Cast Iron all about

7/28/2019 Cast Iron all about

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A cast iron pan.

Cast ironFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has been heated until it

liquefies, and is then poured into a mould to solidify. It is usually

made from pig iron. The alloy constituents affect its colour when

fractured: white cast iron has carbide impurities which allow

cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast iron has graphitic

flakes which deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new

cracks as the material breaks.

Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements, with

the amount ranging from 2.14 wt% and 13 wt%, respectively.

Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes these base alloys ternary

FeCSi alloys, the principle of cast iron solidification is understood from the binary ironcarbon phase

diagram. Since the compositions of most cast irons are around the eutectic point of the ironcarbon system, the

melting temperatures closely correlate, usually ranging from 1,150 to 1,200 C (2,102 to 2,192 F), which isabout 300 C (572 F) lower than the melting point ofpure iron.

Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. With its relatively low melting point, good fluidity,

castability, excellent machinability, resistance to deformation and wear resistance, cast irons have become an

engineering material with a wide range of applications and are used in pipes, machines and automotive industry

parts, such as cylinder heads (declining usage), cylinder blocks and gearbox cases (declining usage). It is

resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation (rust).

The earliest cast iron artifacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now

modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, and

architecture.[1] During the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in

England during the Reformation.[2] The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III,

and is known as The Iron Bridge. Cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings.

Contents

1 Production

2 Types2.1 Alloying elements

2.2 Grey cast iron

2.3 White cast iron

2.4 Malleable cast iron

2.5 Ductile cast iron

2.6 Table of comparative qualities of cast irons

3 History

3.1 Cast-iron bridges

3.2 Buildings

3.3 Textile mills

4 See also

5 References

6 Further reading
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Textile_millshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Buildingshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Cast-iron_bridgeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Ductile_cast_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Malleable_cast_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#White_cast_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Alloying_elementshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Typeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Productionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Iron_Bridgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast-iron_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_note-Wagner-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luhe_Countyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_headhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_blockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castabilityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleable_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_compoundhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Further_readinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Referenceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#See_alsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Textile_millshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Buildingshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Cast-iron_bridgeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Historyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Table_of_comparative_qualities_of_cast_ironshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Ductile_cast_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Malleable_cast_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#White_cast_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Grey_cast_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Alloying_elementshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Typeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#Productionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast-iron_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Iron_Bridgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Darby_IIIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_note-Krause-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_note-Wagner-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luhe_Countyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gearboxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_blockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_headhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_industryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Engineering_material&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castabilityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleable_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutectic_pointhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_compoundhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast-iron_cookwarehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cast-Iron-Pan.jpg


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Iron-cementite meta-stable diagram.

7 External links

Production

Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of scrap iron, scrap steel, lime

stone, carbon (coke) and taking various steps to remove undesirable contaminants. Phosphorus and sulfur may

be burnt out of the molten iron, but this also burns out the carbon, which must be replaced. Depending on the

application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, which may be anywhere from 23.5%

and 13% respectively. Other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by

casting.[citation needed]

Iron is sometimes melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola, but more often melted in electric

induction furnaces or electric arc furnaces.[citation needed] After melting is complete, the molten iron is poured

into a holding furnace or ladle.

Types

Alloying elements

Cast iron's properties are changed by adding various alloying

elements, or alloyants. Next to carbon, silicon is the most important

alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. Instead the carbon

forms graphite which results in a softer iron, reduces shrinkage,

lowers strength, and decreases density. Sulfur, when present, forms

iron sulfide, which prevents the formation of graphite and increaseshardness. The problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron

sluggish, which causes short run defects. To counter the effects of

sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese

sulfide instead of iron sulfide. The manganese sulfide is lighter than the

melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag. The amount

of manganese required to neutralize sulfur is 1.7 sulfur content +

0.3%. If more than this amount of manganese is added, then

manganese carbide forms, which increases hardness and chilling,

except in grey iron, where up to 1% of manganese increases strength and density.[3]

Nickel is one of the most common alloying elements because it refines the pearlite and graphite structure,

improves toughness, and evens out hardness differences between section thicknesses. Chromium is added in

small amounts to the ladle to reduce free graphite, produce chill, and because it is a powerful carbide stabilizer;

nickel is often added in conjunction. A small amount of tin can be added as a substitute for 0.5% chromium.

Copper is added in the ladle or in the furnace, on the order of 0.52.5%, to decrease chill, refine graphite, and

increase fluidity. Molybdenum is added on the order of 0.31% to increase chill and refine the graphite and

pearlite structure; it is often added in conjunction with nickel, copper, and chromium to form high strength irons.

Titanium is added as a degasser and deoxidizer, but it also increases fluidity. 0.150.5% vanadium are added to

cast iron to stabilize cementite, increase hardness, and increase resistance to wear and heat. 0.10.3%

zirconium helps to form graphite, deoxidize, and increase fluidity.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_note-gillespie-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wearhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titaniumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearlitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_note-gillespie-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chill_(foundry)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manganese_carbide&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese_sulfidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_furnacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupola_furnacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_furnacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting_(metalworking)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#External_linkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Steel_pd.svg


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In malleable iron melts, bismuth is added, on the scale of 0.0020.01%, to increase how much silicon can be

added. In white iron, boron is added to aid in the production of malleable iron; it also reduces the coarsening

effect of bismuth.[3]

Grey cast iron

Main article: Grey iron

Grey cast iron is characterised by its graphitic microstructure, which causes fractures of the material to have a

grey appearance. It is the most commonly used cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on

weight. Most cast irons have a chemical composition of 2.54.0% carbon, 13% silicon, and the remainder is

iron. Grey cast iron has less tensile strength and shock resistance than steel, but its compressive strength is

comparable to low and medium carbon steel.

White cast iron

It is the iron that displays white fractured surface due to the presence of cementite. With a lower silicon content

and faster cooling, the carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as the metastable phase cementite,Fe3C, rather than graphite. The cementite which precipitates from the melt forms as relatively large particles,

usually in a eutectic mixture, where the other phase is austenite (which on cooling might transform to martensite).

These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide precipitation hardening (as in some steels, where

cementite precipitates might inhibit plastic deformation by impeding the movement of dislocations through the

ferrite matrix). Rather, they increase the bulk hardness of the cast iron simply by virtue of their own very high

hardness and their substantial volume fraction, such that the bulk hardness can be approximated by a rule of

mixtures. In any case, they offer hardness at the expense of toughness. Since carbide makes up a large fraction

of the material, white cast iron could reasonably be classified as a cermet. White iron is too brittle for use in

many structural components, but with good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low cost, it finds usein such applications as the wear surfaces (impeller and volute) of slurry pumps, shell liners and lifter bars in ball

mills and autogenous grinding mills, balls and rings in coal pulverisers, and the teeth of a backhoe's digging

bucket (although cast medium-carbon martensitic steel is more common for this application).

It is difficult to cool thick castings fast enough to solidify the melt as white cast iron all the way through.

However, rapid cooling can be used to solidify a shell of white cast iron, after which the remainder cools more

slowly to form a core of grey cast iron. The resulting casting, called a chilled casting, has the benefits of a hard

surface and a somewhat tougher interior.

High-chromium white iron alloys allow massive castings (for example, a 10-tonne impeller) to be sand cast, i.e.,

a high cooling rate is not required, as well as providing impressive abrasion resistance.[citation needed]

Malleable cast iron

Main article: Malleable iron

alleable iron starts as a white iron casting that is then heat treated at about 900 C (1,650 F). Graphite

separates out much more slowly in this case, so that surface tension has time to form it into spheroidal particles

rather than flakes. Due to their lower aspect ratio, spheroids are relatively short and far from one another, and

have a lower cross section vis-a-vis a propagating crack or phonon. They also have blunt boundaries, asopposed to flakes, which alleviates the stress concentration problems faced by grey cast iron. In general, the

properties of malleable cast iron are more like mild steel. There is a limit to how large a part can be cast in

malleable iron, since it is made from white cast iron.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tensionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_treatmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleable_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backhoehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coal_pulveriser&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autogenous_grinding_mill&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_millhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lifter_bar&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry_pumphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volute_(pump)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impellerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cermethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toughnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dislocationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_deformationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martensitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austenitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastablehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressive_strengthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_resistancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strengthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_note-gillespie-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth


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Ductile cast iron

Main article: Ductile cast iron

A more recent development is nodularorductile cast iron. Tiny amounts of magnesium or cerium added to

these alloys slow down the growth of graphite precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes. Along

with careful control of other elements and timing, this allows the carbon to separate as spheroidal particles as the

material solidifies. The properties are similar to malleable iron, but parts can be cast with larger sections.

Table of comparative qualities of cast irons

Comparative qualities of cast irons[4]

Name

Nominal

composition

[% by

weight]

Form and

condition

Yield

strength

[ksi (0.2%

offset)]

Tensile

strength

[ksi]

Elongation

[% (in

2 inches)]

Hardness

[Brinell

scale]

Uses

Grey cast

iron (ASTM

A48)

C 3.4, Si 1.8,

Mn 0.5Cast 50 0.5 260

Engine cylinderblocks, flywheels,

gearbox casess,

machine-tool bases

White cast

iron

C 3.4, Si 0.7,

Mn 0.6

Cast (as

cast) 25 0 450 Bearing surfaces

Malleable

iron (ASTM

A47)

C 2.5, Si 1.0,

Mn 0.55

Cast

(annealed)33 52 12 130

Axle bearings,

track wheels,

automotive

crankshafts

Ductile or

nodular iron

C 3.4, P 0.1,

Mn 0.4,

Ni 1.0,

Mg 0.06

Cast 53 70 18 170Gears, camshafts,

crankshafts

Ductile or

nodular iron

(ASTM

A339)

cast

(quench

tempered)

108 135 5 310

Ni-hard type

2

C 2.7, Si 0.6,

Mn 0.5,

Ni 4.5,

Cr 2.0

Sand-cast 55 550High strength

applications

Ni-resist

type 2

C 3.0, Si 2.0,

Mn 1.0,

Ni 20.0,

Cr 2.5

Cast 27 2 140Resistance to heat

and corrosion

History
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camshafthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankshafthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gearbox_cases&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flywheelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_Internationalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brinell_scalehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceriumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductile_cast_iron


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The best way of using cast iron for bridge construction was by using arches, so that all the material is in

compression. Cast iron, again like masonry, is very strong in compression. Wrought iron, like most other kinds

of iron and indeed like most metals in general, is strong in tension, and also tough resistant to fracturing. The

relationship between wrought iron and cast iron, for structural purposes, may be thought of as analogous to the

relationship between wood and stone.

Nevertheless, cast iron continued to be used in inappropriate structural ways, until the Tay Rail Bridge disaster

of 1879 cast serious doubt on the use of the material. Crucial lugs for holding tie bars and struts in the Tay

Bridge had been cast integral with the columns and they failed in the early stages of the accident. In addition, the

bolt holes were also cast and not drilled, so that all the tension from the tie bars was placed on a corner, rather

than being spread over the length of the hole. The replacement bridge was built in wrought iron and steel.

Further bridge collapses occurred, however, culminating in the Norwood Junction rail accident of 1891.

Thousands of cast iron rail underbridges were eventually replaced by steel equivalents.

Original Tay Bridge

from the north

Fallen Tay Bridge from

the north

Iron Bridge over the

River Severn at

Coalbrookdale, England

The Eglinton

Tournament Bridge,

North Ayrshire,

Scotland, built from cast

iron

Buildings

Main article: Cast-iron architecture

Cast iron columns enabled architects to build tall buildings without the enormously thick walls required to

construct masonry buildings of any height. Such flexibility allowed tall buildings to have large windows. In urban

centres like SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District in New York City, manufacturing buildings and early departmentstores were built with cast iron columns to allow daylight to enter. Slender cast iron columns could also support

the weight that would otherwise require thick masonry columns or piers, opening up floor spaces in factories,

and sight lines in churches and auditoriums. The historic Iron Building in Watervliet, New York, is a cast iron

building.

Textile mills

Another important use was in textile mills. The air in the mills contained flammable fibres from the cotton, hemp,

or wool being spun. As a result, textile mills had an alarming propensity to burn down. The solution was to build

them completely of non-combustible materials, and it was found convenient to provide the building with an ironframe, largely of cast iron, replacing flammable wood. The first such building was at Ditherington in Shrewsbury,

Shropshire. Many other warehouses were built using cast iron columns and beams, although faulty designs,

flawed beams or overloading sometimes caused building collapses and structural failures.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrewsburyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditheringtonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_millhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watervliet,_New_Yorkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Building_(Watervliet_Arsenal)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoHo-Cast_Iron_Historic_Districthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast-iron_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_rail_terminology#Uhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwood_Junction_rail_accidenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tay_Rail_Bridgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toughnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_bridgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Ayrshirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eglinton_Tournament_Bridgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Severnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Iron_Bridge


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Cast-iron waffle iron, an example of

cast-iron cookware

During the Industrial Revolution, cast iron was also widely used for frame and other fixed parts of machinery,

including spinning and later weaving machines in textile mills. Cast iron became widely used, and many towns

had foundries producing industrial and agricultural machinery.

See also

Cast-iron architecture

Cast-iron cookwareIronwork artisan metalwork: for architectural elements,

garden features, and ornamental objects.

Ironworks a place where iron is worked (including

historical sites)

Meehanite

Sand casting

Steel

Wrought iron

References

1. ^ abc Donald B. Wagner (1993).Iron and Steel in Ancient China. BRILL. pp. 335340. ISBN 978-90-04-

09632-5.

2. ^ Keith Krause (10 August 1995). Arms and the State: Patterns of Military Production and Trade. Cambridge

University Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-521-55866-2.

3. ^ abc Gillespie, LaRoux K. (1988). Troubleshooting manufacturing processes (http://books.google.com/books?

id=SX_SO_CkiUIC&pg=PT195&lpg=PT195) (4th ed.). SME. p. 4-4. ISBN 978-0-87263-326-1.

4. ^ Lyons, William C. and Plisga, Gary J. (eds.) Standard Handbook of Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering,

Elsevier, 20065. ^ Donald B. Wagner (8 May 2008). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical

Technology, Part 11, Ferrous Metallurgy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 159169. ISBN 978-0-521-87566-

0.

Further reading

John Gloag and Derek Bridgwater,A History of Cast Iron in Architecture, Allen and Unwin, London

(1948)

Peter R Lewis,Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay: Reinvestigating the Tay Bridge Disasterof 1879, Tempus (2004) ISBN 0-7524-3160-9

Peter R Lewis,Disaster on the Dee: Robert Stephenson's Nemesis of 1847, Tempus (2007) ISBN

978-0-7524-4266-2

George Laird, Richard Gundlach and Klaus Rhrig,Abrasion-Resistant Cast Iron Handbook, ASM

International (2000) ISBN 0-87433-224-9

External links

Metallurgy of Cast Irons, Cambridge University (http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2001/adi/cast.iron.html)

Paper on the Tay bridge disaster (http://materials.open.ac.uk/about_us/isr1707lowres.pdf)

Cast Iron In China and Europe

(http://www.wroughtironweb.com/Cast_Iron_In_China_and_Europe.html)
http://www.wroughtironweb.com/Cast_Iron_In_China_and_Europe.htmlhttp://materials.open.ac.uk/about_us/isr1707lowres.pdfhttp://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2001/adi/cast.iron.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0874332249https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780752442662https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0752431609https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gloaghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87566-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_ref-Wagner2_5-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_ref-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87263-326-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=SX_SO_CkiUIC&pg=PT195&lpg=PT195https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_ref-gillespie_3-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_ref-gillespie_3-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_ref-gillespie_3-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55866-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_ref-Krause_2-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09632-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_ref-Wagner_1-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_ref-Wagner_1-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron#cite_ref-Wagner_1-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrought_ironhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_castinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meehanitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironworkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironworkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast-iron_cookwarehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast-iron_architecturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Belgian_waffles_cooked_in_a_Krampouz_cast-iron_waffle_iron.JPG


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