CASE STUDY STATUS REPORT RHINE RIVER BASIN, · Rhine River itself and its direct tributaries...

CASE STUDY STATUS REPORT

RHINE RIVER BASIN,

(Deliverable D27)

Bureao de Recherches Géologiques et Minières (BRGM), France

Institute for Environmental Studies (IVM), The Netherlands

May, 2007

Author Jean-Daniel RINAUDO and Stephanie AULONG (Brgm, France) Date April 15, 2007

Case study status report Upper Rhine, France (Deliverable D27)

Contact information AquaMoney Partners

Copyright © 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.

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This report is part of the EU funded project AquaMoney, Development and Testing of Practical Guidelines for the Assessment of Environmental and Resource Costs and Benefits in the WFD, Contract no SSPI-022723. General

Deliverable D27

Deadline April 15th (Month 12)

Complete reference

Status Author(s) Date Comments Date

Approved / Released JD Rinaudo, S Aulong April 15, 2007

Reviewed by M. Pulido

Pending for Review

Second draft

First draft for Comments

Under Preparation

Confidentiality

Public X

Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Service)

Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Advisory Board)

Confidential, only for members of the consortium

Accessibility

Workspace

Internet X

Paper

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Content 1. Introduction 1 2. Presentation of the Upper Rhine basin, France 2

2.1 Location and Water resources 2 2.2 Pressures and impacts 3

2.2.1 Organic pollution 3 2.2.1.1 Pressures 3 2.2.1.2 Impact on surface water resources 3

2.2.2 Nitrate diffuse pollution 3 2.2.2.1 Pressures 3 2.2.2.2 Impact on water resources 3

2.2.3 Toxic polluting substances 4 2.2.3.1 Pressure 4 2.2.3.2 Impact on water resources 4

2.2.4 Pressures and impact due to mining activities 5 2.3 Assessment of the risk of non compliance with the WFD 6

2.3.1 Methodology for assessing risk 6 2.3.2 Results of the risk assessment for surface waters 6 2.3.3 Results of the risk assessment for groundwater 7

2.4 The economic benefits of implementing the water framework directive 9 3. Objectives and methodologies for the case study 10

3.1 The groundwater issue 10 3.2 Proposed objectives 11 3.3 Methodology 12

3.3.1 Contingent valuation studies 12 3.3.2 Cost-benefit analysis 13

3.4 Test of the guidelines 14 4. Activities and tentative workplan 16

Case study status report Upper Rhine, France

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1. Introduction

This report presents the results of the inception phase of the case study conducted in the Upper Rhine river basin district (France) as part of AQUAMONEY workpackage 4. The main objective of WP4 is to test the guidelines developed for assessing WFD resource and environmental costs and benefits of water services across ten representative European river basins. The report briefly presents the river basin district characteristics, based on article 5 report (section 2). It then describes the proposed objectives and methodology for this case study and it identifies the elements of the Guidelines which will be tested in the case study (section 3). The last section provides a tentative work programme. The French part of the Upper Rhine river basin, on which this report focuses, is mainly affected by chemical pollutions and morphological pressures (in particular along the Rhine river itself which has been intensively modified for navigation and hydropower generation). No water scarcity problems are reported in the basin, both for surface and groundwater resources, meaning that the case study will only focus on environmental costs. Given that the Rhine Meuse Water Agency has initiated a series of economic valuation studies to assess environmental benefits related to surface water protection (from pollution and morphological pressures), and also because there is a clear demand from stakeholders for assessing the economic value of groundwater protection, we have proposed that the Upper Rhine case study would focus on groundwater protection issues. From a policy perspective, the case study will contribute to the justification of possible derogations concerning groundwater bodies in the entire district. It will not only conduct a primary valuation study but also address the issue of benefit transfers. The cost of achieving good groundwater quality will also be estimated, using engineering approaches and a full cost-benefit analysis will be performed. The Rhine, as the Danube and the Scheldt, was initially introduced in the project proposal because of its international dimension. However, discussions between the French and the Dutch team have shown that environmental benefits resulting from the implementation of the WFD would be very different in the Upper Rhine basin in France and in the Western part of the Rhine delta in the Netherlands. It was therefore not considered feasible to study the same type of environmental benefits in the two parts of this international basin. A similar statement was made in the Danude basin, and to a lesser extent in the Scheld one. After discussion during the first year annual meeting at Berlin, the decision to conduct independent case studies in the Upper Rhine and in the Rhine delta was approved by the WP leader and project coordinator.

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2. Presentation of the Upper Rhine basin, France

2.1 Location and Water resources The French case study focuses on the Rhin-Moselle-Sarre basin which includes two sub-districts of the upper Rhine: the Rhine River itself and its direct tributaries located in the Alsace region (8,160 km); and the Moselle and Saar basins up to the German border (15,360 km). The upper Rhine district is shared between France and Germany as the Moselle-Sarre basin extended over France, Germany, Luxembourg and Belgium. In this case study, we will be focusing on the French part only. The district is composed of two major river basins:

- the eastern basin comprises the 214 kilometres of the Rhine from the Swiss border at Basel (South) to the German border at Lauterbourg (North) and its direct tributaries which take their spring in the Vosges mountains (Moder, Sauer, Lauter, Bruche, Zorn, Lauch, Doller) and in the Alsacian Jura mountains (Ill river). The total length of the rivers of this basin is 3960 km.

- The western basin comprises the Moselle and the Saar Rivers and their tributaries. The Moselle has a total length of 313 kilometres between its spring in the Vosges Mountains and the border with Germany and Luxembourg. Its main tributary is the Meurthe River. The Saar also has its spring in the Vosges Mountain and it flows to the German border at Saarguemines. The total length of the rivers of the Moselle Saar basin is 6114 km.

The Agence de l Eau Rhin Meuse has identified a total number of 469 surface water bodies in the Rhine district: 406 natural river water bodies, classified according to their average discharge (3 classes), the natural region in which they are located (6 regions) and the type of fish habitat (corresponding to the Freshwater fish directive); 45 of these river water bodies have been classified as heavily modified water bodies; 64 artificial water bodies, including 28 canals and 33 artificial lakes; 2 natural lakes, both located in the Vosges Mountains. Also, 15 large groundwater bodies have been designated, two of which are lying accross the Rhine and the Meuse river basin districts. All types of aquifers are present in the case study area (hard rock, alluvial and karstic aquifers) and they represent an essential resource for human need in both sub-districts (total abstraction of 750 millions cubic meters per year approximately 60% of drinking water needs).

Figure 1 : Location of the case study area and major rivers (source: Agence de l Eau Rhin Meuse)


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2.2 Pressures and impacts The two sub-districts (Rhine and Moselle-Saar) include remote and mountainous areas, such as the Vosges hills where water resources are not subject to significant pressures, as well as densely populated and past and present industrialised areas, where groundwater resources and rivers are under significant pressures. Impacts on water resource depend on the local hydrological or hydrogeological context. Rivers are provisioning alluvial aquifers so that pollution affects these water bodies in addition to diffusion. Karst aquifers, also present in the region, are also very sensitive to surface pollution.

2.2.1 Organic pollution

2.2.1.1 Pressures Wastewater from urban areas generates a significant pressure on surface water bodies (3.7 million equivalent habitants with 1.98 in the Rhine and 1.72 in the Moselle Saar). The pressure is mainly due to large municipalities (55% of the total pollution in Moselle Saar and 74% in the Rhine) and to municipalities smaller than 2000 inhabitants (25% of the total pollution in Moselle Saar and 10% in the Rhine). The pollution generated by households not connected to public sewage networks contribute to 6% of the organic matter pollution in the Rhine sub-district and 21.9% in the Moselle-Saar district. Industry is another major source of organic pollution in both districts. The total industrial pollution load collected by municipal wastewater treatment plants is equal to 1.1 million equivalent habitants (75% in the Rhine and 25% in Moselle Saar). The food and beverage industry contributes to respectively 55% and 30% of this pollution load in the Rhine and Moselle Saar districts. In addition, respectively 260 and 190 industrial sites directly discharge their effluents in rivers, generating a total pollution load of 615,000 and 455,000 equivalent inhabitants in the Rhine and Moselle Saar basins. Animal production (mainly cattle breeding) also represents a significant source of pressure, as only one third of the cattle breeding farms are complying with the standards (in terms of effluent management practices). This pressure is much higher in the Moselle Saar basin (340,000 equivalent inhabitants) than in the Rhine basin (87,600 inh. eq) (AERM 2004).

2.2.1.2 Impact on surface water resources Organic pollution (organic matters, phosphorous and nitrogen nitrate excepted) is considered as a significant source of pressure for 55% of the total length of rivers (206 water bodies). Information is not sufficient to assess the level of pressures for 143 water bodies (representing 18% of the total river length of the basin). Missing data concerns essentially small rivers and artificial water bodies which are not systematically monitored.

2.2.2 Nitrate diffuse pollution

2.2.2.1 Pressures In the two river sub-districts districts, the two major sources of pressure are agriculture (25,000 farms) and wastewater from urban areas or industry (food industry in particular). Concerning agriculture, groundwater pollution is mainly caused by the leaching by rainfalls in autumn of nitrates which remains in the soil at the end of the cropping season. This risk of nitrate leaching is higher in the Rhine valley (Alsace region) than in the rest of the district (AERM 2004, p.79). During the last decade, nitrate leaching has progressively been reduced after farmers changed their cropping practices (Ramon, 2003). Agricultural nitrate pollution of surface water is mainly due to manure management practices and direct leakage from manure tanks. The contribution of wastewater treatment plants has not been assessed by the Water Agency although treatment plants older than 20 years are not very efficient in terms of pollution reduction.

2.2.2.2 Impact on water resources Groundwater: The following table depicts the percentage of monitoring points where the measured nitrate concentration have exceeded the threshold value of 40 mg/l (80% of the drinking water quality standard) in 2003. This value is exceeded in significant percentage of the monitored points in 3 groundwater bodies. The Alsace valley aquifer (water body No. 2001) is the most severely affected, with concentration exceeding 40 mg/l in 20% of the points

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monitored by the Water Agency and approximately 20% of the area exceeding the same threshold value (source : Water quality census of the Alsace Region). The two other water bodies affected by nitrate and pesticide are Sundgau versant Rhin,Jura alsacien (water body 2002) and the waterbody 2006 (Calcaires du Muschelkalk).

0

5

10

15

20

25

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2008

2010

2016

2017

2022

2026

2027

2028

water bodies identification

% o

f poi

nt

Figure 2 Percent of monitoring points with more than 40mg/L nitrates for 14 major aquifers numbered 2001 to 2028 (source : AERM)

Surface water: The impact of river pollution with nitrates has not been presented separately in article 5 report of the Rhine district.

2.2.3 Toxic polluting substances

2.2.3.1 Pressure Toxic polluting substances include all mineral or organic compounds, which have toxic effects (for humans, flora or fauna), at low concentration. They include the 33 priority substances (see Annex X of the WFD)), among which the 10 dangerous priority substances. These substances can be classified in three categories: heavy and trace metals, pesticides and other organic compounds. Relatively little information is available on direct and indirect discharges of toxic substances in water. A survey conducted by Rhin Meuse Water Agency (AERM, 2004) in 124 industrial sites and 7 wastewater treatment plants shows that toxic substances have been found in 64 of 131 surveyed sites, with priority dangerous substances found in 15 sites. Various pesticides are also found in surface and ground waters. Atrazine and its metabolites (desethylatrazine) are found in respectively 37% and 15% of the samples. Diuron and isoproturon are also found in 15% of the sample. Glyphosphate (and its metabolite AMPA) which presence has been monitored are also increasingly found (AERM, 2004 p 85). The level of information on pesticides varies from one area to the other: it is rather high in the Alsace Region, where a dense network of monitoring point is operating since 1983. The presence of heavy metals (Fe, Cr, Cu, Zn, Cd) in water is mainly due to industrial activities, mining activity, pollution from roads and urban wastewaters. Agriculture also contributes to this pollution (Cu, Cd). Heavy metals can be directly discharged in rivers (industrial effluents, wastewater treatment plants), washed away from soils (erosion) or come from atmospheric pollution. The average total input of heavy metal is one and a half time higher in the Moselle Saar basin than in the Rhine. The total discharge in kg/year has been estimated by the Water Agency as follows: Hg Cd Cu Zn Pb Cr Ni Moselle Saar 87 556 15 274 79 064 5 365 8 929 Rhine 62 287 10 070 44 517 6 847 3 334 5 625

Figure 3 Total heavy metal input in water (kg/year) in 2000 in Rhine district.

2.2.3.2 Impact on water resources

• Mineral toxic substances Mineral toxic substances (mainly heavy metals) represent a source of significant pressure for 77 surface water bodies, representing 28% of total surface water length. Only 9 water bodies (4% of total river length) have been characterised


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as not affected by such a pressure. The information is not sufficient to assess the level of pressure for 383 other surface water bodies, representing 68% of the total river length. This is due to the fact that the number of measurement points where mineral toxic substances are monitored are not very developed and mainly located on large rivers where they presence is known.

• Pesticides This pressure has been estimated using water quality data and indirect indicators, based on land use. The result of the analysis shows that this pressure is significant for 209 surface water bodies (representing 52% of total river length), whereas 179 surface water bodies (33% of river length) could not be characterised because of a lack of information. This pressure affects the entire district with exception from Vosges Mountains. Missing data s water bodies are situated mainly between plains and hills. Seven groundwater bodies are seriously affected by pesticides pollution, with drinking water standards exceeded in more than 20% of the monitoring points. The situations is particularly serious in the Alsatian alluvial aquifer (major water body of the district) where the presence of atrazine is detected in 59% of the monitoring points (regional water quality census of 1997) whereas the drinking water standards are exceeded in 13% of points. More than half of the points show a pesticides pollution in Meurthe and Moselles aquifers and the drinking water standards are exceeded in 37% (Meurthe) and 52% (Moselle) of the monitored points.

• Organic toxic substances Organic toxic substances other than pesticide include chlorinated solvents, PAH, PCB, etc. Given that very little information is available to characterise this pressure, the Rhin Meuse Water Agency has not assessed this pressure at the river district level. More detailed information however exists at the level of the Alsace valley aquifer, where the most frequently encountered organic substances are Volatile Organo-Halogenous Compounds (VOHC). Their presence is detected in nearly one third of the 422 monitored points (water quality census of 1997); tetrachloroethylene had been found in more than 20.6% of the cases and exceed drinking water standards in more than 6% of the points. Aquifers in the Moselle Sarre district are also affected by these compounds (water quality census of 2003). Concerning industrial effluent discharges, a census of significant discharge points of dangerous priority substances (DPS) has identified 15 emission sites, affecting 12 surface water bodies (of which 5 in the Rhine district).

2.2.4 Pressures and impact due to mining activities Mining activities are also a significant source of pressure in the district. There are four major mining sites in the regions, each one generating different type of pressures on water resources.

• The iron mining fields of Lorraine located between Metz, Verdun and Luxembourg cover an area of 1000 km drained by the Moselle River. They have been exploited for more than 100 years until the closure of the mines in 1997. After mine closure, water invaded galleries and its mineral content have gradually raised (sulphate, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, phenols). Mine water now overflows to rivers, generating a significant pressure on some surface water bodies.

• The coal mining fields of Loraine cover over 250 km2. Exploitation stopped in 2004 but mine water pumping is going on. Mine flooding generates a problem similar to what is happening in the Iron mining fields. Mining surface installation and waste dumps are also the origin of sulphates and chlorides contamination.

• The potash mining fields of Alsace had been exploited widely for more than hundred years but are not anymore in exploitation. Still important pollution is threatening groundwater with important salted (NaCl) waste dumps which are the residues of these mines. Infiltration of chloride in the aquifer had lead to the formation of two salted plumes of 80 km2 (with more than tens gram per litre in deep layers). The removal of waste dumps and pumping of groundwater (fixing chlorides) should be completed by 2010.

• The salt Moselle basin is the location of an important very good quality salt deposit and more than one millions tons of refined salt and sodium bicarbonate are exploited every year. Natural and artificial (resulting from salt industries) salinity highly contribute to the Rhine salinity through Moselle River. No solution for reduction of salinity emission had been proposed until now.

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2.3 Assessment of the risk of non compliance with the WFD The following sections briefly describe the risk of non compliance assessed by the Rhine Meuse Water Agency.

2.3.1 Methodology for assessing risk

• Objective and scope: The risk assessment methodology established by the Rhin Meuse Water Agency consists in extrapolating the evolution of water quality in the future (2015), based on a characterisation of existing pressures in 2004 and on an assessment of the economic trends likely to change the pressures (baseline scenario). The extrapolation itself consists in simulating the impact on water resources of the anticipated changes in pressures. This simulation has been carried out using different approaches and tools depending on the type of pressure and the type of water resource (groundwater or surface water).

• Information sources: The baseline scenario is elaborated using three type of information. Firstly, statistical data are used to assess past trends of economic activities using (or having an impact on) water resources (population, agriculture); future evolution of these activities were then forecasted with different assumptions. Secondly, experts are consulted to identify future events likely to modify or reverse the observed trends (for instance the common agricultural policy for agriculture). Thirdly, planning and regional development documents are consulted to identify development projects which have been (or are likely to be) approved (for instance wastewater treatment plans, development of industrial compounds, etc).

• Steps of the analysis: The baseline scenario is described at the river basin district level. It is then used to assess precisely and quantitatively the pressures in 2015 at the level of water bodies. In particular, the 2015 pollution loads are estimated for all major wastewater treatment plants, industrial units and agriculture (cattle breeding units). Based on this, anticipated changes of the chemical status of water resources are assessed, using expert judgement or a model.

• Uncertainty of the risk assessment: The risk assessment is relatively robust when models have been used, which was only possible where a sufficient amount of data was available. This is the case, for instance, for the assessment of the risk related to nitrate and pesticide contamination of groundwater. A risk indicator is assessed taking into account the intensity of land use, the type of agricultural activity and the vulnerability of the aquifer (type of soil covering the aquifer for instance). The GIS based model assesses the risk (high / low) at the pixel level, a water body is considered as at risk if more than 20% of its area is characterised by a high risk level. A mathematical simulation model (PEGASE) is also used to simulate the evolution of organic pollution for surface water bodies (carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen); it computes the concentration of various substances for each river stretch, taking as input river stretches characteristics, the minimum river flow (5 year return) and point source pollution loads; the model simulates dilution and natural attenuation processes. In its current version, the model only represents 8,000 of the 12,000 kilometres of rivers of the territory of the Water Agency. Recognising this uncertainty, the Water Agency insists, in its conclusion, that this risk assessment has to be considered as a preliminary analysis, aiming at identifying significant water management issues and identifying water bodies where monitoring has to be strengthened and additional measures might have to be implemented.

2.3.2 Results of the risk assessment for surface waters The first result of the prospective analysis is the simulated evolution of pressures for 2015. The analysis of Water Agency shows that only organic pollution is expected to decrease, as a result of the progressive implementation of the Urban Wastewater Directive. Other pollution sources are not expected to decrease significantly, as show by Figure 4 below. This statement applies for the Rhine and the Moselle-Sarre sub-districts.


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0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Nitrates 2015

Chlorides 2015

Organic micropollutants 2015

Dangerous and priority substances 2004

Other Pollutants 2015

Other Pollutants 2004

Pesticides 2015

Pesticides 2004

Mineral micro -pollutants (Metals …) 2015

Mineral micro -pollutants (Metals …) 2004

Organic, phosphorous, nitrogen 2015

Organic, phosphorous, nitrogen 2004

% of total lenght

Pressure Missing data

Figure 4 : Polluants pressures on surface water bodies in 2004 and projected in 2015

More than half of total river length have been characterised with a significant pressure of pesticides for 2004 and still for 2015. Pesticides is the main pollution that is responsible for ranging water bodies as risky to not reach good water status by 2015. For other pollutants it is difficult to say because a lot of data is missing: but all other pollution types analysed here are responsible for risk classification of water bodies as risky.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Moselle-Sarre

Upper Rhine

Total RHINE District

RISK Doubt-missing data Artif icial WB Heavily modif ied WB No risk

Figure 5 : risk assessment in percent of total river length of Rhine district Nearly 60% of the total river length of the Rhine district had been characterised at risk. Without looking at any specific pollution type, 48% in Upper Rhine district and 66% in Moselle-Sarre district of total water bodies length (38% in Upper Rhine district and 50% in Moselle-Sarre district of water bodies in percent of number of water bodies, which is 209 water bodies on 470) have been characterised with a significant risk to not reach good status by 2015.

2.3.3 Results of the risk assessment for groundwater Out of the 15 large scale groundwater bodies of the Rhine-Moselle-Sarre district, 10 have been characterised as at risk, 3 are considered as partly at risk (the area affected by a significant pressure in 2015 is rather limited) and 2 are not considered at risk. The information is not sufficient to assess the level of risk for another one. The following figure shows the number of water bodies (under the 15 present in our zone) that have been characterised with significant pressures by 2015.

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Figure 6: Location of groundwater bodies at risk of not meting good chemical status.

Figure 7 : Number of groundwater bodies per pressure type by 2015 Rhine district (source AERM). Notes: (1) sodium, magnesium, iron, manganese, bore, ammonium; (2) volatile organic halogenated compounds

For most of the groundwater bodies at risk, the risk is due to more than one polluting substance: 2 water bodies are affected by 4 sources of risk; 3 are affected by 3 sources; 3 by 2 sources and only one by one source. The major sources of risk of non compliance are the following:

- Pesticide is the most serious source of risk of non compliance for groundwater; it concerns all the groundwater bodies at risk (10). Data is not sufficient to assess the level of risk for an 11th one which is classified in the doubt category. And one additional groundwater body is partly at risk (local problem) due to pesticide contamination.

- Nitrate is also a significant source of risk: it is estimated that, in 2015, the threshold value of 40 mg/l will be exceeded in more than 20% of the area in 6 of the 15 water bodies.


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- Other sources of risk are linked to the presence of chlorinated solvents (5 water bodies, where the solvents have been detected in 13% to 50% of the monitored points), chloride (3 water bodies) and various substances due to mine flooding (sulphates, heavy metals, etc) in the iron mining fields.

2.4 The economic benefits of implementing the water framework directive Implementation of the Water Framework Directive will generate a number of environmental goods and services, including: - Reduced treatment cost for drinking water producers - Restoration of river continuity => fish migration , in particular salmons in the tributaries of the Rhine => positive

impact for recreational fishing - Restoration of river water quality, reduction of eutrophication, with positive impact on all recreational activities

(bathing, canoeing, walking along rivers) and in urban areas, a positive impact on price of houses - Reduction of sediment contamination (accumulation of heavy metals in sediments)

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3. Objectives and methodologies for the case study

3.1 The groundwater issue As highlighted above, many groundwater bodies are significantly polluted by nitrate and pesticides and by organic volatile compounds (chlorinated solvents in particular). Preliminary research conducted by Brgm and the Rhine Meuse Water Agency (Herivaux, Rinaudo, Nicolai and Salleron, 2006) have shown that the cost of the measures needed to restore good chemical quality will probably be disproportionate with the financial capacities of actors who have to implement these measures. This is in particular the case of measures aiming at reducing agriculture diffuse pollution with nitrates and pesticides. In line with the requirements of the WFD and the recommendations of the WATECO guidance document, the cost of measures will have to be compared to the expected benefits of reaching the WFD objectives. Conducting a cost-benefit analysis of groundwater protection programmes remains a difficult task in practice. The difficulty mainly related to the assessment of the benefits of groundwater protection. Policy makers and stakeholders may be tempted to consider only one benefit, namely avoided treatment costs for drinking water supply (see Rinaudo et alii 2005 for an example in the same region). Although policy makers recognise the existence of option value and non-use values, they do feel very uneasy to quantify these values in monetary terms. This difficulty is mainly due to the lack of reference values obtained through primary contingent valuation studies. There is therefore a risk that cost-benefit analyses which will be performed under-estimate the benefits of groundwater protection, resulting in a large number of derogations. In France, only two groundwater valuations studies have been conducted. Both studies have assessed population willingness to pay for the protection of the same aquifer, the Upper Rhine valley aquifer. The first study was carried out in 1993 by the University of Strasbourg (Stenger and Willinger, 1998; Rozan, Stenger and Willinger, 1994). The scenario considered consists in implementing a programme of action aiming at preserving drinking water quality in the entire aquifer. The second study, which is presented in more details bellow, was carried out in 2006 by Brgm as part of the 6th FP research project Bridge (Aulong and Rinaudo, 2006, see box 1). There is therefore a need to (i) produce new primary groundwater valuation studies and (ii) develop and test a methodology to transfer these values between sites in France. We here propose that the AQUAMONEY case study focuses on these two issues.

Box 1: Main finding of the groundwater valuation study carried out by Brgm as part of the Bridge project One objective of the BRIDGE case study was to assess population willingness to pay for restoring two alternative levels of groundwater quality. The business as usual scenario described in the questionnaire (reference situation) assumed that the three major pollution sources (nitrates, pesticides and chlorine) are presently managed through various measures programmes, the fourth one (chlorinated solvents) remaining without concrete actions. Then, in the absence of specific groundwater protection and remediation action, chlorinated solvents pollution plumes would extend, leading to the contamination of urban drinking water wells. An action scenario, consisting in restoring groundwater quality up to current drinking water standards, was first considered and assessed by respondents. A second scenario consisting of restoring natural quality (removal of all traces of solvents) was then assessed by respondents. Following a pre-test of the questionnaire through 140 face to face interviews, the questionnaire was sent out by mail to 5000 households selected in rural localities (2000), urban areas (2000) and in municipalities located outside the aquifer and using other water resources (1000). The data collected were then used to model households decision to pay for the two scenarios (Logit model where the explained variable is a binary variable taking the value one if the households accept to pay, zero otherwise). The stated willingness to pay amount was then modelled using a linear regression (excluding protest answers) and a Tobit model (including and excluding protest answers). Based on the results of the multivariate analysis, an assessment of the total benefits of each groundwater protection scenario was carried out, based on assumptions related to the population concerned by groundwater protection in the region. A total of 668 usable questionnaires were returned out of the 5000 sent by mail. The response rate (13.4%) is conforming to similar methods. The survey first allows understanding of the perception of groundwater pollution


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problem by the population. Concerning the perception of groundwater pollution, 22% of the respondents never heard about Upper Rhine pollution aquifer cases whereas 54% did. According to the respondents, the main causes of groundwater pollution are agriculture and industry. When asked to identify within a list the polluting substances which are present in the aquifer, respondents mainly quote nitrates (86%) and pesticides and herbicides (84%). They are fewer to quote heavy metals (44%), chlorides (45%) and hydrocarbons (33%). Chlorinated solvents are quoted by 53%, putting them in third position after nitrates and pesticides. After having read the description of the current situation in terms of water quality in Alsace, 82% declare that they were not well (or not at all) informed about it before reading the text. Most respondents (80%) consider the two proposed hypothetical scenarios as credible. Sixty two percent of the respondents accept to contribute to the first scenario: the mean WTP declared is 42€/households. In the case of the second scenario, 54% of the respondents are willing to contribute. The corresponding mean WTP is 76€/household. Unexpectedly and in both scenario cases, the average willingness to pay of respondents living above with aquifer is not higher than WTP declared by respondents living outside the aquifer which was one of the assumptions to be tested. These values can be compared with the 94€ found in a 1993 contingent valuation assessing WTP for groundwater protection in the same region (Stenger and Willinger, 1998). A major finding is the relatively high protest rate close to 53% for the first scenario (17% for the second). This attitude is mainly due to the fact that the scenario is perceived as inconsistent with the polluter pays principle. Other respondents reject the scenario due to the proposed payment vehicle and assert that they would be willing to pay but not through an increase of their water bill. The results of the linear Logic model shows that the main significant variables are the realism of the described scenarios, the number of children in the household, the income and the number of known polluting substances. The frequency of tap water consumption does not appear as a significant variable as found by Stenger and Willinger. Two models were tested to explain stated WTP amounts. Unexpectedly, the knowledge of the water bill has a negative impact on the WTP amount. Significant variables are quite different from the Logit model: income, knowledge of water bill, concern about groundwater pollution, practice of water activities (leisure), and use and non-use values of groundwater advocated as motivations to pay. The predicted WTP range between 19 and 29€ per household for the first scenario and between 54 and 79€ per household for the second scenario according to the regression model used and the inclusion of protest answers or not. Finally, the total benefits of the Upper Rhine Valley aquifer are estimated after a sample bias correction. The total benefits of groundwater protection is estimated at 29 million € for the scenario 1 (drinking quality level) and 46.5 million € for scenario 2 (natural water quality level). 3.2 Proposed objectives The four main objectives of the Upper Rhine case study (France) are: - to conduct groundwater valuation studies for (2-3) selected groundwater bodies located within the Upper Rhine

river basin; the selected groundwater bodies will differ in terms of pollution type and intensity; geological characteristics; socio-economic characteristics of the population and types of water uses (industrial, agriculture, drinking water);

- to test the transferability of estimated WTP across case studies and estimate the errors associated to different type of transfer methods;

- to develop and test different methods for aggregating the benefits related to groundwater protection (see Bateman et alii, 2006 for a discussion of this issue);

- to assess the cost of the measures required for restoring good chemical status for the 3-4 selected aquifers and to carry out a cost-effectiveness analysis;

- to discuss the results obtained (values and attached uncertainties) with the Rhine Meuse Water Agency and other stakeholders involved in the implementation of the WFD and to analyse to what extent economic information is actually considered to take decisions in terms of derogations.

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3.3 Methodology

3.3.1 Contingent valuation studies

• Case study selection A CV survey will be implemented in two regions (see map bellow), covering 4 to 5 different groundwater bodies at risk of non compliance with the objectives of the WFD. These CV survey will complement the survey conducted in Alsace (region of Strasbourg to Colmar on the map bellow) as part of the Bridge project. One survey will be conducted in the industrial region including the cities of Nancy and Metz. Two main types of aquifers are present in this area (chalk aquifer and alluvial aquifer connected to the Moselle River) and different types of pollutions are present. The second survey will be conducted a more rural area, where agriculture is the main source of groundwater pollution. Located close to the Vosges Mountain foothills, and including the city of Epinal, this area is locally affected by point source pollution by the textile industry.

• International extension of the CV surveys Contacts will also be established with administrations and stakeholders from Germany and Luxemburg (Land of Baden Wurttemberg and Land of Rhein Pfalz Palatinat) to discuss the possibility of extending the CV survey in these two countries. This would offer a unique possibility to assess the differences in WTP by populations from different countries for the same transboundary aquifers. This extension will however only be possible if additional cost of survey can be covered by German and Luxemburg stakeholders.

Figure 8: Areas proposed for conducting CV surveys.

• Scenarios to evaluate and questionnaire Following a description of groundwater resources (characteristics, pressures and expected evolution of water quality in absence of more intensive corrective measures), two policy scenarios will be evaluated in each of the 2 case studies. Respondents will first be asked to state their willingness to pay for implementing a policy scenario which would allow the restoration of good chemical water quality in the entire river basin. For the purpose of the study, good water quality


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will be defined as water meeting drinking standards. Respondents will then be asked to assess the amount they would be willing to pay for restoring groundwater quality in the specific area they live in. The order of presentation of the two scenarios will be inverted in two sub-samples. The description of the second scenario will differ from one case study to another, in order to account for the differences in types of pressures, activities generating these pressures and measures to be implemented. In each case study area, we will use a stratified sample. Respondents will be selected in municipalities where tap water comes from groundwater and others from it comes from surface water (Metz and Nancy are supplied by surface water for instance). Respondents will also be selected both in rural (1/3) and urban areas (2/3). They will also be selected in areas where groundwater is at risk and in others where no major problems are encountered. The analysis will then focus on the following issues:

1. We will first investigate through multivariate analysis the factors determining WTP at the river basin district level. We will in particular investigate the effect of variables related to the characteristics of the groundwater body (geographical location, type of pollution, significance of the resources and intensity of groundwater use). This analysis will be based on the full sample of respondents.

2. In a second step, we will analyse how households decide to allocate the total amount they are willing to pay for groundwater protection to specific areas. A multivariate analysis will be performed to identify the factors explaining the ratio WTP(loc)/WTP(rb), where WTP(rb) is the total amount respondents are willing to pay for the protection of all groundwater resources in the district, and WTP(loc) is the amount they are willing to pay for protecting local resources. This analysis will be performed using the full sample of respondents.

3. The third step will consist in modelling WTP(loc) for each of the case study area, using the 2 sub-samples. The results obtained will be compared to the results of the CV survey conducted in the Upper Rhine valley as part of Bridge.

4. The benefit transfer method(s) proposed in the Guidelines will then be tested, using the results of the two local case studies and the results of the Bridge project conducted in the Upper Rhine valley aquifer. The objective of this test will be to assess the errors made by transferring the results of CV survey conducted in one of the three sites to the two others.

5. Based on these results, we will test several aggregation methods for assessing the total benefits of groundwater protection in the entire river basin district. This total benefit will be estimated using the estimated WTP(rb) and the results of the 3 individual valuation studies (states WTP(loc)). The aggregation will be based on the results of regressions.

3.3.2 Cost-benefit analysis

• Assessing the cost of groundwater protection against chlorinated solvents contamination

Based on the results of previous studies conducted with the Rhine Meuse Water Agency, we will design a technical programme of measures to reduce groundwater contamination with chlorinated solvents. The total cost of this programme will be estimated at the district level. Two types of measures will be considered:

- Remediation measures: these measures will apply to large scale industrial sites (ancient sites or sites in activity) as well as to small sites (car repair workshops for instance). They consist either in decontaminating groundwater pollution plumes or contaminated soils located above the aquifer.

- Preventive measures which can be implemented to reduce recurring or accidental soil and groundwater contamination can be grouped into the five following categories

Measures aiming at reducing accidental leakage by constructing watertight areas under storage tanks, removing all underground pipes and tanks, securing all areas where solvents are transported or manipulated, constructing pounds to recover solvents in case of accident, etc.

Measures aiming at collecting all used solvents and other wastes containing solvents; this implies constructing storage premises for used solvents (which are sometimes still discharged directly in sewage

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system or in the environment) and organising their collection by companies specialised in treatment and recycling of toxic wastes.

Cleaner technologies reducing emission of VOC: this includes the use of technologies where VOC are recycled (printing industry, painting related activities, mechanical industries, etc.

Substitution of chlorinated solvents with other solvents and/or use of technologies which do not require VOC. For instance, cleaning of equipments used for painting can be done with ultrasonic devices; metal cleaning before coating can be done using bacteriological processes instead of solvents; etc.

Wastewater treatment using activated coal filters of a stripping tower (where solvents evaporate) with an activated coal filter to remove solvents from the vapours.

Monitoring measures which consist in installing a piezometer downstream risk zones and conducting surveillance chemical analyses to detect any pollution trace before it can generate a plume in groundwater).

• Assessing the cost of groundwater protection against nitrate and pesticide contamination

Similarly, we will design a programme of technical measures aiming at reducing agriculture diffuse pollution (nitrate and pesticides). This programme will mainly consist in applying agro-environmental farming practices in areas considered as vulnerable to nitrate and pesticide contamination risk. The geographic boundaries of the vulnerable areas (which do not correspond to the Nitrate Directive vulnerable areas) will be defined by experts from the Water Agency (work in progress). Also, the technical constraints imposed to farmers in these areas will be specified by the authorities in charge of this issue in the River basin district. We will then assess the total cost of the programme of measures, defined as the cost of forgone benefits for farmers subject to constraints on pesticide and nitrate use (plus transaction costs of the subsidy system which will accompany the technical constraints for farmers).

• Cost-benefit analysis

Total costs and benefits of groundwater protection will then be estimated, highlighting the existing uncertainties and their impact on decision making (in terms of possible derogations). Cost-benefit analysis will then be carried out at the level of individual groundwater bodies. The conclusions will provide the basis for possible justification of derogations.

These results will be discussed with various stakeholders in order to characterise their perception of the methods used (CV in particular) and of existing uncertainties. 3.4 Test of the guidelines The key elements of the guidelines which will be tested in this case study are the following:

- Design of an economic valuation scenario: as stated in the draft guidelines (See Brouwer and Giorgiou, 2007: p 33-34), a key challenge of economic valuation of water protection scenarios using stated preferences lies in the ability to describe environmental changes in simple terms understandable by a lay public. This issue is of utmost importance when evaluating benefits related to groundwater protection, groundwater being an invisible good which the public may not know a lot about. The Upper Rhine case study will provide some input on this issue in order to complement the proposed water quality ladder (which is adapted for surface water but is not relevant for groundwater).

- Scope test: in the CV survey which will be conducted, respondents will be asked to value groundwater protection benefits at the district and the local levels. Another scope test may be implemented by varying the targeted water quality in each scenario (natural quality versus drinking water quality, see Aulong, Rinaudo and Bouscasse 2006 for an illustration).

- Spatial dimension underlying economic valuation: individual willingness to pay for protecting an aquifer is likely to be a negatively correlated to the distance of the respondent’s living place to the nearest point of the aquifer. We will test this distance decay function through introducing this distance variable (perceived and objective distance variables) in the regressions of WT(loc). Specific questions could also be included in the questionnaire to better understand how the public perceives space and boundaries of groundwater bodies. The test of the questionnaires


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which will be conducted through face to face interviews should also help understanding this perception of space. This will lead us to formulate recommendations for the Guidelines in terms of choice of appropriate scale when valuing groundwater protection scenarios.

- Benefit transfer methods (see guidelines p. 39-41) will be tested in the Upper Rhine case study. This issue, linked to the up-scaling / downscaling issue, represents a key focus of this case study.

- The issue of aggregation is also essential to the Upper Rhine case study. The case study should therefore provide usefull feed back on the related sections of the Guidelines. The uncertainty attached to this step of the valuation study will be highlighted in particular. Also, the impact of this uncertainty linked to aggregation on the results of cost-benefit analysis will be highlighted.

- Since we will use CV as a valuation technique, the entire section 7.1 dealing with the implementation of CV will be tested. Recommendations from the Upper Rhine case study will focus on specific characteristics and problems of CV survey applied to groundwater valuation scenarios.

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4. Activities and tentative workplan

A tentative work programme is presented bellow; August 31rst: First methodological proposal for discussion on: - the questionnaire (draft) and the sampling procedure; - the specification of the tests to be carried out in the CV survey; - the choice of an interview method (internet based, face to face, telephone or mail survey) and identification. September 26th : Bologna meeting - final proposal of questionnaire, sampling procedure and organisation of the survey; - sub-contractors identified; - test of the questionnaire carried out (face to face interviews in the streets of Metz and Nancy cities); - methodology for assessing the cost of agricultural measures stabilised. December 31rst : - CV survey completed; - Data cleaning and data entry intitiated. February 27th: - regressions finalised; - aggregation method tested; - cost of measures estimated. April (second year annual meeting): - CV survey and CBA results presented and discussed; - case study report finalised; - first comments and recommendations concerning the Guidelines (CV survey and estimation of the cost of

measures). June - Presentation of the case study results to stakeholders through a one day workshop at Metz; - final report on guidelines: lessons learnt through the case studies, recommendations. October - Final report on guidelines: lessons learnt through the case studies, recommendations.


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References Aulong S., Rinaudo JD and Bouscasse H. (2006) Assessing the costs and benefits of groundwater quality improvement

in the Upper Rhine valley quaternary aquifer (France). Deliverable D25. Rapport BRGM/RP-55061-FR. 87 p. Available at www.wfd-bridge.net

Bateman Ian J., Brett H. Day, Stavros Georgiou, Iain Lake (2006) The aggregation of environmental benefit values: Welfare measures, distance decay and total WTP. Ecological Economics 60: 450-460.

Herivaux C, Rinaudo J-D, Nicolai S and Salleron J-L (2006) Evaluer le cout de la mise en oeuvre de la Directive cadre sur l eau: elements de methode et application au bassin hydrographique Rhin Meuse , La Houille Blanche, No 4-2006 : 81-87.

Rinaudo J-D., Arnal C., Blanchin R., Elsass P., Mailhac A., Loubier S. (2005) Assessing the cost of groundwater pollution: the case of diffuse agricultural pollution in the Upper Rhine valley aquifer, Water Science and technology, 52 (9) - pp. 153-162

Rozan, A., A. Stenger, et al. (1997). "Valeur de preservation de la qualite de l'eau souterraine: une comparaison entre usagers et non-usagers." Cahiers d'economie et sociologie rurales 45: 62-92.

Stenger, A. and M. Willinger (1998). "Preservation value for groundwater quality in a large aquifer: a contingent-valuation study of the Alsatian aquifer." Journal of Environmental Management 53: 177-193.

Author A. Gilbert, M. Schaafsma Date April 15, 2007

Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27) Subbasin Rhine-West, Netherlands

Contact information AquaMoney Partners

Copyright © 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by anymeans, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.

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This report is part of the EU funded project AquaMoney, Development and Testing of Practical Guidelines for the Assessment of Environmental and Resource Costs and Benefits in the WFD, Contract no SSPI-022723. General

Deliverable D27. Case study Report Rhine-West

Deadline 15-04-2007

Complete reference Gilbert, A., M. Schaafsma (2007), Case study Report Rhine, Subcatchment Rhine-West, IVM, Amsterdam.

Status Author(s) Date Comments Date

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First draft for Comments A. Gilbert, M. Schaafsma 15-04-2007

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Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Service)

Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Advisory Board)

Confidential, only for members of the consortium X

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Paper

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Content 1. General case study characteristics 1

1.1 Location of the case study area 1 1.2 Geographical characteristics 1

1.2.1 Climate 1 1.2.2 Lithology & Geology 3 1.2.3 Land uses 3

1.3 Water system characteristics 5 1.3.1 Streams & rivers: characteristics, groundwater 5

1.3.1.1 Rijn-Delta stream and river characteristics 5 1.3.1.2 Groundwater interactions 5

1.3.2 Water bodies, types and reference conditions 6 1.3.2.1 Rijn-Delta water status 6 1.3.2.2 Rijn-West: General description of surface water bodies and typology 6 1.3.2.3 Current ecological and chemical state Rijn-West 7

1.4 Characterisation of water use 8 1.4.1 Water uses and services by socio-economic sectors 8 1.4.2 Origin of water use 8 1.4.3 Protected areas 9 1.4.4 Economic analysis; trends and future projections 9

1.4.4.1 Economic Description of Rijn-Delta 9 1.4.4.2 Autonomic development until 2015 11

2. Pressure, impact and risk analysis 12 2.1 Significant pressures impacting on water status 12

2.1.1 Point and diffuse source pressures 12 2.1.2 Abstraction and flow regulation pressures 13 2.1.3 Morphological pressures 13 2.1.4 Other human pressures 13

2.2 Water bodies at risk of not achieving a good status 14 2.2.1 Preliminary risk analysis surface waters Rijn-Delta 14 2.2.2 Chemical state in 2015 14 2.2.3 Ecological state in 2015 15

2.3 Diagnosis of water quality and ecological issues 16 2.4 General trends and future pressures 18

3. Policy issues 19 3.1 Water management framework and major issues 19

3.1.1 Institutional framework 19 3.1.2 Water rights issues 19 3.1.3 Droughts and water scarcity problems 19 3.1.4 Flood risk issues 19 3.1.5 Water quality issues 19 3.1.6 Resources overexploitation 20 3.1.7 Water use efficiency 20

3.2 Relevant water policy questions in the basin 20 3.2.1 Policy options and goal achievement 20 3.2.2 Relevant policy questions 21

3.3 Information sources and stakeholder involvement 22 4. ERC analysis and methodological issues 23

4.1 List of main water-related goods and services provided in the basin 23 4.2 List possible benefits and cost from that water services 23

4.3 Type of ERC analysis to performance 23 4.4 Proposed methods and tools for the valuation of ERC: 23 4.5 Methodological issues 23 4.6 Available studies/information on ERC and expected information 24

Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)

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1. General case study characteristics1

1.1 Location of the case study area

Rijn-West is the most westerly sub-catchment of the Rhine delta and of the Rhine as a whole (see figure below). To the south, it borders on the Maas, and to the east and north on other sub-catchments of the Rhine. The Wadden island Texel is part of Rijn-West, even though the water surrounding it is part of Rijn-Noord. Rijn-West also includes a small part of the German catchment. The total surface area of Rijn-West is around 1.2 million ha. The human population is estimated at 7.3 million, which is approximately 46% of the Dutch population. Most are residents of the larger cities, notably Amsterdam, Delft, Den Haag, Dordrecht, Haarlem, Leiden, Rotterdam and Utrecht. The drainage basins of the Meuse and Rhine, west of Nijmegen, are interdependent, as is typical for waters in a delta. Exchange between the two rivers is limited, although not yet quantified.

Rijn-West (see figures below) comprises the province of North Holland and parts of the provinces of South Holland, Utrecht, and Gelderland. The island, Texel, belongs in this sub-catchment, but not the surrounding waters of the Wadden Sea, which belongs in Rijn-Noord. Alm and the Biesbosch, both parts of the province North Brabant, belong in Rijn-West. The North Sea Canal, the Holland coastline, the New Waterway, the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal, the Nederrijn-Lek and the Waal rivers all lie within Rijn-West. 1.2 Geographical characteristics

1.2.1 Climate2 Precipitation and evaporation The Royal Dutch Meterological Service (KNMI) calculates long-term, average precipitation for 15 meteorological regions in the Netherlands. Monthly and annual data for 1971-2000 are available, and have been used to estimate average annual and monthly precipitation for the districts within Rijn-West. (See Figure 2.3. Gemiddelde maandelijkse neerslag in Rijn-West). Average annual precipitation is approximately 820 mm. Average annual evaporation Nederland is 563 mm. The monthly distribution in evaporation is given in Figure 2.4 (Gemiddelde verdamping). Values in this figure are based on KNMI data from 5 stations, calculated using the method of van Makkink, and are long-term averages for the period 1971-2000. These figures highlight that, on average in Rijn-West, there is a positive water balance in spring and autumn. During summer is there a precipitation shortage. Freshwater from the main water systems (canals, rivers and Ijsselmeer) is diverted into the regional water systems. Temperature An impression of temperature in Rijn-West is provided by data from a Rotterdam weather station (number 344). Average monthly temperature for this weather station, based on long-term averages for the period 1971-2000, is shown in Figure 2.5 (Gemiddelde temperatuur in Rijn-West). Climate change The climate in Europe is changing. Temperature is rising and precipitation, both quantity and intensity, is changing. The Netherlands can expect wetter winters and drier summers in the future. Showers will bring more rainfall in a shorter period of time than has historically been the case. Climate change is also expected to cause a rise in sea levels. In the

1Mainly from Art. 5. Report 2 Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport. 1 december 2004. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/download-document.php?id=438

Geographical area Rijn-West

1.2 million ha.

North Sea plus North and South Holland coastlines

5 provinces: Noord-Holland, Zuid-Holland, Utrecht (West part), Noord-Brabant (small part) and Gelderland (River area)

5 regional directorates of Rijkswaterstaat

8 water boards (see figure 2)

Circa 200 municipalities

7.3 million people (46 % of the Dutch population)

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context of Water Management in the 21st Century, three scenarios have been developed to provide insights into future trends in temperature, precipitation and its intensity, and sea level rise.

Figure 1 Location of the Rhine delta, and other Dutch catchments of the Rhine3

Figure 2 Subdivision of Rijn-West into 10 areas: groundwater, 8 Water Boards, and national waters4

3 Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta. March 2005. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl) 4 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/uitvoering/stroomgebieddistrict/ rijn/west/geografisch-gebied/


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1.2.2 Lithology & Geology5 Substrates in Rijn-West are mostly formed during the Pleistocene by river deposits from the Rhine and its eastern and northern components, as well as by glacial and marine deposits. The permeable Pleistocene strata range in thickness from around 50m near the German border, to 250m in the northwest. In southern areas, thick clay layers intersperse these permeable strata. In the north, local, distinctive clay layers, from glacial and marine deposits, are found at depths between 25 and 50m. In coastal areas north of IJmuiden and in the vicinity of Amsterdam, clay-filled troughs may be encountered down to 100m. Marine deposits lie under the permeable, Pleistocene strata that, from the flanks of the Utrecht hill ridge, lie under younger (Holocene) marine clays and peat deposits. Along the coast, these deposits reach a thickness of 20m. Near the large rivers are younger alluvial deposits (also Holocene) and a mixture of clay and sandy ridges. The overlying Holocene strata are only partially permeable. The largest part of the Rijn-West landscape is of recent (Holocene) origin. Most lies under sea level and must be drained. The positive water balance of 200-250 mm/year is discharged via shallow drainage ditches into larger canals. The development of polders with different water tables has led to an extremely complex system of (ground) water flows. Between the water-rich upper layers (Holocene) and the Pleistocene underground is a strong vertical exchange of water, which leads to complex exchange among fresh, salt and brackish groundwater that is not in equilibrium with hydraulic boundary conditions. An important aspect of surface water quality is that permeable, sub-surface strata are mostly filled with brackish water. This brackish water derives from floods during the Holocene, as well as marine deposits. It is a source of such substances as chloride, arsenic, sulphate and, locally from marine clays, phosphorus and nitrogen. The volumes of these last two substances are comparable with those from agriculture6. Freshwater penetrate the regional groundwater from the Utrecht hill ridge and from the dunes. Fresh groundwater seeps to the surface in a number of nearby, deep polders. Superimposed on this is a regional water flow system from polder development. Freshwater penetrates from relatively higher lying areas and lakes. Salinisation occurs where particularly low-lying land is reclamation, permitting seepage of deeper groundwater flows that are salty. Seepage, either fresh or brackish depending on sub-surfaces, also occurs along the high-lying rivers. Seepage of brackish water into polders between the North Sea Canal and the New Waterway is estimated to lead to a chloride load of 150,000 tonnes Cl/year. From west to east, Rijn-West grades from dunes, through low-lying areas to rivers and their flood plains to the east. This low-lying landscape has its origins in marine deposits of sand along the coast forming beaches. At low tide, aeolian transport of the sand created the older dunes. At high tide the sea would penetrate the more seaward dunes, and deposited clays in the hinterland. Plants growing on these marine clays provided the basis for peat. This marine clay landscape has largely been won back from the sea via reclamation. Pastures, with high groundwater levels to constrain subsidence through mineralization of the peat soils, dominate these reclaimed areas. Peat extraction began in the 11th and 12th centuries. The production functions of these areas have slowly changed. Initially they were used for agriculture, but with subsidence, the emphasis came to lie on animal husbandry because the water level had to be kept higher. Later, peat was extracted and a number of lakes formed. In the vicinity of the rivers, flowing water deposited mainly sand on higher riverbanks. Sand deposition in the riverbed formed sandbanks Clay deposited in bowl-shaped layers between the riverbanks. The sandbanks grew higher and comprised calcium-rich, light clays. They can be recognized on maps via their land use, primarily farmland and orchards.

1.2.3 Land uses7 Rijn-West is for 60% under agriculture. The Randstad, comprising Amsterdam, Utrecht, Rotterdam and Den Haag, is located in Rijn-West. This is the most densely populated urban area in the Netherlands. Land use differs per sub-catchment, as briefly described below.

5 Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport. 1 december 2004. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/download-document.php?id=438 6 TNO en Alterra, 2002. De achtergrondbelasting van het oppervlaktewatersysteem met N, P en Cl en enkele ecohydrologische parameters in West-Nederland. TNO-Alterra rapport. NITG nr. 02-166-A. 7 See: Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport. 1 december 2004. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/download-document.php?id=438 Figure 2.8 provides an overview of land use for Rijn-West. Map 2 in the annex to this report provides the same data in map format.

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Noorderkwartier (North Quarter) Land use is predominantly agricultural. In fen meadows, the emphasis is on pastures; crops (notably bulbs, potatoes and cabbage) are mainly found in the very north of North Holland and in West Friesland. Modern culturing of bulbs is found on sandy soils behind the dunes. Urbanisation is occurring in the Zaanstreek and near Alkmaar. Industry tends to be concentrated along the North Sea Canal and in the Zaanstreek. Road networks with large freeways surround Amsterdam and connect north to south. Coastal areas have a greater nature value. (Midden-Holland) Middle Holland Soils in the northern part of Middle Holland are mainly under crops, with culturing of bulbs behind coastal dunes. Infrastructure has a major role, with freeways and Schiphol airport. Large cities, such as Den Haag and Rotterdam, are found in this area, as well as large industrial complexes such as Rijnmond. Nature dominates the coast, together with recreation. There is a range of land uses in the peat polders: meadows on low-lying peat soils, urban centres and industry, especially on the higher river banks, and crops and bulbs on marine clays in very low-lying reclaimed land. Urbanisation in low-lying areas has been occurring recently. In the south of Middle Holland, intensive horticulture using glasshouses dominates the landscape. Culturing of bulbs occurs in some areas. This low-lying area is water-rich, with many lakes. Zuid-Holland zuid (South Holland south) This area includes a number of hydrologically isolated islands. Northern and western parts are decidedly urban. Remaining areas are characterised by widespread rural landscapes criss-crossed by dykes, supporting fruit, vegetables and crops dependent on drainage and intensive water management. Urbanisation occurs mainly on embankments flanking the large rivers as well as higher-lying areas between the dykes. Lower-lying areas are also becoming urbanised. South Holland south also has areas with concentrations of horticulture. Amstelland Land use in Amstelland is very diverse. Between the western flanks of the Utrecht hill ridge and the Kromme Rijn, forests with natural values related to groundwater seepage blend into small-scale farming. South of the Kromme Rijn, as well as along the Hollands IJssel and Leidse Rijn, land use is predominantly dairy and fruit. The western fen meadows are largely dairy with local natural areas. The Vinkerveen and Loosdrecht Lakes cater for open water recreational. Two of the largest Dutch cities, Amsterdam and Hilversum, are found in Amstelland. These cities, together with many bordering communities, serve important residential and economic functions. Rivierengebied (the rivers area) About half of the rivers area is agricultural, such as pastures and orchards. While horticulture is only a small percentage of total land use, it is very concentrated. The rivers themselves, as open water, take up much space. A number of large, infrastructural developments, such as the Betuwe Line, various freeways, and the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal, dissect this area. Its urban centre is Arnhem-Nijmegen to the east. Smaller urban areas are Tiel in the middle and the southern edge of Alblasserward to the west. Rijkswateren (National waters, rivers, canals and the coast) Land outside the dykes near rivers is important for transport of water, ice and sediment. Weirs, dykes, embankments and other barriers are crucial for protection against high waters. Inside the dykes, land use is diverse: various forms of agriculture to residential to industrial uses. There are also important natural values, for example along river banks and on river flood plains. Water management occurs in combination with nature development. Rivers and canals are very important economically, as national and international shipping channels. Dredge spoil is stored in select depots. Recreational and professional fishing takes place on and along the various branches of the Rhine. Various locations allow river waters to be diverted into regional water systems, as well for drinking water and industrial purposes. Industrial concentrations lie along the New Waterway and the North Sea Canal. Locally, nature-friendly riverbanks have been established. Clay, sand and gravel extraction occurs in the flood plains of the large rivers. In the coastal zone, there are two important shipping lanes Euro-Maas for entry to Rotterdam harbour and IJ for entry to IJmuiden and Amsterdam. Dredge spoil disposal from these lanes occurs at sea or in depots. Gas production platforms are scattered over the North Sea. On the bottom of the sea lie pipelines, telephone and electricity cables. The sea is further of importance for nature, fisheries, sand extraction and recreation.


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1.3 Water system characteristics

1.3.1 Streams & rivers: characteristics, groundwater 1.3.1.1 Rijn-Delta stream and river characteristics In the Rijn-delta, 565 surface water bodies have been identified and grouped into rivers, lakes, coasts and connecting waters. Each category is further divided into types. The Dutch part of the Rijndelta comprises 33 types and 5 combination types; the German part comprises 6 types. Reference states are described for each type, and represent their undisturbed state. The ecological objectives for natural water bodies derived from these undisturbed states. Reference conditions for artificial and heavily modified water bodies will be based on those for natural water bodies. Water bodies of the Rijn-delta are divided into three groups:

• Line- (or ribbon-)shaped bodies include canals, rivers and other waterways (the German water managers include on waterways with a basin area greater than 1000 ha);

• Flat-shaped bodies include all lakes and ponds (in Germany, only those greater than 50ha); • Virtual bodies (only in the Netherlands), groups of small water bodies that do not fall into the above

categories. More precise specification of virtual water bodies and their identification is still being worked on. Maps of the distribution of line- and flat-shaped bodies over groups of types, and the distribution of virtual water bodies are available. Streams and rivers are found mainly in the higher parts of the Rijndelta. Lakes are mainly found in the lower parts. Many ditches and other small waterways in these lower parts have been combined into virtual water bodies. The water bodies comprising branches of the Rhine are, clearly, rivers. The coastal zone, including the Wadden Sea, is further divided into three water bodies; the transition fresh and salt surface waters is divided into two water bodies. The figure below shows that virtually all water bodies of the Rijndelta have been hydromorphologically changed.

Per

cent

age

wat

er s

urfa

ce

ditches &canals

fens, ponds & small lakes

large lakes streams large rivers coastal water total

Hydromorphological state is no constraint on ecology

No data

Water surface suffering from significant hydromorpholical change Figure 3 Percentage water surfaces that have been significantly changed hydromorphologically 1.3.1.2 Groundwater interactions Groundwater dependence is indicated if the quality of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem is influenced by groundwater levels, or by the quantity and quality of groundwater. Specification of groundwater bodies with dependent ecosystems is based on the following information:

• the location of areas identified in the context of the birds and habitats directives; • the location of other areas with natural values; • habitat types;

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• data on groundwater levels, such as on 1:50.000 soil map (in areas with low groundwater levels vi, vii en viii: it is assumed that there is no relation between the groundwater body and the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems)

• data on seepage and infiltration. This approach led to the conclusion that, with only a few exceptions (e.g. Birds Directives areas in the German part of the Rijndelta), all large groundwater bodies are associated with dependent ecosystem. Of groundwater bodies that provide water for human consumption 36 have dependent ecosystems.

1.3.2 Water bodies, types and reference conditions 1.3.2.1 Rijn-Delta water status Seven water bodies in the lower part of the Rijndelta have been assigned the status natural. For Rijn-West, these include Naardermeer, buffered and calcium-rich dune areas in North Holland, and dune lakes near Voorne. Of the rest, three-quarters are artificial and a quarter highly modified. Strongly modified water bodies are preliminarily specified on the basis of the effect of morphological changes. A detailed analysis will be undertaken after 2006. The coast of Rijn-West and the great rivers are all highly modified as a result of measures against flooding. In the regional water system, most regional waters are artificial; 16, mainly old river branches, have the status heavily modified. Most of the national waters in Rijn-West, have the status heavily modified. Exceptions are a few canals deemed artificial (Amsterdam-Rhine Canal, Merwede Canal and Doorslag, Caland Canal, Beer Canal and Maas-Waal Canal). This classification conforms to national policy and approaches taken in other Rhine sub-catchments. The German part of the higher part of the Rijndelta comprises 129 (127 in Nordrhein-Westfalen and 2 in Niedersachsen) natural water bodies, streams and rivers. The split between artificial and strongly modified is approximately 50-50. Protected areas form a separate category. These are delineated according to specific directives (such as the Birds and Habitats Directives) and must conform to specific objectives. Part of the protected areas is considered as a separate water body. Chapter 5 of this report is a register of protected areas.

1.3.2.2 Rijn-West: General description of surface water bodies and typology8 Four different categories of water types are present in Rijn-West: lakes (M), rivers (R), connecting waters (O) and coastal water (K). Within these categories 28 different water types are recognised, divided over 86 bounded water bodies and 54 not yet bounded virtual water bodies. (See map-3-Iia and 3-IIb in annexes of this report). Table 3.1 provides the coding and description of water types in Rijn-West. Table 3.2 shows the number of waterbodies per water type. Of these 140 surface water bodies, only 10 are currently considered of good chemical quality. Of these, 4 are judged to be also of good ecological quality (see Table 1 in summary). A number of water types are very dominant in Rijn-West, such as regional waters on sand and clay (V1) and regional waters on peat (V2). Water bodies with a brackish character (V3 and M30) may be found on the western edge of this sub-catchment. Another common water type is found in the dunes, and can be described as shallow, buffered, calcium-free ponds ((M11, M22, V4 and V5). Water bodies in urban areas, such as Rotterdam, Dordrecht en Utrecht, are characterised by buffered canals (M3 and V1). National waters are primarily slowly flowing rivers and large, deep canals (R7 and M7). The New Meuse and associated harbour streams are characterised as estuaries with a moderate tidal range (O2). Coastal and territorial waters are euhaline (K3). In 2004, the preliminary status of water bodies was determined. A choice could be made from: natural, artificial, or strongly modified. These terms are briefly defined in article 2 of the WFD. The Horizontal Guidance on Waterbodies9 (gives clearer meanings to these terms. An artificial water body is one whose existence has been brought about by humans, on a location where a water body was not previously present and was not created by redirecting an existing

8 Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport. 1 december 2004. 9 Horizontal Guidance Water Bodies Final Version 10.0. 14-01-03. Common Implementation Strategy for the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) Identification of water bodies - Horizontal guidance document on the application of the term water body in the context of the Water Framework Directive. 15 January 2003


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watercourse. Strongly modified bodies were defined as water bodies where good ecological status is not being achieved because of impacts on the hydromorphological characteristics of surface water resulting from physical alterations. These definitions make the distinction between artificial and strongly modified clear. The difference between heavily modified and natural lies in the hydromorphological changes that have been brought about. If these are of an extent that the achievement of a biological situation that corresponds with the natural situation (GET) is hindered, then the waterbody is classified as heavily modified. The majority (80%) of regional waters in Rijn-West have the preliminary status of artificial (see maps 20a en b). Sixteen water bodies, mainly the old river branches, have the status of strongly modified. Only 4 waterbodies have the status of natural. These are Naardermeer and three dune areas. National waters such as the great rivers, the North Sea Canal and coastal waters are classified as strongly modified. The remaining national waters are artificial.

1.3.2.3 Current ecological and chemical state Rijn-West10 The current chemical state is judged according to two chemical and two ecological groups of substances. The chemical groups are based on Priority Substances and substances from 76/464/EC directive (annex IX substances). The ecological groups focus on Rhine relevant substances and other substances. Data are derived from water managers (2001 else 1998/1999 of 2002/2003), augmented with data from the pesticides atlas (1999-2000). Annex 1 contains a table which summarises a number of chemical substances. The analysis of current chemical state of surface water bodies highlights problems with diuron, nickel, benzo(f)fluroanthene and simazine in national and regional waters. In regional waters, endosulfan exceeds standards. In national water, antracene and tribytyltin exceed standards. Nickel and benzo(a)pyrene are a problem for the North Sea, although this could be related more to stricter standards for coast and transitional water bodies than for freshwaters. Only DDT and the drins (pesticides based on chlorohydrocarbons) appear as problems among the substances from Annex IX-substances (76/464/EG richtlijnen). DDT is exceeds standards in national and regional water bodies. The drins meet standards. Tetrachlorohydrocarbon, trichloroethene and tetrachloroethene are not measured. A large number of chemical substances pose a problem in Rijn-West, although sometimes only in parts. There are regional differences for some substances (see map 4-I). Exceedance of standards occurs primarily in the west of Rijn-West, and there are differences between regional and national waters. An importance conclusion is that, from the compulsory chemical substances, only about 60% are currently measured. This lies with the water manager who, perhaps because of the way measurement is undertaken, has decided that the substance forms no threat. The ecological state is estimated by looking at concentrations of Rhine relevant substances, then using ecological evaluation methods and/or expert knowledge. For regional water, the current ecological state is assessed on the basis of available information evaluated using the STOWA-evaluation system11. The current biological situation is evaluated on the basis of the second highest level of the STOWA evaluation. That level is, at the moment, the best available basis for comparison for the ecological objectives of the WFD (Good Ecological State, GES, for natural waters and Good Ecological Potential, GEP, for non-natural waters). For national waters, evaluation uses the ecological yardsticks of the WFD (fish, invertebrate macrofauna, floating algae, other water plants). These yardsticks are still in development and apply only to natural waters. For highly-modified and artificial waters, yardsticks were selected from the most similar, natural type. Where necessary, the yardsticks (from December 2003) were adjusted. The yardstick for floating alga is, for example, reduced to an assessment of chlorophyll12. The evaluation follows the rule one-out-all-out. From the Rhine-relevant substances, phosphate, nitrogen and copper exceed standards in national and regional waters. In regional waters, zinc, carbendazim, ammonium and oxygen are problems. PCB is measured on in national waters where it exceeds standards. On the basis of available data, it is not possible to determine whether PAH and PCB are problems in regional waters. 10 Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ 11 See: www.stowa.nl 12For the Holland coastline, the evaluation follow the preliminary WFD yardstick for phytoplankton in associated with the internationally harmonised OSPAR-evaluation method for eutrophication. The worst of the two is chosen.

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Tables 3.4 and 3.5 (see also map 4-IIa/b biology) summarise results of the ecological assessment per sub-catchment and per water (clustered) body type respectively, and for both virtual and non-virtual water bodies. No single water body in Rijn-West has a very good ecological water quality. Only 7% of the non-virtual and 4% of the virtual water bodies have a good ecological quality (Amstelland, Midden-Holland en Zuid-Holland Zuid)13. Most waterbodies with a good ecological quality are (brackish) lakes. More than 56% of non-virtual water bodies have a moderate quality, and 32% are of insufficient quality. Of the virtual water bodies, 65% have a moderate quality and 31% are insufficient. All water types are represented in the classes moderate and insufficient quality. 5% of non-virtual water bodies have a bad water quality; these are mainly brackish lakes and rivers. No virtual water body was assessed as bad. 1.4 Characterisation of water use

1.4.1 Water uses and services by socio-economic sectors14 Industry is, by far, the heaviest water user. Households consume more than 50% of municipal water supply. This water is used as drinking water, warm (tap) water and household water. The table below illustrates three categories of water users and the extent, nature and distribution of their water use. Table 1 Water use in 2001in the Dutch part of the Rijndelta catchment in million m3/year)

Water use

Water supply Self abstracted

groundwater

Self-abstracted surface

water

Total

Consumers 516 - - 516

Agriculture and

fisheries

38 40 15 93

Industry 422 582 8 607 9 611

Total 976 622 8 622 10 220

1.4.2 Origin of water use Per year, some 8 billion m3 water is used15. The majority is extracted by water utilities from both surface and groundwater, and destined for municipal water supply. Rijn-West is densely population and strong growth in population size is expected. This means an increased pressure on wastewater treatment plants and an increase in impermeable surfaces. The main abstractions from surface waters (>100 m3/day) are for drinking water, cooling water and water level management (see table below). The main abstractions for industry (process or cooling water) are from national waters in the vicinity of Rotterdam and the North Sea Canal (see map 11 in map annex). Water level management covers a number of activities. In urban areas, such management involves letting water in, for example to keep wooden foundations under water. Water level management is undertaken to maintain water quality, for example for drinking water purposes. During dry periods, water may be redirected into areas to maintain levels, for example to constrain subsidence and damage to dykes. Agriculture also abstracts surface waters to a limited extent, and involves volumes less than that for water level management. Water abstractions for water level management are poorly represented in the table, and it is not possible to indicate whether these abstractions have an effect on surface waters. Table 2 Abstractions from surface water in Rijn-West per sub-catchment (m3/day). ne = not estimated

Sub-catchment Drinking water Cooling water Water level

management

TOTAL

Noorderkwartier ne

Midden-Holland 297 600 ne 297 600

13Since the yardstick for natural waters is modified for national waters, this could be described as worst case. From 2005 onwards, system-specific yardsticks will be developed for highly modified and artificial waters. These will take account of, for example, irreversible hydromorphological measures. As a result, future assessments could be more favourable. 14 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta 15 Karakterisering Rijn-West. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Section 5


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Zuid-Holland Zuid ne

Amstelland 94 000 ne 94.000

Rivierengebied 88 000 12 100 320 12 188 320

Rijkswateren 252 895 13 189 888 4 716 030 18 158 813

Total 346 895 13 575 488 16 816 350 30 738 733

1.4.3 Protected areas16 The WFD requires a register of protected areas. Protected areas fall under the following categories. • Water bodies for abstraction for human consumption. Surface water that is destined for drinking water purposes

(75/440/EEG) is provisionally delineated on the basis of where abstraction occurs. • Protected areas for shellfish culture and fish catch. Areas with economically important plants and animals are

protected. Both directives will become obsolete 13 years after implementation of the WFD. • Swimming and recreational water. There are 405 swimming locations in the Rijndelta. • Nutrient sensitive areas. Nutrient sensitive areas that, on the basis of the Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEG), are

identified as threatened, or on the basis of the Urban Wastewater Directive (91/271/EEG) as sensitive, are included in the Register. However the Rijndelta is exempt because both Netherlands and Germany have undertaken their own measures to identify threatened and sensitive areas.

• Protected areas for species and habitats. Within Rijndelta, 62 Birds and 135 Habitats Directive areas have been identified, where conservation or improvement in water states is an important aspect of protection.

The term 'Ecologische Hoofd Structuur' (EHS) or Dutch Ecological Network was introduced in the Natuurbeleidsplan (NBP) or Nature Policy Plan from the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality in 199017. The EHS is a network of areas where nature (plants and animals) has priority. The network helps to prevent the extinction of plants and animals as a result of isolation and the loss of environmental quality. The EHS can be seen as the backbone of Dutch nature. It comprises: • existing nature areas, reserves, areas designated for nature development and robust corridors between them; • agricultural area with potential for agrarian nature management; • large waters, such as the coast zone, the IJsselmeer and the Wadden Sea.

1.4.4 Economic analysis; trends and future projections18

1.4.4.1 Economic Description of Rijn-Delta The catchment Rijn-West is home to some 7.3 million people, approximately 46% of the Dutch population. In population terms, Rijn-West is the largest Dutch catchment. Rijn-West incorporates four large cities, viz. Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Den Haag and Utrecht. Rijn-West is heavily urbanised.

Table 3 Demographic characteristics and land use in in Rijn-West. Source: PRIMOS (2002), CBS (2000), LEI (1998)

Inhabitants (no.) 7.294.080

Urban area (ha) 117.029

Agriculture (ha) 383.000 Population in the Rijndelta is expected to grow by 6.4%, in absolute terms an increase from 12.2 million (2001) to 13 million (2015). No estimates have been made regarding associated land use. The figure shows that the growth in various economic sectors varies from +50% for general industry and environmental consultancy, to -30% for fisheries.

16 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta

17 http://www9.minlnv.nl/

http://www9.minlnv.nl/pls/portal30/docs/FOLDER/MINLNV/LNV/STAF/STAF_DV/DOSSIERS/MLV_NPVN/NATUURONTWIKKELING/KAARTEHS.JPG 18 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta, Section 5

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The main economic sectors are: agriculture, fisheries, mining, industry, and services. See Table 4. Unfortunately, recreation and tourism are not included in the current descriptions of the economic status of the Rijn-West. Recreation and tourism contribute heavily to the economy of waterrich areas and will benefit greatly from better water quality; on the other hand, they contribute to water pollution in those areas. Rijn-West, of the seven sub-catchments, has the largest share in national production. Its total production is approx. 49% of the national total. Value added and employment are of similar proportions. Centres of economic activity lie in the following regions: Utrecht (12%), Greater Amsterdam (22%), The Hague (10%) and Greater Rijnmond (21%). Its high degree of urbanisation and the presence of large cities mean that services are strongly developed. A number of sectors place pressure on water. Table 4 Production, value added and employment in the main economic sectors of Rijn-West

Production Value added Employment

(million euro) (million euro) (000 units)

Agriculture 5 549 2 889 76.7

Fisheries 234 - -

Mining 1 249 926 2.9

Industry 116 891 34 688 524.7

Services 244 485 145 014 2 219

Total Rijn-West 368 388 183 517 2 823.2 Agriculture The total surface area of agriculture in Rijn-West is about 383,000 ha, of which 236,000 are pastures (60%). Agricultural productivity in Rijn-West is valued at 5.549 million euro, derived primarily (50%) from greenhouse horticulture. Grazing of livestock comprises only (20%). The other agricultural sectors are poorly represented in comparison with the national average. Fisheries Coastal fisheries in Rijn-West are relatively small. Marine fisheries are not considered because they take place beyond the 12-mile zone. The productivity of fisheries in Rijn-West, 6.7 million euro in 2002, derives largely from the aquaculture of fish and shellfish. Mining Mining is a minor activity in Rijn-West. The main mining industry is sand and gravel extraction, which has a significant influence on the state of the water. In the provinces of Gelderland, Utrecht, Noord-Holland en Zuid-Holland, sand is extracted from the Great Rivers and the North Sea. Industry Approximately 40% of the national industry, in terms of production and employment, is located in Rijn-West. Industry also accounts for at least 30% of production within Rijn-West. Approximately 50% of industrial activity has a significant impact on water states. Services While this sector comprises a large proportion (66% of production, 78% of employment) of the economy in Rijn-West, component activities, notably the environmental services sector (milieudienstverlening) and shipping, have a limited impact on water states. The main centre of the environmental services sector lies, logically, in the large cities. The COROP19 COROP-regions of Greater Amsterdam (27%), Utrecht (13%), The Hague (12%) and Greater Rijnmond (16%) cater for more the two-thirds of productivity from services.

19 Coordinatie Commissie Regionaal Onderzoeksprogramma, a commission that divided the Netherlands into regions in 1971. There is a total of 40 COROP regions. Each is a conglomeration of local government municipalities.


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1.4.4.2 Autonomic development until 2015 The population is expected to grow by 6.3% between 2002 and 2015. This is high relative to other Dutch sub-catchments. The associated pressure on land use has not been estimated. Crops, horticulture, glasshouses and combination agriculture are expected to grow. The productivity from other agricultural sectors is expected to decline. In 2015, horticulture in glasshouses is still expected to be the most important agricultural sector. Growth in Dutch fisheries was negative 1990-2002 (-3.48%). This trend is expected to continue by 2.25% per year. These figures are based on current total fisheries (including marine fisheries). Expected trends in mining, and particularly for sand and gravel extraction, are available at provincial, but not yet at sub-catchment level. For all industry and services in Rijn-West, a growth in production is expected 2002-2015. The largest growth is expected for the metal industry.

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2. Pressure, impact and risk analysis

2.1 Significant pressures impacting on water status

2.1.1 Point and diffuse source pressures20 Sources of emission are divided into point and non-point sources. In Germany, stormwater discharge from urban areas is treated as a point source; in the Netherlands it is a non-point source. In the Rijndelta there are 309 point sources from WWTPs larger than 2000 pollution equivalents and 225 significant industrial emissions. Important sources of non-point sources are drainage from agricultural land and natural soils, emission from land and water-based traffic, atmospheric deposition and untreated emissions of sewage. In the German part, erosion and runoff are included. The dominant source of nitrogen and phosphorus is drainage and run off from agricultural land; this is followed for nitrogen by WWTPs and atmospheric deposition. Copper also derives from drainage and runoff from agricultural land, and also from traffic. The effluent of WWTPs contains copper because many water pipes are still made of copper. Other diffuse sources of copper include coating of ships. The ban on use of copper-base anti-fouling agents will probably end the contribution from recreational boats by 2015. The same does not hold for commercial shipping. Drainage and runoff from agricultural land is also a major source of zinc and nickel, with WWTPs and drainage from natural soil next in importance. PAHs, including benzo(k)fluorantheen, derive from atmospheric deposition directly on surface waters, release from creosote-impregnated wood, underwater exhausts of recreational boats, and storm water drainage. PCBs are no longer released, and so the small load of PCBs comes via atmospheric deposition outside the Rijndelta. There are still quantities of PCBs present in Dutch water systems, for example in dredge spoil. Significant quantities of nickel (113 ton), copper (143 ton), zinc (940 ton) en PCBs (83 kg) were disposed via dredge spoil in the North Sea. These amounts are not included in totals, as they involve transport of contaminants and not their emissions. The figure below compares sources of contaminants in the Rijndelta, and shows that the bulk is imported via rivers. Imported pollution affects water quality in the coastal zone and in the Wadden Sea. The reason for the strong external influences is that the remaining catchment of the Rhine is far greater than its delta. Concentrations of zinc, nickel and PCBs in upstream Rhine water conform to standards. However, the large size of the catchment and the large volumes of water means that the total load of these substances is high.

total N

total P

copper

nickel

zinc P

benzo(k)fluoranthene

PCBs

within Rijndelta

import via rivers

Figure 4 Comparison of sources of pollution: emission within Rijndelta, and import via rivers



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2.1.2 Abstraction and flow regulation pressures21 Water abstraction for consumption, industry and other purposes takes place in 22 of the Dutch water bodies in the Rijndelta. Regulation of water flows by dams, weirs, locks, dykes and drainage from inundation zones affects 228 water bodies.

2.1.3 Morphological pressures22 The water system in the Rijndelta has been subject to substantial morphological change to guarantee and improve habitability, security, and navigability. More recently, changes have been oriented towards nature development. Most water bodies have suffered significant hydromorphological change. The figure below shows the percentage of water surfaces that have been affected by different sources of modifications. The main sources of modification have been: canalisation, straightening, water level management, sand extraction, weirs and dams, and drainage.

Figure 5 Hydromorphological pressures on water bodies in the Rijndelta

2.1.4 Other human pressures23 Expert assessment is the basis for specification of other sources of human pressures. These are listed in the following table. Table 5 Inventory of other sources of pressure

Higher part of Rijndelta Lower part of Rijndelta

commercial and recreational shipping seepage in polders, increase in salt, arsenic and nutrients

recreation on river banks water sediments

commercial and recreational fishing commercial and recreational shipping

water sediments recreation on river banks

cooling water outlet from power stations and industry commercial and recreational fishing

cooling water inlet cooling water outlet from power stations and industry

drainage cooling water inlet


22 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta 23 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta

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salt intrusion (via Eems and mining areas) mineralization of peat

2.2 Water bodies at risk of not achieving a good status24 The aim of the risk analysis is to estimate which water bodies face the danger of not fulfilling the requirement of a good chemical or ecological status in 2015. If a waterbody fails on one criterion, it is deemed to fail on all. Steps in this analysis are: 1. describe the current situation (chemistry, ecology, hydromorphology) to establish current risks; 2. Describe autonomic developments as a result of implementing current policy; 3. Estimate states in 2015 4. Estimate the required state in 2015 5. Specify the risk as different between expected and achieved states.

2.2.1 Preliminary risk analysis surface waters Rijn-Delta The risk that the state of water bodies does not meet objectives is based on a number of criteria. A good chemical state (GCS) is assessed via priority and 76/464/EG-substances (see section 3.1 and associated figure). The assessment varies per substance and per region. The overall chemical state of the Rijndelta is, in WFD terms, at risk. In 2015, no water body is expected to meet standards without the implementation of additional measures. Exceptions are water-isolated peat areas and select dune water bodies. A good ecological state (GES) is assessed on the basis of chemical substances and biological criteria. A biological evaluation of heavily modified and artificial water bodies is not yet possible, and so only the GCS and assessment based on other substances is applied. The map below summarises the results of the risk analysis based on four substances for GCS and six for GES. The reasons for the poor assessment lie primarily with nutrients, although heavy metals (copper), PAHs and PCBs are also expected to cause problems. Note that data were limited for some water bodies. The result for Rijn-West are summarised in table 7. Of the 140 surface water bodies in Rijn-West, only 10 are currently considered of good chemical quality. Of these, 4 are judged to be also of good ecological quality (see Table 1 in summary). Almost all rivers are assessed as at risk or possibly at risk in 2015 (see figure 11). Autonomic development is expected to neutralise positive effects of current policy and implemented measures25.

2.2.2 Chemical state in 2015 Nearly all virtual and non-virtual surface waterbodies are assessed as being at risk (maps 21-IIa/b). Currently more water bodies have a good chemical state. See also (table 5.2). Table 6 Summary of the result for Rijn-West26:

Priority substances:

benzo(k)-fluoranthene 51-75% of water bodies expected to exceed standards

chloorvenfinvos no water bodies expected to exceed standards

endosulfan no information

nickel 1-25% of water bodies expected to exceed standards

Other substances:

copper 51-75% of water bodies expected to exceed standards

zinc 1-25% of water bodies expected to exceed standards

dichloorvos no information

PCBs 1-25% of water bodies expected to exceed standards

N 51-75% of water bodies expected to exceed standards

P 76-100% of water bodies expected to exceed standards 24 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta

25 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/download-document.php?id=438 - Section 5 26 Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport. 1 december 2004. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/download-document.php?id=438


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In table 5.1, a risk analysis for 12 substances is elaborated in terms of emission prognoses (from the quick-scan materials balance, 2004). Current problem substances remain so in 2015, despite abatement. Substances that currently are not a problem do not become a problem in 2015. The 12 substances include nickel, benzo(a)pyreen, benzo(k)-fluoranthene and fluoranthene. It is expected that leakage of nickel will not change significantly before 2015. Loads will be constant during this time. Removal of Ni in WWTPs has been stables, at about 45%, for some time. It is assumed that emissions will not change. The pesticide diuron has been forbidden since 2000. At regional level, this substance will not form a problem in 2015. However it may be imported via national waters, and so may cause a problem. Endosulfan is similarly forbidden. Release from aquatic sediments can be expected to decline, but the speed of degradation is dependent on such processes as dredging and sedimentation. Endosulfan is still used elsewhere in Europe, and so can deposit in the Netherlands, or enter via transboundary rivers, and so cause a problem for the chemical status of waterbodies. An important future development is that PAH-containing coatings will cease to be used in the Netherlands and Germany, and should lead to a decline of 90% (IN LOADS???) Creosote-coated wood will no longer be used. Assuming a longevity of 25 years for such wood, emissions of these substances should decline by around 75%. We have also assumed a reduction by 50% of PAH emissions from underwater exhausts of recreational vehicles. Estimates for atmospheric deposition are not available.

2.2.3 Ecological state in 2015 No water body in Rijn-west has a very good ecological state. Less than 10% are of good ecological state (Amstelland, Midden-Holland en Zuid-Holland Zuid). Around 50% van of non-virtual water bodies fall into the moderate category. Of the virtual water bodies, more than 60% may be considered moderate and around 30% have not been categorised. Of the non-virtual water bodies, 5% are of poor quality (see maps 21-Ia/b and Table 5.2). Management and organisation of the watersystem is a major cause of the poor ecological score. The following factors are considered to be of importance: • water table management; • presence of dykes, barriers and pumps; • hardening of river banks; • maintenance (mowing, duckweed, too much or too little dredging). Quality elements are related to: saprobity27; trophy; toxicity; chemistry; and salination. Saprobity is a clear ecological problem. Improvements, rather than further degradation, are expected in coming years as a result of: no more disposal of sewage sludges; optimalisation of sewerage reticulation, and dredging. Trophy is also a clear problem. A slow decline in nutrient loads from agriculture is expected as a result of implemented agricultural policy. Lags will ensure that effects will only become slowly visible. Eutrophication from peat mineralization and groundwater deepage will decline. A decline to the required extent over the next 15 years is not realistic. Toxicity is a problem in areas with horticulture, bulb and tree cultivation through the use of pesticides. These sectors will move to more degradable and environmentally friendly substances over the next 15 years. It is uncertain whether problems with toxicity will decline to the extent that this will no longer be a problem. Use of less toxic substances often leads to the use of larger quantities, with no net advantage for the environment. This problem is also

27 The saprobity system is based on the observation that in the course of the self-purification process a body of water shows distinct zones of decreasing pollution (or improved water quality); these zones are termed polysaprobic (gross pollution), alpha-mesosaprobic, beta-mesosaprobic, and oligosaprobic; the latter may be divided into alpha- and beta- oligosaprobic. Each zone is characterized by a particular content of oxygen, organic matter, products of septic decay, and products of mineralization. Biologically, each zone affords optimal conditions for certain species and communities of organisms, the so-called "indicator" organisms (for full details see Kolkwitz (1950) and Liebmann (1962). The particular saprobity zones may be characterized as follows: - polysaprobic zone - heavy pollution with sewage or other organic materials, mass development of bacteria that are involved in decomposition processes, a high rate of oxygen consumption, and a high production of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide - alpha-mesosaprobic zone - vigorous oxidation processes, increased dissolved oxygen though oxygen consumption is still high, no hydrogen sulfide production, oxidation of ammonia starts - beta-mesosaprobic zone - much dissolved oxygen, low oxygen consumption, mineralization of organic materials, and large amounts of the end-products of mineralization, e.g., nitrates - oligosaprobic zone - all mineralization processes have been completed, the dissolved oxygen content is high and oxygen consumption nearly zero; the beta-oligosaprobic level is characterized by rather moderate variety of species and low bioactivity, while the alpha-oligosaprobic level is characterized by a comparatively large variety of species and high bioactivity (ref. ID; 1219) (http://www.nies.go.jp/chiiki1/protoz/glossary/protozoa.htm)

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not well understood. Table 5.1 presents emission prognoses for the 12 substances with ecological relevance. These are grouped into: nutrient, heavy metals, PCB, and pesticides.

Figure 6 Risk analysis of surface waters for 10 indicators, chemical substances

The effects of climate change on sea levels and river discharges, combined with subsidence, are expected to result in an increase in salt-water seepage and salinisation of ground- and surface waters. Substances of concern include chloride, arsenic, sulphate, barium and phosphate28. 2.3 Diagnosis of water quality and ecological issues The main water quality and associated environmental problems for Rijn-West are as follows. The main constraint to achieving a good ecological state is the physical regulation of water bodies. This includes: construction and design (such as coatings on river banks), maintenance and river regulation via structures (e.g. dykes, dams, weirs, pumps). Eutrophication (nitrogen and phosphorus) is the big issue for regional waters, where drainage of agricultural land leads to nutrient levels far exceeding standards. Eutrophication is probably aggravated locally by effluents from WWTPs that do not use technologies to extract nutrients, by urban storm waters, and by proximity to traffic routes via atmospheric deposition of nitrogen. Equilibrium shifts in freshwater bodies, as a result of nutrient loading, have been reported. Water

28 RBO Rijn-West 8 september 2006. Zomernota Rijn-West 2006, Betere waterkwaliteit, een schone taak. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/


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bodies characterised by clear water, macrophytes and predator fish (pike and pike perch, popular with recreational fishermen) have been replaced by turbid water systems dominated by algae and freshwater bream (Brasem brasem), which is not a popular recreational fish. Standards in regional waters are exceeded for many hazardous substances (heavy metals, pesticides, PAHs and PCBs), but usually to a lesser degree than for N and P. Measures for control of these substances are in place or are being implemented. Much of the problem lies with their persistent nature and past emissions. For national waters, hazardous chemicals are the bigger issues. The load of hazardous chemicals from areas upstream of the Netherlands accounts for some 70% of total load. Dredging of sediments, necessary to ensure navigability, leads to issues of dredge spoil disposal. Much is stored in depots, some is disposed of in the North Sea. Eutrophication is less of an issue in national waters, although coastal waters can suffer from algal blooms. However problems with eutrophication are more likely in the quieter, less well-flushed waters of the Wadden Sea than along the North and South Holland coasts. Climate change and droughts Climate change introduces a range of environmental and water quality issues. In the first instance, climate change is expected to create problems of water quantity: too much with flooding risks, or too little with drought risks. However, drought has a potentially large impact on water quality, due to reduced flushing and increased seepage or intrusion of brackish water - salinisation. Both quantity and quality elements play a role in the expected economic impacts of drought (see section below). For natural areas, water may be redirected to maintain water levels. While this may solve ecosystems quantity problems, it may generate problems associated with water quality. Climate change combined with subsidence - a product of land drainage, exposure of peat soils to the atmosphere and their subsequent mineralization are expected to exacerbate the flooding threat. Subsidence places pressure on water managers to lower soil water levels further, leading to a positive feedback and also further distorting hydraulic gradients. Droughts will have some impacts on main economic sectors: agriculture, shipping, and energy production29. Loss of income to agriculture is usually caused by a shortage of soil water, both in the unsaturated zone and groundwater, as a result of a shortage of rain. A shortage of rain is defined as the difference between precipitation and evaporation. There is a negative water balance in the summer half of every year. In general, such shortages are hardly a problem because enterprises have taken measures to prepare for them. Earlier studies have shown that the surface water system, in general, is well aligned towards satisfying water demands from agriculture. Even in extremely dry years, water shortages rarely occur in the surface water system. However damage does occur to agriculture in dry years because crops do not have sufficient water. This occurs because irrigation equipment is inadequate, or there is a ban on irrigation to prevent further lowering of groundwater levels (perhaps to prevent negative effects on nature). The irrigation capacity, particularly in West Netherlands, can be insufficiently used because of salinisation. Salinisation occurs with insufficient flushing of surface waters receiving brackish groundwater seepage, or through redirection of saline river water to manage water levels in peat areas. The main source of damage to agriculture is from a shortfall of precipitation, coupled with a shortage of water of good quality for irrigation. Shipping can suffer from too little water, with shipping lanes too shallow as a result of low discharges in the great rivers following long-lasting drought in the catchments of the Meuse and Rhine. Ships must be loaded less deeply. Given that the demand for shipping does not respond to water depths, ships must travel more. Higher transportation and social costs are incurred from congestion, with longer waits at locks and denser traffic. For energy production, most power stations in the Netherlands are dependent on cooling water from surface water systems (map is available). The location of power stations in the Netherlands is given in the figure below. Long-lasting drought and warm conditions, with limited supply of water of relatively high temperatures, can generate a shortage of 29 http://www.droogtestudie.nl/documenten/Watertekortopgavedef1.pdf RIZA, HKV, Arcadis, KIWA, Korbee en Hovelynck. Rudolf Versteeg, Durk Klopstra, Timo Kroon. Sept 2005. Droogtestudie Nederland. Watertekortopgave. Eindrapport. RIZA-rapport 2005.015; ISBN 9036957133

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cooling water. Discharge of cooling water back into surface water systems is subject to standards. These standards reflect possible damage to aquatic organisms. 2.4 General trends and future pressures Current water policy is aimed towards improved water quality. The table below summarises estimated effects of current policy on substance abatement from select sources. Whether current policy is sufficient to reduce future pressures and to achieve targets is uncertain. The greatest uncertainty lies with the effects of changes in population pressures, production and emission measures, and the eventual state of water. Table 7 Overview of prognoses for reduced pressures on surface waters in 2015, as per current policy

Policy Effect of abatement

nutrients heavy metals organic micropollution

Urban wastewater <5% P, ±25% N <5% <5%; >50%

Manure <5% P, ±5% N <5% nr

Industry <5% P, ±5% N <5%

Crop protection nr nr substance specific The assessment of the state of water bodies in 2015, and in particular whether they conform to the objectives of the WFD, requires insight into trends in pressures. This, in turn, has led to prognoses on population growth, urbanisation, and economic development of sectors that are the source of these pressures. See figure 13 below.

populationhorticulture - opencombination farmsfood and pleasure industry other industryair and water transport

crops

livestock (not intensive)

fisheries

chemicals industry

energy and water utilities

horticulture - glasshouses

intensive livestock

mining

metal industry

environmental services

Figure 7 Expected trends in economic factors 2001-2015 The general conclusion regarding the effects of current policy and autonomic development: It is expected that the positive effects on water quality of current policy and development will be negated by a growth in loads to surface waters.


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3. Policy issues

3.1 Water management framework and major issues

3.1.1 Institutional framework The responsible authority at the national level is the Ministry of Transport and Water, in coordination with VROM and LNV. Responsibilities for regional waters are transferred to provincial councils (who are also fully responsible for (lower) groundwater management) (Zuid-Holland, Noord-Holland, Utrecht, Gelderland) and waterschappen (HHS Hollands Noorderkwartier, Rijnland, Delfland, Schieland en Krimpenerwaard, Amstel, Gooi en Vecht, De Stichtse Rijnlanden, Waterschap Hollands Delta, De Stichtse Rijnlanden). Implementation of quality and quantity measures is the task of Rijkwaterstaats regional offices (Directie Z-H, Utrecht, Oost-Nederlands, Noordzee, Noord-holland). Local government (gemeenten) are responsible for catching rainwater, household wastewater and urban drainage. Also see figure 2. The involved provincial institutions cannot manage the policies on the allowance of (many of) the priority substances that come from diffuse sources, and cannot address the sources, whereas measures aimed at sources are more effective. Other water quality related policies and directives are listed in paragraph 1.4.3: • Water for abstraction for human consumption: There are 27 points of water extraction for human use in Rijn-West. • Swimming and recreational water: 222 point designated as official swimming water spots. • Nutrient sensitive areas: • Urban waste water: • Protected areas for species and habitats

3.1.2 Water rights issues International coordination is necessary for achieving chemical goals, since a large part of chemical pollution comes from upstream countries (see 2.1.1 and 2.4). The foreign loading limits the possibilities for national river water quality improvements, especially in the rijkswateren. Without coordination, ecological improvements are achievable in rivers, but probably very difficult to achieve in canals. The issue of foreign loadings relates to the discussion of user pays vs polluter-pays. One of the main policy issues is therefore the international coordination, within the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine30. In addition, all Rhine bordering countries are united in the Co-ordinating Committee Rhine. This body deals with co-ordinating the implementation of the European Water Framework Directive.

3.1.3 Droughts and water scarcity problems Although occasionally in summer, shortage of water causes problems for industry, drought problems are mainly related to groundwater issues (to overcome subsidence). Water quantity management focuses mainly on water provision for nature and agriculture, and drinking water (see paragraph 2.4).

3.1.4 Flood risk issues Flood risk is expected to increase due to climate change and subsidence, especially along the main rivers Nederrijn and Waal. This might ask for additional hydromorphological measures (dikes, dunes). Most water bodies are already designated as artificial or heavily modified in these areas.

3.1.5 Water quality issues See section 2.4. Eutrophication (P and N) due to agriculture is the major problem for water quality in regional waters. For rijkswateren, chemical pollution (copper, PAH, pesticides) is the main problem, mostly due to foreign sources. Current plans (investments in WWTP, urban drainage, emission reduction, etc) will not be sufficient to achieve good quality.

30www.iksr.org

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3.1.6 Resources overexploitation See section 2.3.3. The effects of climate change on sea levels and river discharges, combined with subsidence, are expected to result in an increase in salt-water seepage and salinisation of ground- and surface waters. However, water overexploitation is not considered to be a major policy issue for the Rijn-West area.

3.1.7 Water use efficiency Rivers should be available for water transport, without damaging nature and environment. Economic development of the region stimulated by the Government, and current agricultural pollution (Nitrate) policy implementation (in which NL asks for derogation) run counter the purposes of the WFD. Summarizing, the main problems for achieving good quality have different backgrounds: • Institutional. The involved provincial/regional institutions cannot manage the policies on the allowance of (many of)

the priority substances that come from diffuse sources, and cannot address these sources, whereas measures aimed at sources are more effective.

• Economic. Economic development of the region stimulated by the Government, and current agricultural pollution (Nitrate) policy implementation (in which NL asks for derogation) run counter the purposes of the WFD.

• International. International coordination is necessary for realistic chemical goals, since a large part of chemical pollution comes from upstream countries. This limits the possibilities for national river water quality improvements, especially in the rijkswateren. Without coordination ecological improvements are possible in rivers, but very difficult in canals.

For the regional waters, eutrophication is the main problem. For the national waters, chemical pollution is the main problem for achieving good status. 3.2 Relevant water policy questions in the basin

3.2.1 Policy options and goal achievement Policy options are packages of measures that are assessed for their ability to achieve objectives and their cost. By comparing different policy options, insights can be gained into the feasibility and costs of achieving improved water quality. Such an analysis is needed for specification of MEP/GEP. Two different policy options are compared on their cost effectiveness and efficiency. The two tested policy options are31: • Policy Option 1: Autonomic implementation: measures based on current policy and associated financial budgets

until 2009. Other names for this option include the Basic Option and Option I Autonomic development and limited (national waters, groundwater)

• Policy Option II: Strong: all socially feasible and cost-effect measures necessary for a good state. Also termed Option II Cost-effective, Strong (national waters and groundwater)

Possible measures for surface water fall within the following categories: • Source-directed measures: all measures that reduce the use and subsequently the emission of specific substances; • End-of-pipe measures: all measures that ensure that substances are not emitted, or that less are emitted, into water; • Water system measures: all measure in the water system itself, including the management of water levels and

maintenance; and • Spatial planning measures: planning to realise measures (e.g. change of land use or function, claims).

31 Information about the third option, with a maximal effort, is not provided. Results were too uncertain for inclusion.


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The most cost-effective of these are indicated in the table below: Table 8 Regional, cost-effective measure (excluding generic measures)

Most cost-effective source measure

Use of a sleepdoek when spraying pesticides

Removal of creosote-coated structures along river banks

Tighter controls on permits

Most cost-effective end of pipe measures

Separation of clean and dirty water streams

Modifications to WWTPs (not generic; locally can be very effective)

Separation of fresh and salt systems / clean and dirty systems

Purification of rainwater from existing, separated systems

Ban on untreated emissions in outside areas

Decoupling of rainwater via laminated filters

Most cost-effective water system measures

Construction of spawning and wintering areas

Coupling, deepening, enlarging and creating more robust systems

Water plants accepted by urban areas

Relocation of inlets to a place with cleaner or another type of water (e.g. brackish)

Fish stocking

Construction of fish ladder at weirs

Modification of management via mowing

Morphological measures conforming to profile

Retention of water in capillary by, for example, enlarging the length of supply and isolation of ditches, and removing drainage

Improving migration by divers, fish ladders and removing barriers The ecological effect and, where possible, the chemical effect were estimated (see chapter 4) as were the direct costs (see chapter 5) of each option32. The two options may be compared in figure 14 below. Clearly, autonomic development is insufficient to achieve good ecological quality throughout Rijn-West. The more stringent option achieves better quality, particularly along the rivers, but still falls considerably short of the WFD objectives.

3.2.2 Relevant policy questions Relevant policy questions related to the implementation of the WFD within Rijn-West and the measurement of environmental benefits, are related to the effectiveness and efficiency of policy options. Information on socio-economic benefits is hardly available, especially when it comes to recreational values and non-use values. Possible issues to address within the AquaMoney case studies are therefore: • The recreational value of water quality improvements (e.g. swimming water quality, permit control, fish ladders,

water plants and natural river banks); • The socio-economic value of land use changes (e.g. agricultural changes); • The socio-economic value, especially non-use values, related to improvement of ecosystems (e.g. conservation of

species).

32 Not all social costs and benefits were captured. This needs improvement. The Workgroup Trade-off Framework is developing a scorecard to represent such costs and benefits. This may be available for use for further analysis in the second round (2006 t/m 2007).

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Figure 8 Ecological effects of Policy Options 1 & 2

3.3 Information sources and stakeholder involvement Information on Rijn-West is mostly from www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl. In this report, information is missing on ecological indicators, but a framework to analyse the ecological status is currently being developed in the KRW-Verkenner. Reports of STOWA have become available in February 2007, and will be used for further development of the case study. Monitoring data and GIS information is available from the Provincial Councils and Waterschappen - the regional institutions responsible for water management (quantity, quality, allocation). Other sources of information are the Central Bureau of Statistics, KNMI (Royal Dutch Meteoroligical Institute), and Alterra. The identified stakeholders are: Households (drinking water, recreation), industry (cooling, process water), agriculture (irrigation), shipping (transport). Fisheries and mining play a minor role.


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4. ERC analysis and methodological issues

4.1 List of main water-related goods and services provided in the basin Following the table of the AquaMoney guidelines, all goods and services as mentioned under outcomes are provided in the basin, except real wilderness values and saline intrusion. Most important goods and services provided by the aquatic ecosystem include drinking water, transportation, recreation, irrigation water, cooling water and water used for other industrial processes such as food processing, chemical products (NL) and paper industry (FR). Other services include nutrient storage and uptake, carbon sequestration, biodiversity and habitat, flood protection/water storage. 4.2 List possible benefits and cost from that water services See 4.1. The case studies will focus on recreation values and nature - non-use values. The stakeholders that the case studies thereby mostly address are households, who might attach value to water quality maintenance/improvement. In the case studies, which address specific sites, a shortlist will be developed of the main environmental benefits derived from reaching good ecological status by 2015 at each study site. 4.3 Type of ERC analysis to performance Environmental costs are the costs of not reaching good ecological status by 2015. The main objective of the economic valuation study is therefore: the estimation of environmental and resource benefits of reaching good ecological status for inclusion in cost-benefit analysis of the identified WFD programme of measures to underpin possible derogation according to Article 4 and classification of Heavily Modified Water Bodies. 4.4 Proposed methods and tools for the valuation of ERC: Inductive methods will be used for valuing water goods/services • Stated preferences methods (CV, choice experiments) • Benefits transfer. Stated preference methods (choice experiment and/or contingent valuation) will be used to assess use and non-use values associated with reaching a good ecological status in 2015. The main tools for analysis are: • Surveys (for the stated preference methods) • Statistical techniques (regression analysis) • GIS based value mapping

4.5 Methodological issues The main methodological issues are: 1. The influence of spatial characteristics of the water bodies (proximity, connections, shape, size, number, surrounding

zones, relative distance), the spatial distribution of the population and their characteristics (income, education, spatial perception), and the spatial interaction between the two (relative distance towards water bodies, in-situ/ex-situ use, substitutability) on WTP for water quality improvements. In the analysis the spatial physical characteristics of the different water bodies will be explored. These characteristics influence the scale of the functions that the water bodies can deliver. They will also influence the way people are using the environment, and the way they perceive it (catchment as a whole, sub-catchment, individual water body). Specific attention is going to be paid to the influence of spatial characteristics on use versus non-use values.

2. Aggregation: • different levels (scale) of value exercise: water body, subcatchment, catchment (upscaling economic values from

individual water body to basin level) • background, natural characteristics of the water system • taking into account social system (population distribution) 3. Benefits transfer across sub-basins, taking into account spatial (e.g. upstream-downstream) interrelationships and

possible substitution effects (e.g. recreation)

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Furthermore, attention will be paid to methodological issues such as: • Linking economic values to pressure and/or biological impact indicators • Describing WFD outcomes in terms of understandable lay-mens terms • Possibility of creating a GIS based value map To address these issues, the case studies consist of different layers addressing different (geographical) scales of economic value analysis: • Rijn-West sub-catchment as a whole • Upstream-downstream connections through specific sites (Gelderse Poort, the main river Waal/Nederrijn, and the

Biesbosch) • A system of spatially connected lakes and virtual water bodies (Vechtstreek) • Individual lakes and water bodies (Naardermeer) For these sites, information on the environmental benefits will be listed, and combined with the relevant information on population and physical water body characteristics, including the water quality and the spatial attributes. The goods and services provided by each site depend on the scale of the site. The Rijn-West subcatchment has an economic market that lies beyond its hydrological borders. This holds especially for the National Parks the Naardermeer and the Biesbosch, which are among the most famous nature areas in Holland, but also for the Biesbosch and the Gelderse Poort as they lie right on the border of the Rijn-West area. Therefore, stakeholders located outside the geological area will also be addressed and their values assessed. The different scales of assessment will furthermore be used in the analysis to test for part-whole and sensitivity-to-scope tests. Non-use values are estimated by sampling for (future) non-users, and by assessing values for areas with restricted access (Naardermeer). One of the questions here is use and non-use values are equally sensitive to spatial attributes, such as distance. Another focus point regarding spatial scale is the effect of available substitutes on WTP. 4.6 Available studies/information on ERC and expected information Besides the before mentioned references and information sources, more information will be available through: • The Vechtstreek area is described in Van den Bergh et al (2004): Spatial Ecological-Economic Analysis for Wetland

Management; Modelling and Scenario Evaluation of Land Use • Most of the missing information will be related to ecological quality criteria, for which the KRW-verkenner is

currently under development. • Studies on ERCB in the Netherlands:

o Brouwer, R., Groot, D. de Groot, E. Ruijgrok, H. Verbruggen (2003), De Kosten en Baten van Natuur en Milieu, Arena Opinieblad van de Vereniging van Milieukundigen, nr.3, pg. 37-40.

o Brouwer, R. (2004), Wat is schoon water de Nederlander waard?, H2O, nr. 12, pg. 4-5

Spatial characteristics

Goods and services of human value

Water quality changes

Ecosystem functions Social system

Figure 9 Spatial characteristics influencing economic valuation


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o Brouwer, R., T.H.L. Claassen, H. Coops, R.J.H.M. van der Veen (2004), De economische waarde van natuurlijk peilbeheer voor het bereiken van ecologische doelstellingen in de Kaderrichtlijn Water, H2O, nr. 37, pg. 25-26.

• Two more studies on water valuation in the Scheldt are coming out soon, data are available at IVM.

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Annex 1

Table 9 Summary of preliminary assessment of 12 selected substances (* = problem substance for Rijn-West) Top 12

substances

Category Comment

Phosphate* Rhine-relevant

substance

A problem substance that almost nowhere conforms to standards.

Exceedance of standards is limited in national waters

Exceedance occurs mostly in regional waters: polder drainage, ditches, and brackish lakes.

Nitrogen* Rhine-relevant

substance

A problem substance that almost nowhere conforms to standards

In the great rivers, standards are met.

Exceedance occurs in all water types.

Zinc* Rhine-relevant

substance

A problem in approx. half of Rijn-West.

Standards are met in the Noorderkwartier (North Quarter) and in national waters.

Exceedance of standards occurs in all water types.

Copper* Rhine-relevant

substance

A problem substance that exceeds standards in three-quarters of Rijn-West.

Standards are met in the Noorderkwartier (North Quarter) and coastal waters.

Exceedance of standards occurs in all water types, except brackish lakes and salt waters.

Nickel* Priority

substance

A problem substance in only a limited part of Rijn-West.

Exceedance of standards occurs in Zuid-Holland Zuid and Midden-Holland. Standards in the North Sea (stricter) are

exceeded substantially.

Exceedance of standards occurs in all water types, except brackish water

PCB* Rhine-relevant

substance

A problem substance in national waters.

Not measured in regional waters, or the detection levels lies above the standard, because it is measure in solution. This

substance should be measured as a suspended solid.

Exceedance of standards occurs mainly in the rivers (main system), and to a lesser extent in canals and coastal waters.

Fluor-anthene Priority

substance

A problem substance in one-third of national waters.

It is measured to only a limited extent in regional waters,. Where it is measured it is measured in solution and conforms

to standards. This substance should be measured as a suspended substance.

Exceedance of standards occurs mainly in the upper river areas and in the North Sea Canal.

Benzo(k)-

fluoranthene *

Priority

substance

A problem substance wherever it is measured, except in the Rivierengebied.

Exceedance of standards occurs mainly in canals, rivers and brackish lakes.

Benzo(a)-pyrene Priority

substance

Not really a problem substance, except in the North Sea where there are stricter standards.

If this substance is measured, it is in solution and conforms to standards.

Carbenda-zim* Other chemical

substance

Not routinely monitored, but measurements indicate that it is a problem substance, particularly in the Rivierengebied,

Amstelland and Midden-Holland. It is not measured in national waters.

Exceedance of standards occurs around the North Sea Canal and in Midden-Holland.

Exceedance of standards occurs primarily in regional waters: polder drainage and ditches.

MCPA Rhine-relevant

substance

Both from routine monitoring and select measurement, this substance does not exceed standards.

Measured only in a quarter of the area.

Pirimicarb Other chemical

substance

Only limited monitoring. Measurements indicate that standards are not exceeded, expect in Midden-Holland. Select,

project measurement suggest that here standards are not exceeded.

CASE STUDY STATUS REPORT RHINE RIVER BASIN, · Rhine River itself and its direct tributaries...

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