greatnessc) protect colonies

• Naval strength: Britain; France; America; Italy; Germany

• 1896 Alfred Tirpitz appointed Minister of Marine(Fisher was his British counterpart)

• March 1898 - Naval Construction Actcalled for:11 battleships5 heavy cruisers17 small cruisers by 1905

• Tirpitz claimed a navy would make Germany great - (Bismarck had said it would drive Britain to France)

• Dec 1899 Hihenlohe called for a “Risk Fleet” - so no power could pose a risk

• June 1900 a new naval bill:a) called 38 battleships in 20 yearsb) regardless of costc) Reichstag to have no control over spending

• 1905 Britain started the H.M.S. Dreadnought• 1906 German starts her own Dreadnought, with demands for

6 before 1918, but their model was susceptible to explosions• Britain was forced into the Naval Panic of 1909• But Germany couldn’t afford the largest navy and largest

army

Sarajevo

• Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne visit Bosnia on Serbian Independence Day

• He and his wife are assassinated in Bosnia by Gavrilo Princip

• Princip was a member of The Union or Death (Black Hand)

• This was the spark that ignited the Balkan “powder keg”• His death was the excuse for Austria to move against Serbia• July 6 1914 Germany promised to help Austria in the event of

war - the “blank check”• Austria demanded Serbia met their demands

i) condemn anti-Austrian propagandaii) suppress all anti-Austrian publicationsiii) eliminate critical teachers and booksiv) allow Austria control the investigationv) Serbian officers suspected were to be arrested

• July 22 Austrian ultimatum sent with German approval and demanded a reply in 48 hours

• Serbia agreed to all demands except those over sovereignty• Serbia suggested arbitration• Austria refused and:

a) severed diplomatic relationsb) ordered partial mobilizationc) euphoria swept across Vienna

• Russia was determined to support Serbia

• Russia considered war inevitable• July 26, issued secret orders for a “period preparatory to

war”• July 27 Russia notified Austria if they crossed the Serbian

border the Russian army would mobilize• July 28 Austria issued a declaration of war to avoid more

discussion• July 29 Austrian artillery bombards Serbia• July 29 Russia declares war against the Dual Monarchy

““The lights . . .”The lights . . .”

• France approved of Russian policy• Russia asked Britain to mediate• Britain suggested Austrian occupy part of Serbia• Germany agreed to the Pledge Plan• July 30 Germany gave the plan to Austria• Germany planned a meeting for July 31• July 31 Austria mobilized against Russia• British Foreign Secretary Grey “The lamps are going out all

over Europe, we shall never see them lit again in our lifetime”

The Outbreak of War• Austria hoped for a limited war• Austria declared war on Serbia• German “Blank Check” and urged aggression• British followed isolationist ideals until the

violation of Belgium• élan vitale (strength of the people)• Revanche (revenge for 1870)• Most Europeans believed it would be a short

and decisive war

• Germany, committed to fighting Russia in 1914, urged Austria to invade Serbia

• Germany was sure they could defeat Franceand Britain would then stay neutral

• Germany declared war on Russia and then two days later France

• Schlieffen Plan - indicated the Germans anticipated a war on two fronts

• August 4 1914 Germany invaded Belgium• France was utterly defeated, but Britain joined the war• Russia mobilized faster than expected• Moltke moved men from the west to the east• Germans reached the Marne River, 40 miles from Paris

War in the East• Russians invaded East Prussia defeated at

Tannenberg• Austria failing against Serbia and Russia• Germany aided Austria and turned the

fight• BUT, Germany was fighting on two fronts• November 1917, revolution in Russia

forced them to seek peace

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk• Forced by the liberals in Russia• Bolsheviks gain power• Russia loses:

Poland, Ukraine, Finland, Baltic Provinces - 34% of Russia’s population89% coal mines32% farmland54% industry

The United States• America was sympathetic to the Allies• Anti-German feelings• U-Boats• President Wilson• Lusitania• Resumption of unrestricted submarine

warfare

Kaiserschlacht• German’s last offensive before the US joins

the war• Major gains to break the deadlock• Battle of Belleau Woods the Allies stopped the

Germans• Armistice Day - November 11, 1918

The Legacy of War• July 16, 1918 the Czar and his family are massacred by

Bolsheviks• September 30, Bulgaria accepts armistice – King

Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his son• London – over 2,000 people were dying every week from

flu• October – Czechoslovakia proclaimed itself a republic• Hungary announced independence of Austria on the

same day

• October 30, Turkey makes a separate peace, but a settlement would come later (Peace of Sèvres, 1920)

• November 3, Austria signs an armistice and becomes a republic when Emperor Karl resigns

• Hungary announced independence of Austria on the same day

• November 11, fighting is stopped• Britain, France, and Russia had promised Greece large

parts of Turkey• 1919 Greece took Ismir and started Turkish resistance

• Britain had promised Constantinople to the Russians – but not the Bolsheviks

• Britain and France had secretly decided to divide the Middle East between themselves(Sykes-Picot Treaty) Iraq and Palestine being BritishSyria being French

• The British had told the Russians the secret before the Revolution. Now the Bolsheviks told the world

• Italy became furious – Britain offered Italy parts of Turkey including Ismir

• Civil war broke out in Italy – settled in 1922 by Mussolini• In 1914 Egypt had been made a British protectorate and

expected independence in 1918 but didn’t get it until 1922• Palestine was made British Mandate with the aim of creating

a Jewish homeland - Uganda Iraq became a British Mandate (Arabic =domination)

• Syria became a French Mandate

Russian Revolution

National Collapse• The revolution of 1905 changed little in

Russia- the tsar still controlled the army and the aristocracy controlled the govt. with the tsar having veto power

• For Russia World War I was devastating• 1915, Tsar Nicholas II took command of

the army his (German) wife controlled the government

• In 1915 there were two million Russians casualties

• Grigori Rasputin - a Siberian mystic who indulged in sexual orgies- became more influential

• The tsarina believed Rasputin was a holy man who could save her fifth child her son Alexis

• Rasputin did, probably through hypnotism• Rasputin controlled who could see the queen

• 1916 - Rasputin was assassinated by 3 members of the aristocracy but it was too late to save the monarchy

• “If I die or you desert me, in six months you will lose your son and your throne”

• Food shortages worsened and morale declined• The government raised the price of bread and people

waited up to 12 hours for bread• March 8 the women of Petrograd marched for food

• The tsar, from the front ordered the soldiers to open fire

• March 12, 1917 the Duma declared a Provisional Government

• March 15 the tsar abdicated• The March Revolution had been caused by

hunger

• The Provisional Govt established:a) equality before the lawb) freedom of religionc) freedom of speech d) freedom of assemblye) the right to form unions and strike

The Provisional Government• The leader Alexander Kerensky refused to

distribute confiscated lands and he saw the war as a national duty

• Soviets formed in Petrograd (Paris Commune 1792)

• The Provisional Govt had to share power with the Petrograd Soviet (Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers Deputies) which represented radical interests

• Petrograd Soviet issued Army Order No. 1 replace all army officers

LENIN• Lenin was a lawyer who became an enemy of the

tsar• In 1887 his brother was executed for plotting to kill

the tsar• Lenin:

a) used the Communist manifesto for inspirationb) under certain conditions a socialist revolution was possible even in a backward country like Russiac) needed a highly disciplined workers’ party

• Lenin’s ideas were challenged by Russian Marxists which then split into two groups

• Bolsheviks (majority) were led by Vladimir Ulianov (Lenin)

• Mensheviks (minority)• Lenin’s majority didn’t last but he still kept the name• Lenin had been observing

Russia from Switzerland and he saw the March Revolution as a positive step

• The German’s gave Lenin, his wife, and about 20 followers safe passage to Russia

• In his “April Theses” Lenin said Russia could move directly towards socialism

• The Bolsheviks promised to end the war; redistribute land to the peasants; transfer ownership of factories to the workers; move government from the Provisional Government to the soviets

• April 3, arriving at Finland Station, Petrograd he proclaimed “Peace, Land, Bread” “All land to the peasants” “Stop the war now”

• In July an attempted coup failed an Lenin was forced to flee

• He was charged with helping the Germans and accepting money from the Germans

• Kerensky became prime minister in July and his commander in chief was the war hero General Kornilov (heart of a lion the brains of a sheep)

• Kornilov launched a feeble attack against the Provisional Govt. and was discredited even by the army

• In October the Bolsheviks gained a fragile majority in the Petrograd Soviet (Council)

• Lenin found a strong right-arm in Trotsky• Trotsky brilliantly organized the take over

of power by the Bolsheviks• Trotsky took power in the name of the

more acceptable democratic soviets not the Petrograd Soviet

• Trotsky gradually seized all power from the Provisional Govt.

• In October Lenin ordered his troops to plan a revolution• Council of People’s Commissars• Lenin - chairman• Trotsky - foreign

affairs• Stalin - commissar of nationalities• Sought to destroy Russian Orthodox Church• Seized church property• Replaced Julian calendar with Gregorian• Simplified the alphabet• Secret police - Cheka• Russia becoming a dictatorship• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk got Russia out of the war in

1918.

Civil War• There was great opposition to Lenin from

those loyal to the tsar; anti-Leninists; and Mensheviks

• Bolsheviks (Reds) called themselves Communists

• The Whites had no common goal and remained unorganized butsupported by Western allies

• War Communism - nationalization to ensure supplies

• By 1921 the new system was not working. Farm and industrial production remained a fraction of prewar levels

• Kronstadt Naval Base mutinied against Leninist policies, but was violently suppressed.

• Lenin realised that war communism did not work, he would need to change economic direction

• Seeing the need for change Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP)

• NEP gave the state ownership of large companies but did allow some private ownership

• 1918 Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic - RSFSR

• 1924 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics - USSR

• 1924 Lenin died after a stroke• Trotsky’s Doctrine of Permanent Revolution

bourgeois--proletarian--world• Stalin’s Doctrine of Socialism in One Country

did not need world socialism• Stalin gains control• Trotsky flees to Mexico - murdered with an axe in 1940

by Stalinist supporters• The Great Purge• The Five Year Plan

Revolutions• FRANCE:

a) leading country of the timeb) strength in middle classc) happened fastd) ordinary people became leaderse) opposition returnedf) monarchy restoredg) by 1990 ideas widely accepted

• RUSSIA:a) most backward countryb) strength lay in lower classesc) took over 50 years to evolved) paid revolutionary leaderse) wiped out all oppositionf) no monarchyg) by 1990 the ideas were rejected

Revolutions• Both originated in deep-lying and distant causes• Both were movements of liberation:

France - against feudalism and despotismRussia - against capitalism and imperialism

• Both sent a message all over the world• Attracted followers in many countries• Both aroused a strong reaction• Shared same revolutionary politics

• Both overthrow an old regime and then the leaders were overthrown by a determined minorityFrance - Jacobins in 1793Russia - Bolsheviks in 1918

• Many of the original leaders were later killed

• Initially all agreed but later Europeans wanted to punish Germany

• Russia was not invited • Controlled by Britain, France, Italy, US• Clemenceau most concerned with future French future• France received the coal mines of the Saar for 15 years• Allied troops would occupy Germany for 15 years• Germany had to renounce the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk• Germany lost her colonies• Germany had to pay for the damage done

Versailles Treaty

• President Wilson’s Fourteen point plan was designed to create world peace

• League of Nations to prevent future wars France regained Alsace-Lorraine

• U.S. refused to sign - Senate believed they would lose the power to declare war

League of Nations

• For security:a. France signed a defensive alliance with Polandb. Wanted strict implementation of the Treaty if

the U.S. would not signThe dictated peace only served to anger Germans

and encourage German hostilityClause 231 – War guilt clause – blamed Germany

for the war