Cast Ferrous Alloys Reinforced with WC- Metal Matrix ... · Interfacial Characteristics and Wear...

Prime Archives in Material Science: 3rd

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Book Chapter

Cast Ferrous Alloys Reinforced with WC-

Metal Matrix Composites Fabricated by

Ex-Situ Methods

Aida B Moreira1,2

, Laura MM Ribeiro1,2

and Manuel F Vieira1,2

*

1Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,

University of Porto, Portugal 2LAETA/INEGI – Institute of Science and Innovation in

Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Portugal

*Corresponding Author: Manuel F Vieira, Department of

Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, University of Porto, R.

Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal

Published August 06, 2021

How to cite this book chapter: Aida B Moreira, Laura MM

Ribeiro, Manuel F Vieira. Cast Ferrous Alloys Reinforced with

WC-Metal Matrix Composites Fabricated by Ex-Situ Methods.

In: M Iqbal Khan, editor. Prime Archives in Material Science: 3rd

Edition. Hyderabad, India: Vide Leaf. 2021.

© The Author(s) 2021. This article is distributed under the terms

of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits

unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

provided the original work is properly cited.

Funding: This research was funded by FEDER through the

program P2020|COMPETE, Projetos em Copromoção (project

POCI-01-0247-FEDER-033417), and the program

P2020|Norte2020, Programas doutorais (NORTE-08-5369-FSE-

000051).


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Abstract

This literature review aims to summarize the research conducted

in the field of production of ferrous castings reinforced by metal

matrix composites (MMCs) containing WC particles. The

formation of a WC/MMC region offers a way to reinforce cast

components, improving the surface wear resistance without

compromising the toughness of the components’ core. In this

context, ex-situ methods are used for making the carbide

reinforce, which is inserted in the mold cavity, where it is

infiltrated by the liquid metal. This review describes the

production of reinforcement by infiltration using pressureless

casting, vacuum casting, centrifugal casting, and lost foam

casting, with and without vacuum application. A summary of the

methodologies employed, and general conclusions drawn from

the studies on the effect of processing variables on the

microstructural and mechanical characteristics of reinforced

ferrous alloys is presented.

Keywords

Casting Process; Ex-Situ Technique; Locally Reinforcement;

Metal Matrix Composite; Tungsten Carbide

Introduction

High-speed steels, cold- and hot-work tool steels, martensitic

steels, pearlitic Cr-Mo steels, austenitic manganese steels, and Cr

and high-Cr white cast irons are the most used metallic materials

in abrasive wear conditions, exhibiting a good balance between

wear resistance and toughness. However, for the most wear

severe conditions, better-performing materials should be

employed, and in fact, a lot of research has been devoted to the

development of materials with improved wear performance [1-

7].

In the case of cast components, one possible approach is to

produce locally reinforcements to improve the wear resistance of

the outer surfaces of the components. Several ex-situ methods

can be used to produce castings reinforced by a metal matrix


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composite (MMC) containing hard particles [3,5,8-16]. Among

reinforcement particles, WC and WC-Co are two of the most

used, which combine high hardness, ranging from 3100 to

3600 HV for WC and 810 to 1280 HV for WC-Co, higher elastic

modulus than other transition metal carbides, and good

wettability by molten iron. The coefficients of thermal expansion

(CTE) of WC and WC-Co is 4.5-7.1×10−6

°C−1

and 4.9-

6.6×10−6

°C−1

, respectively, minimizing CTE mismatches in the

MMCs produced with high-Cr white cast irons (8-

12.5×10−6

°C−1

) than with low-carbon steels (11.2-

11.8×10−6

°C−1

) or austenitic stainless steels (15-18×10−6

°C−1

)

[3,4,8-10,17,18].

Since 2005, several studies have been conducted to produce cast

iron parts locally reinforced with WC [8,11,19-22] and WC-Co

[9,13,14,23], focusing on processing, mechanical performance,

and microstructural characterization. In addition, the application

of various techniques for the production of WC reinforced cast

steel components has also been studied [15,24-26], with a special

focus on the reinforcement of Cr alloyed steel parts [15,24].

This review provides an overview of the studies on the

production of ferrous alloys reinforced with WC-MMCs

produced by ex-situ methods. A summary of the studies reported

in the literature is presented according to the processing method

used: pressureless casting, vacuum casting, centrifugal casting,

and lost foam casting, with and without vacuum application.

Special attention was also given to general conclusions drawn

from the studies on the effect of manufacturing parameters, on

the microstructure and mechanical properties of the reinforced

ferrous alloys.

Ferrous Alloys Reinforced by Ex-Situ

Techniques

The liquid-phase processes, such as conventional casting, are the

most used in processing MMCs due to their low costs of material

and energy and ease of processing compared to solid-state

processes such as powder metallurgy, mechanical alloying,

diffusion bonding, or roll bonding [27-29].


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The ex-situ methods are used for locally reinforce cast

components. In this case, the ceramic material is previously

produced and then inserted in the mold cavity, where it is

infiltrated by the liquid metal, reacting with it, and giving rise to

a WC-MMC as shown in Figure 1. With this technique, it is

possible to produce a surface layer or specific regions with a

high resistance to wear. For this purpose, a porous ceramic

structure or, alternatively, a compacted mixture of ceramic

particles with a binder and flux is produced with a geometry

adapted to the surface of the component to be reinforced [30,31].

During the infiltration by the liquid metal, the reactivity between

the compact and the base metal is affected by several factors,

such as the metal temperature, the type of the ceramic, as well as

the additives used in the mixture, such as binders and fluxes

[21]. So, some defects may be found such as poor wettability of

the ceramic by the liquid metal and porosity, which may affect

the final characteristics of the reinforcement [32].

According to Tang et al. [16], the infiltration technique can be

described by the following steps:

1. Preparation of the preform, which is a compact composed of

the ceramic particles, the binder, and the flux material that

facilitates the infiltration of the metal into the compact;

2. Placing the compact in the desired zone of the mold cavity

(see Figure 2);

3. Drying the mold cavity with the compact (for example in a

muffle furnace);

4. Pouring of the metal alloy.


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Figure 1: SEM‐BSE images of the microstructure of a ferrous alloy reinforced

with WC particles fabricated by ex-situ methods: (a) bonding zone (b)

composite zone with uniformly distributed WC particles in a martensitic

matrix.

Figure 2: Scheme of the mold cavity with the inserted compacts (adapted from

[19]).

Four techniques may be employed in the production of

reinforced parts by casting: pressureless casting

[8,12,13,19,33,34], vacuum casting [10,11,14,24,35], centrifugal

casting [5,25,26,36-38] and lost foam casting, with and without

vacuum application [9,21-23,39,40].


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Pressureless Casting

Pressureless casting has been the most widely used technique for

castings reinforcement with WC particles fabricated by ex-situ.

Table 1 displays the most relevant parameters of this process,

cited in published studies. The effect of the type of binder and

flux, as well as the content of WC particles on the properties of

the reinforcement phase, were investigated in those studies.

Kambakas et al. [13] used WC-Co particles with a diameter of 3-

5 mm to reinforce a component produced by a sequential casting

of high-Cr white cast iron and low carbon steel. During

solidification, three reaction zones were formed: the first with

Cr, Fe, W, and Co carbides, the second and largest (100-300 µm)

with W-rich carbides, and the third with needle-shaped Cr

carbides which grew perpendicular to the second zone and

parallel to the direction of heat flow. The following carbides

were identified in the composite microstructure: Cr7C3, Fe7C3,

Fe2MoC, FeW3C, Fe6W6C, Co3W3C, Co3W9C4 and

Cr23Fe21(W,Mo)2C12.

Later, the same authors developed a technique “drawer casting”

based on the sedimentation of WC particles (1-5 mm) at the

bottom of the mold [8]. The application of inclined metal foils

allowed a uniform distribution of WC particles in the

reinforcement zone because they were sedimented at the same

time they were wet by the liquid metal and partially dissolved.

Zhang et al. [12], investigated the reinforcement of high-Cr

white cast iron with WC-8% Co particles (2-6 mm). It was

obtained a reinforcement zone (15 mm thick) with 38% of WC-

Co and hardness of 86 HRA. In this zone, the following carbides

were observed: (Cr, W, Fe)23C6, WC, W2C, Fe3W3C, Co3W3C,

Fe6W6C, and Co6W6C.

Recently, Moreira et al. [19] fabricated high-Cr white cast iron

samples locally reinforced with WC particles by pressureless

casting. The authors performed a detailed microstructural

analysis and concluded that the precipitation of (Fe,W,Cr)6C

carbides lead to a hypoeutectic solidification of the base metal


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with the formation of martensite and eutectic constituent with

(Fe,Cr)7C3 and (Fe,W,Cr)6C carbides. Later, the same authors

reported [20] an increase of 44% in hardness (500 ± 31 HV 30)

and a decrease in wear rate of about 60% in the reinforced zone.

Zhang et al. [41] investigated the wear performance of medium

carbon steel reinforced with WC particles (10-25 µm) produced

by pulsed plasma sintering (SPS). The authors identified three

distinct zones in the reinforcement; the composite, with a

hardness of 600 HV (2.4 times higher than the base metal), the

thermally affected zone with WC particles precipitated in the

cooling process, and the melting zone, which is dissolved in the

liquid metal during casting.

Applying the lost foam technique, Leibholz et al. [9] produced a

nodular cast iron hammer reinforced with WC particles for the

sugar industry. The initial WC-Co ground particles (1 to 20 mm)

were obtained from recycled cutting tools and had individual

WC particles with dimensions ranging from 1 to 4 µm. Better

results were observed with finer WC-Co particles (1-3 mm)

which gave a more homogeneous reinforcement zone without

cracks and voids at the interfaces between WC particles and the

matrix. The authors, also reinforced, with success, a ductile iron

impact crusher [23], achieving a mass loss of 32% lower than

that of the component without reinforcement.

Table 1: Summary of experimental conditions and main results of the WC-

MMC reinforcement produced by pressureless casting.

Materials and Methods

Results Base

metal

Reinforcing

materials

Processing

conditions

Gray cast

iron /

Low Mn-

steel

[34]

WC (1.34, 6,

60 µm)

15 g per specimen

Gray cast iron

pouring

temperature -

1350 °C

Hardness:

Increased at about 3

times with the addition

of Cr

(600-750 HV 0.3)

400-500 HV 0.3 -

(Fe-Mo and Fe-P

addition)

Cr (≤ 50 µm)

Fe-Mo

(≤ 50 µm) Low manganese

steel pouring

temperature -

1620 °C

Fe-P (≤ 50 µm)

Sodium silicate

solution

2 g per specimen


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MMC reinforcement produced by pressureless casting (continued).


Results Base

metal

Reinforcing

materials

Processing

conditions

High-Cr

white cast

iron /

Low

carbon

steel

[13]

Cemented carbide

(3-5 mm)

(5.3-5.8 C;

6-10 Co; 0.5 Ta;

0.5 Ti;

83.2-87.7 W)

Steel was

poured when the

temperature of

the cast iron

substrate was

about 1100 °C

Reinforcement thickness:

5-8 mm

White

cast iron /

Steel

[8]

WC (1-5 mm)

Pouring

temperature

(WCI) 1350 °C

…

Steel was

poured when the

temperature of

the cast iron

substrate was

about 1100 °C

Pouring

temperature

(steel) 1550 °C

25 Cr

cast iron

[33]

WC (3 µm)

30, 40 and

50 vol.%

Compaction

pressure

150 MPa/5 min

Hardness:

52 HRC (matrix)

56 HRC (30% WC)

58 HRC (40% WC)

53 HRC (50% WC)

NH4HCO3

(200 µm)

Steps to

eliminate

NH4HCO3:

60 °C/5 h +

120 °C/5 h

Ethylene + 3%

water glass

solution

Pouring

temperature -

1400 °C

High-Cr

cast iron

[42]

WC-8% Co

(2-6 mm)

38 vol.%

Pouring

temperature -

1560 °C


15 mm

Hardness:

86 HRA (highest)

Nodular

cast iron

[9]

WC-Co

(2-10 mm;

2-4 mm;

1-3 mm)

(recycled cutting

tools)

6-9 wt.%

Mixing in a ball

mill - 2 h

… Pouring

temperature -

1480 °C


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MMC reinforcement produced by pressureless casting (continued).


Results Base

metal

Reinforcing

materials

Processing

conditions

C45 steel

[41]

W

46.9 wt.%

Fe/WC =

32 vol.%

Hardness:

2.4 times higher than that

of C45 steel

Cu

1.5 wt.%

Sintering

pressure (SPS)

50 MPa

Fe

47.5 wt.%

SPS processing

1050 °C/5 min

Graphite

4.1 wt.%

Pouring

temperature -

1540 °C

Nodular

cast iron

[23]

WC-Co

(1-3 mm)

(recycled cutting

tools)

…

Wear volume loss:

36-54 mm3 ≈ 0.50 g of

mass loss (≈ 32% lower

than that of the

component without

reinforcement)

High-Cr

white cast

iron

[19]

WC

(99.0%, 106 µm)

40 vol.%

Mixing in a

shaker mixer

7 h


5 mm Fe

(99.0%, 10 µm)

60 vol.%

Compaction

pressure

70 MPa

Pouring

temperature -

1460 °C

High-Cr

white cast

iron

[20]

WC

(99.0%, 106 µm)

40 vol.%

Mixing in a

shaker mixer

7 h


5 mm

Fe

(99.0%, 10 µm)

60 vol.%

Compaction

pressure

70 MPa

Wear rate:

1.29×10-6 mm3∙N-1∙mm-1

(base metal)

5.02×10-7 mm3∙N-1∙mm-1

(Reinforcement)

Pouring

temperature

1460 °C

Hardness:

500 ± 31 HV 30

(base metal)

721 ± 68 HV 30

(Reinforcement)


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Vacuum Casting

The reinforcement of castings using pressure-driven infiltration

methods has been investigated since 2003. The main topics that

have been addressed are the effect of the volume fraction and the

size (0.25 to 2.4 mm) of WC particles on the properties of the

reinforced castings, and the influence of the application of fluxes

on the preparation of the ceramic reinforce (see Table 2).

Zhou et al. [10] produced reinforced grey cast iron components

applying a paste formed by a mixture of powders of WC (0.25-

0.42 mm), Fe-Cr (0.15-0.21 mm), and a binder (based on sodium

silicate). Before casting, the paste was heat hardened after

application in the mold. The authors found the lowest wear rate

(approximately one-third that of white cast iron) for a WC

content of 36%.

Li et al. [14] produced high chromium white cast iron (WCI)

components with reinforcement made with particles of WC-Ti

and WC-Co (0.6-0.9 mm) obtained from the hard metal

recycling process. After heat treatment at 980 °C for 2 h with air

cooling, carbides WC, W2C, TiC, Fe3W3C, and Co3W3C were

observed in the microstructure. The last two were found near the

interface, resulting from the partial dissolution of the WC

particles. The wear volume loss of the reinforced WCI is less

than half that of the unreinforced one. This difference was

mainly caused by the beneficial effect of the reinforcement

particles on the composite matrix.

Shan et al. [24] reinforced the surface of high-carbon chromium

steel with WC powders (0.25-0.42 mm) by a casting-infiltration

process. The effect of the addition of Ni particles (37-74 µm) on

the microstructure of the reinforced zone matrix was also

analyzed. The authors observed the presence of WC, W2C,

Fe3W3C, and Ni17W3 phases in the matrix composed of perlite,

martensite, and austenite. The amount of austenite in the matrix

is highly increased by the addition of Ni, with benefits in the

corrosion resistance of the composite. The maximum hardness of

the reinforcement was ≈58 HRC (30 points higher than the base


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metal), mainly because of the hard Fe3W3C phase, which is the

primary carbide in the matrix.

Zheng et al. [11] used a porous preform consisting of WC and

W2C particles (1.4 to 2.4 mm) and Fe powders (0.08 mm) to

produce reinforced high chromium cast iron component. The

reinforcement zone, with a thickness of 20 mm, showed a wear

resistance three times greater than that of the cast iron. The

authors stress the role of the Fe3W3C phase in the soundness of

the interface bonding with the matrix.


MMC reinforcement produced by vacuum casting.


Results Base metal

Reinforcing

materials

Processing

conditions

Gray cast

iron

[10]

WC

(0.25-0.42 mm)

10, 15, 19, 27, 36,

45 and 57 wt.%

…

Hardness:

2285 HV

(27% WC)

Fe-Cr

(0.15-0.21 mm)

(60% Cr; 6% C)

Wear rate:

39.07 mm3(m2h)-1

(52% WC)

26.23 mm3(m2h)-1

(45% WC)

19.92 mm3(m2h)-1

(36% WC)

21.64 mm3(m2h)-1

(27% WC)

23.42 mm3(m2h)-1

(19% WC)

35.37 mm3(m2h)-1

(15% WC)

42.16 mm3(m2h)-1

(10% WC)

Water glass

solution

3%

High-Cr

white cast

iron

[14]

Cemented carbide

(0.6-0.9 mm)

(2.4% C;

1.5% Fe;

77.4% W;

4.9% Co;

13.8% Ti)

Drying -

100 °C/8 h

…

Pouring

temperature

1500 °C

Vacuum degree

0.07 MPa

Promoter

Shaking out -

after 24 h

Heat treatment

980 °C/120 min


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MMC reinforcement produced by vacuum casting (continued).


Results Base metal

Reinforcing

materials

Processing

conditions

Cr15 steel

[35]

WC

(0.25-0.42 mm)

…

Hardness:

≈50 HRC

(4.96 vol.% WC-Fe)

≈54 HRC

(9.31 vol.% WC-Fe)

≈62 HRC

(17.15 vol.% WC-

Fe)

≈65 HRC

(23.64 vol.% WC-

Fe) -1.5 times

higher than high-Cr

white cast iron

WC-Fe powder

(74-88 µm)

(76.03 wt.% W,

0.062 wt.% C,

0.69 wt.% Si,

23.08 wt.% Fe)

4.96, 9.31, 17.15

and 23.64 vol.%

High

carbon

chromium

steel

[24]

WC

(0.25-0.42 mm)

Pouring

temperature

1580 °C

Hardness:

60 HRC (with no Ni

addition)

57 HRC (with Ni

addition)

Ni (37-74 µm) Vacuum degree

0.072-0.078 MPa Mass ratio WC to

Ni - 5:1

High

chromium

iron

[11]

WC (1.4-2.4 mm)

Drying –

80 °C/30 min

Reinforcement

thickness: 20 mm

Sintering

temperature

1450 °C/30 min

Pouring

temperature

1500 °C

Fe (0.08 mm)

Vacuum degree

0.07 MPa Hardness:

Three times higher

than that of the

high-Cr cast iron

Shaking out -

after 24 h

Heat treatment

980 °C/120 min

The production of reinforced grey cast iron and chromium

alloyed steel components by lost foam casting with vacuum

application has been studied by several authors [21,22,39,40].

Concerning the processing of the ceramic reinforcement, a PVA

solution was used as a binder in several studies [21,22,39]. In

one of the studies, the sodium silicate solution was used for the

same purpose [40] (see Table 3).


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According to Li et al. [21], the technique of vacuum infiltration

in lost foam casting is performed in three steps:

1. Manufacturing of the pattern (also the feeding and gating

systems) in expanded polystyrene (EPS) coated with a

powder mixture of WC and Fe-Cr and binder (sodium

silicate) and drying at 50 °C;

2. Preparation of the sand mold involving the pattern and the

feeding and gating systems;

3. Casting under vacuum, which allows the release of gas from

the polystyrene vaporization and the base metal infiltration

into the reinforcement.

With the aforementioned method, the authors obtained

reinforcements with WC volume fractions between 5 and 52%.

The wear resistance increased between 1.5 and 5.2 times

compared to the high-Cr white cast iron, and the best

performance was obtained for 27 vol.% WC. The same authors

also investigated the influence of Cr addition (to the mixture of

WC, binder, and flux) on the content, morphology, and

distribution of carbides formed in the composite matrix. One of

the conclusions was that the increase of carbides content with the

increase of Cr [22], which, in turn, led to higher wear resistance.

Also, with the increase of Cr the formation of isolated particles

of carbides appeared to be more favorable than the formation of

a network structure.

Another study conducted by Sui et al. [40] revealed an increase

in the wear resistance of the reinforcement produced with a

mixture of powders of Ni60WC25 alloy (≈0.09 mm) and WC

(0.25-0.35 mm). The volume fraction of Fe3W3C particles

formed in the metal matrix increased with the increase of the

Ni60WC25. Simultaneously, an extensive dissolution of WC

particles occurred.


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MMC reinforcement produced by vacuum casting using lost foam casting.


Results Base

metal

Reinforcing

materials

Processing

conditions

Gray cast

iron

[21]

WC (0.2-0.3 mm)

52, 36, 27, 19, 10 and

5 vol.%

Painted 1 mm

thickness Wear resistance

(at 40 N load):

1.5–5.2 times

higher than that

of the high

chromium cast

iron –

(27 vol.% WC)

Fe-Cr (0.18-0.25 mm)

58 wt.% Cr; 8 wt.% C

Drying

50 °C

Pouring

temperature

1490 °C

Polyvinyl vinyl

alcohol water solution

6 wt.%

Vacuum degree

0.06 MPa

High

chromium

steel

[39]

WC (0.2-0.32 mm) Painted 1 mm

thickness

…

Cr-Fe powder

(0.07-0.09 mm)

(58 wt.% Cr and

8 wt.% Fe)

Drying

50 °C

WC to Cr-Fe - 20:80

Pouring

temperature

1650 °C

Polyvinyl vinyl


6 wt.%

Vacuum degree

0.065-0.060 MPa

Gray cast

iron

[22]

WC (0.2-0.3 mm)

40 vol.%

Painted 1 mm

thickness

Wear resistance:

Increased 40.6%

- (27.4 wt.% Cr

– 100 vol.% Cr-

Fe powder)

Cr-Fe powder

(0.18-0.25 mm)

Drying

50 °C

Gray cast iron

powder

(0.07-0.08 mm)

Pouring

temperature

1450 °C

Cr-Fe/gray cast iron –

0/100, 20/80, 50/50,

80/20,100/0 vol.% Vacuum degree

0.060-0.064 MPa Polyvinyl vinyl


6 wt.%


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MMC reinforcement produced by vacuum casting using lost foam casting

(continued).


Results Base

metal

Reinforcing

materials

Processing

conditions

High

chromium

carbon

steel

[15]

WC (0.38-0.55 mm)

Painted 1 mm of

thickness

…

Drying

50 °C

Polyvinyl vinyl


Pouring

temperature

1650 °C

Vacuum degree

0.065-0.060 MPa

High

carbon

chromium

steel

[40]

WC (250-350 µm) Drying

50 °C

Reinforcement

thickness:

≈ 3 mm

Ni60WC25 powder

(90 µm)

0, 5, 15 and 35 vol.%

Pouring

temperature

1580 °C

Volume loss

rate:

Lowest value –

(15 vol.%

Ni60WC25) 3 wt.% bond-water

glass

Vacuum degree

0.070-0.075 MPa

Centrifugal Casting

Zhang et al. [25] studied the production of reinforced parts in

Hadfield steel using centrifugal casting. The tungsten carbide

particles (WC+W2C) with a diameter between 0.100 and

0.315 mm, added to the liquid metal, were projected at the

surface of the mold due to centrifugal forces, and so forming a

10 mm reinforced zone with about 30 vol.% of carbide particles.

After, the reinforcement zone was modified by heat treatment at

1100 °C for 120 minutes, followed by water quenching. The

reaction zone increased (from 0.15 mm to 0.30 mm) and the

following phases were identified: WC, W2C, M23C6, Fe3W3C,

and austenite. Zhang et al. [37] also applied centrifugal casting to

produce high-Cr white cast iron components reinforced with WC

particles. In this case, a reinforced zone with a uniform thickness

of 10 mm with 50 vol.% of carbide particles was obtained. This

reinforcement, after the solubilization heat treatment (980 °C for

2 h with air cooling), showed a wear resistance about seven


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times higher than the base metal. Table 4 summarizes the main

process parameters and results of the mentioned studies.


MMC reinforcement produced by centrifugal casting.


Results Base

metal

Reinforcing

materials

Processing

conditions

Hadfield

steel

[25]

WC + W2C

(0.600-0.940 mm;

0.200-0.315 mm,

and

0.100-0.152 mm)

30 vol.%

1440 rpm Reinforcement thickness:

10 mm

Heat treatment

1100 °C/120 min

+ water

quenched

Impact wear resistance:

Higher with WC 0.100-

0.152 mm

Hardness:

1350 HV (highest

microhardness value)

High-Cr

white

cast iron

[37]

WC + W2C

Pouring

temperature

1500 °C


10 mm

1440 rpm Hardness:

7.23 times higher than the

base metal –

(50 vol.% WC/W2C)

Heat treatment

980 °C/2 h

Concluding Remarks

From this literature review, the following conclusions regarding

the reinforcement of ferrous alloys with WC particles ex-situ

manufactured can be enunciated:

The ceramic phase can be prepared with different geometries

adapted to the component to be reinforced; alternatively, a

compact made from a mixture of ceramic particles, binder,

and flux can be used.

Particles of WC and WC-Co with a diameter ranging from

1.34 µm to 6 mm have been applied, although, most of the

studies have used particles with a diameter ranging from 0.2

to 6 mm.

The optimum percentage of WC in the reinforcement is

around 35 vol.%.

The production of reinforcement by infiltration using several

techniques can be employed, such as pressureless casting,


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vacuum casting, centrifugal casting, and lost foam casting,

with and without vacuum application.

Pressureless casting and lost foam casting, with and without

vacuum, were the most common techniques for reinforcing

with WC or WC-Co particles.

Many of the studies have been focused on the application of

locally reinforcements in grey cast iron and white cast iron

parts, although there have been a few studies about Cr alloy

steels reinforcement.

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