CARVAJAL 2012 PV AMAZONIA MINI GRID.PDF

STANDARDIZATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC MINI-GRIDS FOR ELECTRIFICATION OF ISOLATED

COMMUNITIES IN AMAZONAS – BRASIL

By Eng. Pablo Esteban Carvajal Sarzosa

Date and Place of Birth: September 8th, 1984 in Quito, Ecuador

Master Thesis

In the Postgraduate Programme RENEWABLE ENERGY

Energy and Semiconductor Research Laboratory Department of Physics

Faculty of Mathematics & Science Carl von Ossietzky University

Oldenburg / F.R. Germany

Date of examination: March 19th, 2012

1. Examiner: Professor Parisi 2. Examiner: Michael Golba

To Jesus Christ my Lord and Savior

For from him and through him and to him are all things. To him be the glory forever

Romans 11:36

Acknowledgments

I would firstly like to show my gratitude to the Lord for giving me life, salvation and wonderful opportunities.

I owe my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Klaus Albrechtsen from the German Technical Cooperation Agency GIZ for the opportunity to participate in real life rural energy planning in Manaus – Brazil, more over for his knowledge, experience and advice.

I would like to thank professor Rubem Cesar Rodrigues Sousa my advisor from the Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM) for precise and patient guidance through all the stages of my work.

I would like to thank Michael Golba from the PPRE Master Program for his support and stimulus for coming to Brazil.

This thesis would not have been possible unless the support of Amazonas Energia and the Luz para Todos team who let me participate in their activities and gave me valuable information about the electrification program in Amazonas – Brazil.

I am indebted to my parents and my all my family, who never stopped calling to keep track of me. It would have been really difficult to reach this point without them constantly supporting me and wishing me success from Quito.

Last but not least, I want to thank Elby. Always walking by my side, with love, patience and joy. Constantly teaching me how to dream, how to reach for the stars.

Abstract

The creation of modular standard PV mini-grids for electrification of isolated rural communities in the Brazilian Amazonia is presented as an efficient way for energy concessionaries to determine the basic configuration of PV mini-grids and to estimate costs of Implementation and Operation and Maintenance (O&M), as well as Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE). Eight standard PV mini-grid configurations were designed to attend communities ranging from 10 to 50 consumer units, with a daily energy demand between 30 to 100 kWh/day and an installed peak power between 3 to 10 kW. The results show that using modular standard design has a maximum deviation of 5% in comparison to custom design. Moreover LCOE has a direct relation with number of consumer units and shows ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 €/kWh for dry land communities and 1.8 to 3.5 €/kWh for riverside communities. Standardization contributes to reach the objectives of elaboration of reference projects for rural electrification in Amazonas – Brazil.

Declaration I state and declare that this thesis was prepared by me and that no means or sources have been used, except those, which I cited and listed in the references section. The thesis is in compliance with the rules of good practice in scientific research of Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. Oldenburg, March 19th, 2012

____________________________ Pablo Esteban Carvajal

Pablo Esteban Carvajal

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Table of Contents

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1

2 THEBRAZILIAN AMAZONIA ............................................................................. 4 2.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW ............................................................................................ 4 2.2 DETAILS OF CURRENT ENERGY SUPPLY IN ISOLATED SYSTEMS ........................... 6

2.2.1 Community Characteristics ........................................................................... 6 2.2.2 Current Situation of Energy Supply ............................................................ 10

3 REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN AMAZONIA .................................................................................................................. 13

3.1 REGULATORY FRAMEWORK ............................................................................... 13 3.1.1 Rural Electrification Stakeholders .............................................................. 13 3.1.2 Legislation for Isolated Rural Energy Supply ............................................. 16 3.1.3 The Reference Project ................................................................................. 18

3.2 PROGRAMA LUZ PARA TODOS –LIGHT FOR ALLPROGRAM ................................. 19 3.2.1 How “Light for All” works ......................................................................... 21 3.2.2 The Program in Numbers ............................................................................ 23

4 PV MINI-GRIDS IN AMAZONIA ....................................................................... 28 4.1 WHY PHOTOVOLTAIC MINI-GRIDS IN AMAZONIA ............................................... 28 4.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC MINI-GRIDS .............................................................................. 31

4.2.1 DC Coupling ............................................................................................... 32 4.2.2 AC/DC Systems ........................................................................................... 32 4.2.3 AC Coupling ................................................................................................ 33 4.2.4 System monitoring ....................................................................................... 35 4.2.5 Energy distribution ...................................................................................... 37

Table of Contents

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5 STANDARDIZATION OF PVMINI-GRIDSFOR ISOLATED COMMUNITIES .......................................................................................................... 39

5.1 THE NEED FOR STANDARDIZATION ..................................................................... 39 5.2 METHODOLOGY FOR STANDARDIZATION ............................................................ 43 5.3 COMMUNITY ENERGY ANALYSIS ........................................................................ 44

5.3.1 Solar Resource ............................................................................................ 45 5.3.2 Energy Load Profile .................................................................................... 46 5.3.3 Energy Binning ............................................................................................ 53

5.4 SIMULATION ....................................................................................................... 62 5.4.1 Simulations Input ........................................................................................ 63 5.4.2 Simulation Output and Selection of Modular Systems ................................ 65

5.5 TECHNICAL DESIGN ............................................................................................ 67 5.5.1 Functionality ............................................................................................... 67 5.5.2 Generation Block ........................................................................................ 68 5.5.3 Inversion Block (Grid Manager) ................................................................. 70 5.5.4 Battery Block ............................................................................................... 73

5.6 RESULTS & VALIDATION .................................................................................... 74

6 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ...................................................................................... 83 6.1 COST STRUCTURE ............................................................................................... 83 6.2 LEVELIZED COST OF ENERGY - LCOE ................................................................ 88 6.3 EXAMPLE DESIGN OF A MINI-GRID WITH MODULAR STANDARDS ...................... 89

7 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................... 93 7.1 RESULTS AND LESSONS LEARNED ....................................................................... 93 7.2 FUTURE STEPS .................................................................................................... 96

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 98

APPENDIX A: COMMUNITIES INFORMATION ............................................... 101

APPENDIX B: COMMUNITY ENERGY DATA ................................................... 104

APPENDIX C: DATA SHEETS ................................................................................ 107

APPENDIX D: COMMUNITY ENERGY COSTS ................................................. 118


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List of Figures

Figure 1.1: Process for rural electrification projects according to Brazilian legislation .. 2 Figure 2.1: Map of South America – Location on the Amazon Rainforest ...................... 5 Figure 2.2: Map of Brazil – Location of the Legal Amazon – Amazônia Legal .............. 5 Figure 2.3: Rural households with no electricity in the Brazilian Amazonia ................... 7 Figure 2.4: Deforestation Arc Type Community .............................................................. 8 Figure 2.5: Coastal Riverbed Type Community ............................................................... 8 Figure 2.6: Community reunion in the Amazonas ............................................................ 8 Figure 2.7: Boat transportationin rivers ............................................................................ 8 Figure 2.8: Principal activities of the person responsible for a rural household .............. 9 Figure 2.9: Household income for rural communities in rural Amazonia ........................ 9 Figure 2.10: Sources for energy and cooking before electricity ..................................... 10 Figure 2.11: Brazilian National Energy Grid– SIN ........................................................ 11 Figure 3.1: Main stakeholders of the Rural Electrification Program .............................. 14 Figure 3.2: Main Stakeholders in the Brazilian Rural Energy Program ......................... 15 Figure 3.3: Rural energy electrification project process ................................................. 18 Figure 3.4: Reference project contents for a Rural Energy Supply Project .................... 18 Figure 3.5: Comparison between Energy Supply and Human Development Index ....... 21 Figure 3.6: Light for All Program Priorities ................................................................... 21 Figure 3.7: Improvements in Communities due to “Light for All” ................................ 24 Figure 3.8: Monthly Payment for Electricity .................................................................. 24 Figure 3.9: Average monthly energy consumption ........................................................ 25 Figure 3.10: "Light for All" in numbers ......................................................................... 26 Figure 4.1: Decision tree for least-cost technology choice ............................................. 29 Figure 4.2: A DC coupled power system ........................................................................ 32 Figure 4.3: An AC/DC coupled Hybrid System ............................................................. 33 Figure 4.4:An AC coupled hybrid system ...................................................................... 34 Figure 4.5: Modular and flexible AC coupled hybrid system ........................................ 34

List of Figures

iv

Figure 4.6:Data acquisition system for a PV generation block ...................................... 36 Figure 4.7: Monitoring Software Screenshot .................................................................. 36 Figure 4.8: Data Transmission System ........................................................................... 37 Figure 4.9: Mini-grid pole layout of a 10CU community .............................................. 38 Figure 5.1 PV mini-grid at Sobrado community in Amazonia 9.6kWp (19 CU) ........... 40 Figure 5.2: Household with a SIGFI30 Solar Home System (left) ................................. 42 Figure 5.3: Battery bank and circuit box with charge controller and inverter. (right) ... 42 Figure 5.4: PV mini-grid standardization methodology ................................................. 43 Figure 5.5: Municipality of Carauari .............................................................................. 45 Figure 5.6: Municipality of Barcelos .............................................................................. 45 Figure 5.7: Solar Irradiance ............................................................................................ 46 Figure 5.8: Ambient Temperature .................................................................................. 46 Figure 5.9: General pattern of a power demand curve of a refrigerator ......................... 48 Figure 5.10: Comparative Power and Energy for different consumer types .................. 48 Figure 5.11: Energy Load Profiles for different buildings in rural Amazonia ............... 51 Figure 5.12: Energy Load Profile for different size isolated communities .................... 52 Figure 5.13: Weekday real life load profile for isolated community (19 households) ... 54 Figure 5.14: Weekend real life load profile for isolated community (19 households) ... 54 Figure 5.15 - Daily energy demand - Carauari ............................................................... 56 Figure 5.16: Daily energy demand – Barcelos ............................................................... 56 Figure 5.17: Monthly energy demand per CU – Carauari .............................................. 57 Figure 5.18: Monthly energy demand per CU – Barcelos .............................................. 57 Figure 5.19: Power demand – Carauari .......................................................................... 58 Figure 5.20: Power demand - Barcelos ........................................................................... 58 Figure 5.21: daily energy demand dispersion ................................................................. 59 Figure 5.22: Monthly energy demand per CU dispersion .............................................. 59 Figure 5.23: Power demand dispersion .......................................................................... 59 Figure 5.24: Community size frequency ......................................................................... 60 Figure 5.25: Daily energy consumption frequency ........................................................ 61 Figure 5.26: Monthly energy demand frequency ............................................................ 61 Figure 5.27: Power frequency ......................................................................................... 62 Figure 5.28: HOMER energy grid components interconnection .................................... 65 Figure 5.29: Blocks to be standardized for Mini-Grid formation ................................... 66 Figure 5.30: PV Energy yield and Demand .................................................................... 67 Figure 5.31: PV Power - Standards vs. Real Demand .................................................... 76 Figure 5.32: Battery Bank - Standards vs. Real Demand ............................................... 76 Figure 5.33: Grid Manager - Standard vs. Real Demand ............................................... 76 Figure 5.34: Border CU Deviation - Power .................................................................... 77 Figure 5.35: Border CU Deviation - Storage .................................................................. 77 Figure 5.36: Border CU Deviation - Grid Manager ........................................................ 77 Figure 5.37: Mini-gridconfiguration #1 .......................................................................... 79 Figure 5.38: Mini-grid configuration #2 ......................................................................... 79 Figure 5.39: Mini-grid configuration #3 ......................................................................... 80 Figure 5.40: Mini-grid configuration #4 ......................................................................... 80


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Figure 5.41: Mini-grid configuration #5 ......................................................................... 81 Figure 5.42: Mini-grid configuration #6 ......................................................................... 81 Figure 5.43: Mini-grid configuration #7 ......................................................................... 82 Figure 5.44: Mini-grid configuration #8 ......................................................................... 82 Figure 6.1: Mini-grid cost break down ........................................................................... 86 Figure 6.2: Implementation cost structure ...................................................................... 86 Figure 6.3: Implementation costs for isolated mini-grids in Amazonas ......................... 87 Figure 6.4: O&M costs for isolated mini-grids in Amazonas ......................................... 87 Figure 6.5: Levelized cost of energy for PV mini-grids in Amazonas ........................... 88 Figure 6.6: Mini-grid configuration #2 ........................................................................... 90

List of Tables

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List of Tables

Table 2.1: Characteristics of Amazonia Households for electrification ........................... 7 Table 3.1: Brazilian Main Regulatory Framework for Rural Electrification ................. 16 Table 4.1: Investment costs for other RE technologies .................................................. 30 Table 5.1: First 12 communities with PV mini-grids in the State of Amazonas ............ 40 Table5.2: Standard sizes for Solar Home Systems accordingto ANEEL. ...................... 42 Table 5.3: Household appliances .................................................................................... 47 Table 5.4: Energy and Power characteristics of community buildings .......................... 49 Table 5.5: Consumer Units Bins according to Energy and Power ................................. 60 Table 5.6: Energy Demand Summary ............................................................................. 63 Table 5.7: Simulation Parameters for HOMER .............................................................. 64 Table 5.8: Simulation Results from HOMER ................................................................. 65 Table 5.9: Basic Modular Unit ....................................................................................... 66 Table 5.10: PV modules available in the market and Array Configurations .................. 69 Table 5.11: Grid Inverters available in the market ......................................................... 70 Table 5.12: Generation Block Modular Standards ......................................................... 70 Table 5.13: Grid Managers (Battery Inverters) available in the market ......................... 72 Table 5.14: Inversion Block Modular Standards ............................................................ 73 Table 5.15: OPzS available in the Market ...................................................................... 74 Table 5.16: Battery Block configuration ........................................................................ 74 Table 5.17: Standard Systems Over-sizing ..................................................................... 75 Table 5.18: Standard Modular PV Mini-Grids for Amazonas ........................................ 78 Table 6.1: Cost structure information for PV mini-grids in Amazonia .......................... 84 Table 6.2: Cash flow parameters .................................................................................... 85 Table 6.3: Standardized mini-grid costs ......................................................................... 87 Table 6.4: Basic Information for Bacabal ....................................................................... 89 Table 6.5: Energy Info for Bacabal ................................................................................ 90 Table 6.6: Component selection for a Mini-Grid Configuration #2 ............................... 91


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Table 6.7: Implementation costs for Community of Bacabal ......................................... 91 Table 6.8: O&M costs for Community of Bacabal ......................................................... 92 Table 6.9: Summary of economic indicators for Community of Bacabal ...................... 92

List of Tables

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List of Abbreviations

PV Photovoltaic RE Renewable Energy kWh kilo Watt hour kWp kilo Watt peak R$ Real Brazilian currency SHS Solar Home System EPE Empresa de Pesquisa Energetica (in English, Energy Research Company) ANEEL Agencia Nacional de Energia Eletrica (in English, National Agency of

Electricity) MME Ministerio de Minas e Energia (in English, Ministry of Mines and Energy) COS Center for Operation and Surveillance CU Consumer Unit IEC Electro technical commission STC Standard test conditions NOCT Normal Operation Cell Temperature Voc Open circuit voltage Isc Short circuit current O&M Operation and Maintenance LCOE Levelized Cost of Energy


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1 Introduction

Electrification of regions is essential to reach sustainable development. The universalization of electricity to all rural households in Brazil has been successfully carried out by the Luz para Todos – Light for All Program of the Ministry of Mines and Energy1. It has been an enterprise of admirable dimensions that has already served more than 2 million households.

In the Amazonia region difficulties sum up due to great land dimensions, low demographic density, spread out communities, dense hydrographic layout, numerous flooded areas and compact rainforest. A complete description of the Brazilian Amazonia and the details of current energy supply are presented in Chapter 2, and the description of energy legislation for isolated communities, including how Luz para Todos works is presented in Chapter 3.

Electrification began in places where the extension of already existing conventional grids was possible. For the rest of locations that represents more than half of the territory of the State of Amazonas, energy will be from isolated generation systems, in which sustainability requires the primary energy source to be renewable.

According to Brazilian legislation there is a defined process for the implementation of isolated energy supply (see Figure 1.1). The three main stakeholders are: 1. -The

1 Visit the official website of the program at: http://luzparatodos.mme.gov.br/luzparatodos/asp/

Chapter 1 Introduction

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Municipality, 2. - The Government (energy concessionary, Ministry of Mines and Energy – MME, Energy Research Company – EPE and National Agency of Electric Energy – ANEEL) and the private company, which will execute the project. The energy concessionary is in charge for energy generation, distribution and commercialization in a certain region. In Amazonas the concessionary named Amazonas Energia Eletrobras is in charge of elaborating the Reference Projects for rural electrification in concordance to the energy demand of the communities. This document must contain the basic characteristics of the energy supply system and a cost structure analysis including: Implementation costs, O&M costs and LCOE. This document must be sent to the EPE for further evaluation, and they will send it to ANNEL, which is responsible for the elaboration of the bidding process (cf. Section 3.1.2 Legislation for isolated Rural Energy Supply).

Figure 1.1: Process for rural electrification projects according to Brazilian legislation

Unfortunately the energy concessionary has limited resources (specially of qualified personnel) for the correct and efficient elaboration of this document. Computational tools and reliable methodologies are required urgently to keep up with the increasing and ambitious projects for rural electrification. The most recent Reference Project was handed to the EPE by Amazonas Energia on December 2011 and contemplated the electrification of 71 communities from 2 municipalities of Amazons State with pure PV mini-grids. The prevision for the next stage is to electrify 3000 communities.

PV mini-grids are the leading option for electrifying this region due to abundant year-round solar irradiance and since other energy resources such as biomass or hydropower have not yet precisely been estimated. Chapter 4 presents the justification for using pure PV mini-grids in Amazonia and moreover the types of system configurations that are more appropriate for this region.

Determining the characteristics (list of basic components: PV modules, batteries, inverters, etc.) for 71 communities and later for 3000 can be an arduous time consuming task. For this reason Standardization of PV mini-grids is presented in this work as a tool to rapidly know the characteristics of a system that can attend a certain group of communities mainly classified by their number of consumer units, energy and power demand. The standardized mini-grids will be sized according to characteristics of 71 isolated communities from which information is available at the concessionary and are a good representative sample of the types of communities that currently exist in the

Communities (Demand)

Energy Concessionary

MME* / EPE** ANEEL*** Private company

(Implementation)

Reference project


3

region. HOMER renewable energy software will be used to simulate and design the mini-grids according to energy load and solar resource. Chapter 5 presents the methodology, simulations, results and discussion for the creation of these standards.

The standards are a tool to rapidly determine a referential design of the mini-grids with the final objective of estimating the costs of implementation and O&M for the electrification of each community type. Economic indicators like LCOE and cost per installed power (€/Wp) are necessary for means of comparison with other technologies and to provide the government (ANEEL) with the necessary key economic indicators to analyze the feasibility of the project. Chapter 6 presents the parameters taken in account for the economic analysis for the 71 communities and also a case study example of the application of standard PV mini-grids for cost estimation.

Finally, the conclusion in Chapter 7 summarizes the outcomes and lessons learned during the elaboration of this work and a sixth month accompaniment at the energy concessionary Amazonas Energia in Manaus – Brazil. More over the future steps are presented as new research topics that could be pursued as a continuation of this work.

Chapter 2 The Brazilian Amazonia

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2 The Brazilian Amazonia

This chapter provides a general overview of the Amazonian region in Brazil, including for example geographical, weather and population characteristics, followed by a detailed analysis of the current energy situation and the problematic for energy supply in this region.

2.1 General Overview

The Amazon Rainforest is a moist broadleaf forest that covers most of the Amazon Basin of South America as seen in Figure 2.1. This basin encompasses seven million square kilometers, of which five and a half million square kilometers are covered by the rainforest. The majority of the forest is contained within Brazil, with 60% of the rainforest, followed by Peru with 13%, and with minor amounts in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana (Wikipedia 2011a).

The Amazon represents over half of the planet's remaining rainforests, and it comprises the largest and most species-rich tract of tropical rainforest in the world (Di Lascio 2009).

In the Amazon, the climate is hot and humid, with an average relative humidity of 85%. The temperatures are generally high, around 22ºC and 42ºC. Amazonia receives about 9 feet of rain every year. Fifty percent of this returns to the atmosphere through the foliage of trees. Most of the Amazon River's water comes from the annual snowmelt


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high in the Peruvian Andes. Between June and October, the water level rises by 9 to 14 meters, with the river reaching its highest point in May. The river is at its lowest in October. Tens of millions of square kilometers of rainforest are covered by water as the flood advances, reaching as far inland from the main channel as 8 km (Di Lascio 2009).

Figure 2.1: Map of South America – Location on the Amazon Rainforest Source: (Google Inc. 2011)

The Amazonian rainforest has unparalleled biodiversity. One in ten known species in the world lives in the Amazon rainforest. This constitutes the largest collection of living plants and animal species in the world. The region is home to about 2.5 million insect species, tens of thousands of plants, and some 2,000 birds and mammals (World Wide Fund for Nature 2008).

Figure 2.2: Map of Brazil – Location of the Legal Amazon – Amazônia Legal

Source: (Di Lascio 2009)


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The Brazilian part of the rainforest, known as Legal Amazon (in Portuguese, Amazônia Legal), is the largest socio-geographic division of this country and contains all of its territory in the Amazon basin. As seen in Figure 2.2, it is officially designated to encompass all seven states of the North Region (Acre, Amapá, Amazonas, Pará, Rondônia, Roraima and Tocantins), as well as Mato Grosso state in the Center-West Region and most of Maranhão state in the Region. The total area of this region is 5.217.423 km2, corresponding to 61% of the Brazilian territory2 (World Wide Fund for Nature 2008).

The region is very sparsely populated. There are scattered settlements inland, but most of the population lives in a few larger cities on the banks of the Amazon and other major rivers, such as Manaus and Belém. In many regions, the forest has been cleared for soy bean plantations and ranching (the most extensive non-forest use of the land) and some of the inhabitants harvest wild rubber latex and Brazil nuts. This is a form of extractive farms, where the trees are not cut down, and thus this is a relatively sustainable human impact. The population is near 24.000.000 people, corresponding to 12.32% of Brazil’s inhabitants. In these nine states live, 55.9% of Brazil’s indigenous population, around 250.000 people according to FUNASA3 in 2005(Fundação Nacional de Saúde 2009).

The Amazon is systematically being torn down and devalued for short-term gains. Unsustainable expansion of agriculture and cattle ranching, construction of roads and dams, and extractive activities including illegal logging and climate change are the biggest drivers of deforestation and river degradation

2.2 Details of Current Energy Supply in Isolated Systems

2.2.1 Community Characteristics Isolated systems are defined as the public electric energy service that in its normal configuration is not electrically connected with the national grid – SIN4, due to economical or technical reasons (EPE - Empresa de Pesquisa Energética 2011).

According to Di Lascio (2006), the census carried out on year 2000 by the IBGE5 showed that in Legal Amazonia there were 770 thousand rural households without electric energy, which would turn out to be approximately 3,8 million people. From that 2 Brazil has a total area of 8,514,877 km2 (5th in the world). Brazil is a federation composed of 26 States, one federal district (which contains the capital city, Brasília) and municipalities. The states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern(Wikipedia 2011a). 3 FUNASA –Sistema de Informação da Atenção à SaúdeIndígena (in English, Information system for Health Attention for the Indigenous) 4 SIN – SistemaInterligadoNacional (in English, National Interconnected System) 5 IBGE – Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (in English, BrazilianInstitute for StatisticsandGeography)

Rafael Soria

Highlight

Rafael Soria

Highlight


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number of households, 615 thousand would be in conditions to be supplied by extending the grid. This leaves 155 thousand households, which need to be supplied by isolated systems. From this total, 55 thousand would be isolated, or gathered in groups of two to three houses that would preferable be supplied by PV systems. The remaining 100 thousand households are distributed in small villages, from 4 to 100 houses, where the best option would be a fuel-based generation unit and the distribution to be done with a mini-grid. Figure 2.3 shows the distribution of these households according to each state in the Amazonia region.

Figure 2.3: Rural households with no electricity in the Brazilian Amazonia

Source:(Di Lascio 2009)

There are two types of regions that have to be supplied with energy in the Amazonia. The differences between each of them are given in Table 2.1. In the Coastal Riverbed there are human settlements along the river and energy supply must be done with isolated energy generation. In the Deforestation Arc6 (dry land) there are larger populations, accessibility is rather easier and they can be supplied by expanding the conventional grid.

Table 2.1: Characteristics of Amazonia Households for electrification Source: (Di Lascio 2009)

Amazonian Region Deforestation Arc (Dry Land) Coastal Riverbed (River side)

Climate characteristic Drought Periods Considerable Rainfall

Environment Situation Frequent Burning No Burnings

Jungle status Very altered Almost Original

Transport Start of the Transport Grid By Boar

Economic activity Agriculture Essentially extractive

Economy Higher Income Intense Poverty

Population Density Higher Population Density Less Population Density

Settlements Along Roadways Along the Rivers

HDI Higher HDI Lower HDI

Energy Supply Conventional Grid Local Generation and Mini-grid

6 Deforestation Zones is land where the forest has been cut and burned to clean the area for permanent human settlement.

16.000 39.000 70.000 118.000 118.000 125.000

400.000 480.000

Roraima Acre Tocantins Rondônia Amazonas Mato Grosso

Pará Maranhão


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Architecture is pretty much standard for the households, which consists of a wooden based structure and façade. In most cases the roof is made of Zinc or Asbestos sheets that help keep water out of the dwelling. The homes have usually 3 divisions: one kitchen and two bedrooms and the structure are elevated above the ground approximately 1 to 2 meters high (Fundação Nacional de Saúde 2009). This is a safety measure for the flooding period that strikes the villages usually around the month of May during the rainy season. This is also a precaution to keep the house safe and clean from insects and animals. Figure 2.4 shows the arrangement of houses of a community in the state of Amazonas, which is supplied by a mini grid PV System. A typical Coastal type community from the State of Acre is shown in Figure 2.5. The only way to reach communities like these is by boat as shown in Figure 2.7.In communities with more than 10 houses, decisions are made usually by a council, which holds place in a Community Center as shown in Figure 2.6 in the State of Amazonas.

Figure 2.4: Deforestation Arc Type Community Figure 2.5: Coastal Riverbed Type Community

Figure 2.6: Community reunion in the Amazonas

Figure 2.7: Boat transportation in rivers

Source: (Guascor Solar do Brasil 2011)

To identify some of the socio-economic-energy conditions of the target rural households to be electrified, the Brazilian Ministry of Mines and Energy performed a survey of 3.892 families in the Amazonia region (Zaytecbrasil Research Services 2009), the results are shown in the following figures, which are part of this study.


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Figure 2.8: Principal activities of the person responsible for a rural household

Source: (Zaytecbrasil Research Services 2009)

As seen in Figure 2.8, 42.3% of the responsible for the households are rural workers (fishing, hunting and agriculture), followed by a representative 20% of retired people that indicate a high migration rate of young people in search for education and higher life quality. Rural workers mainly do agricultural tasks such as fishing and farming only for self-consumption.

This rural style of life is reflected in the monthly income of the household. According to Figure 2.9, 60.4% of the households receive one minimum salary R$465 per month, this is equivalent to €184.527. Families that receive between 2 and 3 minimum salaries are the next big group with 36.6%.

Figure 2.9: Household income for rural communities in rural Amazonia


7The Real is present-day currency of Brazil. Its sign is R$ and its ISO code is BRL. The exchange rate to October 2011 is 1.00 EUR to 2.52 BRL.

19.3% 6.3%

0.4% 0.7%

0.1% 2.3%

5.5% 42.3%

12.6% 8.6%

0.5% 1.2%

0.2%

Retired Freelance

Handcraftsman Employer

Student Public worker

Employee Rural worker

Rural producer Housewife Housemaid

Unemployed Didn´t answer

60.40%

36.60%

1.60%

0.40%

0.10%

0.90%

Up to R$465 (€184,52)

Over R$465,00 up to R$1395,00 (€184,52 - €553,57)

Over R$1350,00 up to R$2325,00 (€553,57 - €922,61)

Over R$2325,00 up to R$4650,00 (€922,61 - €1845,23)

Over R$4650,00 (€1845,23)

No income


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The energy sources used for energy and cooking are shown in Figure 2.10. Most households use wood or coal for cooking, which will not be reduced with an electrification project, but the use of batteries for flashlights, candles and lanterns will. In a general way, the majority of the rural Amazonian population uses diesel or kerosene lamps. This illumination technique is precarious and causes respiratory and ophthalmologic illnesses, especially with children. Luminescence tests (Barreto 2004), show that a 9 Watt Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) used in PV systems and which has an illumination power of 293 lux8, is equivalent to 7.3 of these lanterns that only deliver 40lux each. Another founding is that one needs approximately 1.05 liters of diesel to have the same illumination of a 9W CFL lamp during one hour.

Figure 2.10: Sources for energy and cooking before electricity

Obs.: This question admits more than one answer Source: (Zaytecbrasil Research Services 2009)

2.2.2 Current Situation of Energy Supply Even though there is great water resource; the low water height and the low energy demand density per capita have not made possible the installation of Micro and Mini Hydro Power plants to supply isolated communities. There is also a large biomass resource, but the appropriate technology for energy production has not been developed for the area (Eduardo José Fagundes Barreto 2008).

Nevertheless, a fraction of Amazonian households are already electrified whether by connection to the SNI, or by connection to isolated villages, which have diesel fired generators. If this is the case the fuel has a subsidy from the CCC-Isol9, so that the tariff

8The lux (symbol: lx) is the SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance measuring luminous power per area. It is used in photometry as a measure of the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. 9 The CCC-Isol or Conta de Consumo de CombustíveisparaosSistemasIsolados (in English, Fossil fuel consumption account of isolated systems) is a tariff charge of the Brazilian energy sector, which subsidizes the production of thermal energy in isolated systems at the North Region, without which

3.4%

37.60%

55.90%

55.60%

64%

25.00%

0.10%

Generator

Lantern

Candles

Flashlight

Wood or coal

Others

Didn´t answer


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charged by the distribution concessionaries may be similar to the ones charged in the rest of the country, that would be around R$ 280 per MWh (0.112 € per MWh) (Brazilian Court of Audit TCU 2010).

According to Eletrobras10, in 2011 there were more than 200 isolated systems that covered at least 45% of the Brazilian territory with an installed power capacity of 3MW and that served a total of 4% of the Brazilian population. The regions with no connection to the national grid can be seen in Figure 2.11. It is clear that there are vast extensions of land especially in northern Brazil, which is still missing public electric energy service.

Figure 2.11: Brazilian National Energy Grid– SIN Source: (EPE - Empresa de Pesquisa Energética 2011)

Isolated communities, which have well maintained generators, have a normal efficiency of 350 g/kWh; however most of them have a precarious maintenance that causes an elevated consumption of fuel, around 500 g/kWh. So considering a price of R$ 2.45 per

electric power prices would be impractical. All Brazilian consumers, who apportion the costs of purchasing fossil fuels, fund the cost of the CCC-Isol. 10Eletrobras is a major Brazilian power utility.It generates and transmits approximately 60% of Brazil's electric supply and its company's generating capacity is about 40,000 MW, mostly in hydroelectric plants.


12

liter of diesel11, the generation cost is around R$1140 to R$1630 per MWh (0.48€/kWh to 0.69€/kWh), without considering maintenance costs. In other places the situation is even worse, like in the region of Alto Juruá, where Diesel is sold by traders at R$4.00 per liter. Accordingly this generates the highest energy cost around R$2600 per MWh (1.07 €/kWh), always leaving out maintenance costs. For this reason the cost of energy that doesn’t count with the support of the CCC is much higher than the normal rural tariff, harming the villager’s economy and perpetuating misery (Eduardo José Fagundes Barreto 2008).

Solar Photovoltaic projects (PV) are also present in the area mostly for research purposes. These have capacities around 15 and 100 Wp12 of installed power, which is enough to light two lamps and a small radio. There are some systems with 600 to 1000 Wp in schools, small hospital and community centers (Di Lascio 2009).

After presenting the current situation of the energy supply system it seems that renewable energy has an opportunity to compete with Diesel generation and supply energy to communities in Amazonia, especially because of the high generation costs mentioned and the logistic problems involved in fuel transportation. Also because there are places where grid expansion is not technically or economically feasible, so other energy sources must be taken in consideration.

11Diesel cost in the region for 2011, according to ANP – Agencia Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Bicombustíveis (in English, Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuel National Agency). URL: http://www.anp.gov.br/preco/ 12Wp: Watt peak installed power


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3 Regulatory Framework for Rural Electrification in Amazonia

Sustainability of a Rural Renewable Energy System depends strongly on its Regulatory Framework, which has to be observed prior to the implementation of the system. This chapter will provide a description of the Brazilian Rural Energy Program “Luz para Todos”13 as well as an analysis of the legislation and project implementation process that will be applied for rural energy projects.

3.1 Regulatory Framework

This section is divided into two parts. First the review of the main stakeholders involved in the energy program and second the principal components of the current legislation for isolated energy systems. Special attention will be given to the reference projects that the concessionaries have to elaborate to start electrification projects.

3.1.1 Rural Electrification Stakeholders The main stakeholders of the rural electrification program are shown in Figure 3.1. There are five groups that make possible the execution of the programs. The energy

13 Luz paraTodos (in English, Light for All)

Chapter 3 Regulatory Framework for Rural Electrification in Amazonia

14

concessionaries which are in charge of generation, transmission, distribution and commercialization of energy in fixed geo-electric regions; the Ministry of Mines and Energy with its two agencies: EPE14 and ANEEL15, Eletrobrás which provides the funding and supervision of the whole process through the especial project managing department EPS16 and EPSP, the private sector which delivers appropriate technology and executes the projects, and finally the consumers are stakeholder that will have direct contact only with the concessionary17.

The German Technical Cooperation - GIZ works in Brazil on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). Through technical exchange and cooperation, GIZ aims to ensure ever-closer coordination with the scientific and technical cooperation, the private sector and research institution giving continuous support to the Brazilian Energy Program.

Figure 3.1: Main stakeholders of the Rural Electrification Program

Source: (GIZ-EPE 2011) 14 EPE – Empresa de Pesquisa Energética (in English, Energy Research Company). The EPE has the goal to provide services in the field of studies and research destined to subsidize the planning of the energy sector, such as electricity, oil, natural gas, mineral coal, renewable energy sources and energy efficiency. 15 ANEEL – Agencia Nacional de Energia Electrica (in English, National Agency of Electric Energy) is a special department of the Ministry of Mines and Energy that seeks to regulate generation, transmission, distribution and commercialization of electric energy. It has the power to authorize the installation of energy services and guaranty a fair tariff to the final user. 16 EPS and EPSP are the Division for Special and Sectorial Projects in Eletrobras. This department coordinates “Light for All” with the concessionaries. 17The Concessionary is an official agent that has federal permission to provide public services of electric energy.

GIZ - Energy Program, Component Rural

Electrification

Eletrobras

EPS

EPSP

Consumers (in isolated areas) / Municipalities

Renewable Energy Industry

Service companies

MME

ANEEL

Light for AllTariffsRegulation

Technical consultingManaging and Organizational assessment

Development of Renewable Energy Systems and Components

InstalationOperation & Maintenance Services

Concessionaries Amazonas Energia

EPE


15

The main interests and responsibilities of each stakeholder are listed in the next chart. See Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Main Stakeholders in the Brazilian Rural Energy Program

Source: (EPE - Empresa de Pesquisa Energética 2011)

•  Approval of the concessionary referece projects by the EPE. •  Bidding process for hiring installation and O&M done by ANEEL. •  Elaboration of Decrees, Ordinances, and Laws related to rural

electrification.

Ministry of Mines and Energy Interest: Development of isolated regions

•  Surveillance and administration of Light for All Program •  Provide economic resources to the concessionaries for the execution of

the program •  Coordinate the execution of the electrification program with the

concessionaries.

Eletrobras Interest: Electrify Brazilian population

•  Elaboration of reference projects with the information collected from the consumers

•  Direct concact with the contracted private company that will execute the project.

•  Fiscalization of the installation and control of the O&M •  Contact with the consumers and beneficiaries, provide capacitation to

the users.

Concessionaries Interest: Expand their energy market

•  Paticipiate in the bidding process with a proposal that matches the requirements of the concessionaries.

•  Install the energy systems with appropiate and good quality technology . •  Develop and apply an O&M plan for the lifespan of the project

Private Sector Interest: Profit

•  Provide energy demand information •  Take care of he system (at least clean) •  Do not consume over the energy limit and pay the bill to the

concessionary

Consumers / Municipalities Interest: To have electricity


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3.1.2 Legislation for Isolated Rural Energy Supply A concrete interest to have a regulatory framework for rural electrification appeared first in the 1988 Federal Constitution18. First of all, it was determined that the universalization of the services of electric energy is a public service and that the responsibility to implement this public policy belongs to the concessionaries. These companies will have a concession contract for a region. This was a big step, because it created a sense that energy is a right people has and that it is a service that the government should provide as state development policy. Independently from economic interests, rural electrification is seen as a priority and a social development vector.

From this date on, there are several laws, decrees and ordinances published by the Ministry of Mines and Energy regarding rural electrification in isolated areas. Only the most recent ones will be mentioned and the ones that have important impact on the rural electrification of the Amazonia Region. They will also be mentioned because they constitute pillars of a basic regulatory framework of a government’s renewable energy policy.

The next table presents the Main Regulatory Framework for rural electrification in chronological order.

Table 3.1: Brazilian Main Regulatory Framework for Rural Electrification Source: (Olivieri 2011)

Document Description Law N°10.438/2002 Declares universalization of electricity as a public service. Resolution ANEEL 223/2002 Defines 2015 as the limit to reach universalization of electricity

service Decree N°4.873/2003 Creates "Luz para Todos" to work in rural electrification in Brazil. Ordinance MME 60/2009 Creates the Special Projects division within the Luz para Todos

program for communities that are distant, with difficult access and usually los population density.

Law N°12.111/2009 Speaks about energy services for isolated systems. Determines that energy concessionaries must attend the totality of their energy markets with isolated generating systems that will be hired by an auction organized by the ANEEL

Resolution ANEEL 427/2011 Defines energy future growth and horizon of people served with Luz para Todos.

Ordinance MME 600 2010 Defines the process to electrify communities through the elaboration of reference projects by the concessionary

Ordinance MME 493 Defines what the reference project must contain.

In accordance to the roles of the stakeholders involved in the electrification process, the next articles from Ordinance N°600 released on June 30, 2010, describe the dynamic and responsibilities of the concessionaries (also known as electric energy distribution agents), the Ministry of Mines and Energy-MME, the National Electric Energy Agency-ANEEL, the Energy Research Company-EPE and the selling agents which are private

18Articles 21 and 175 of the 1988 Federal Constitution present that energy is a public service and that is in charge of the Electric Concessionaries or Power Utility Companies.


17

energy companies interested in providing energy services(Ministerio de Minas e Energia 2011a).

Art 5° Electric Energy distribution agents must submit to approval of the MME each year: energy supply planning of the isolated system markets for a minimum horizon of 5 years.

Art. 6° Electric energy distribution agents must submit to approval of the EPE, Reference Projects based on the planning of Art. 5° The deadlines and guidelines will be determined by the EPE.

Art. 7° Electric energy distribution agents must attend the totally of their isolated system markets by the modality of auction or competitive bidding.

The Concessionary will prepare a Reference Project containing the description energy generating system, needed energy supply and the energy demand projection for the next 5 years according to the information they gather from communities in the region (See Figure 3.4). This will be submitted to the EPE that is a part of the MME, for approval and analysis. Private companies will compete in a bidding process to implement, operate and maintain the project described in the reference presented by the concessionary.

It is important to mention that the concessionary will not be in charge of installing or for the O&M of the systems. The concessionary looks forward to delegating this task to a private investor. The ANEEL after receiving the approved concessionary reference projects from the EPE will organize and execute the bidding process. Once a company or companies wins the contract, it will contact the Concessionary for further planning and execution of the projects. Figure 3.3 shows this whole process in a flow diagram.


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Figure 3.3: Rural energy electrification project process Source: (GIZ-EPE 2011)

3.1.3 The Reference Project The reference project is the base of the whole bidding and contracting process. Ordinance N°493 released on August 23, 2011 presents the guidelines that the reference project should contain to satisfactorily be approved by the EPE. Figure 3.4 summarizes this information that should relates to each community that wishes to be electrified.

Figure 3.4: Reference project contents for a Rural Energy Supply Project

Source: (Ministerio de Minas e Energia 2011b)

ConsumerProvide iformation about the energy demand based on the different type of connections

MunicipalityOrganizes the information about energy and power and sends it to the concessionary

EPEVerifies the reference projects

ANEELElaborates the bidding process

ConcessionarySpecifies the reference projects

Energy service companyImplementation and O&M of the isolated energy systems.

•  Reason of the contract •  The location of the place of electricity generation •  The quantity of electric energy and power necessary to supply the local

market in the current consumer horizon. •  The term that the contracts will last •  The detailed budget in spreadsheets with all the unitary costs of the

reference project. •  The characteristics of the hired energy supply service, specifying cost of

energy ($/kWh), installation and O&M costs. •  The number of households that will be supplied and the quantities of

energy and power that will be availaber for each one.

Reference Project Contents


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On December 1st of 2011, Amazonas Energia presented the last reference project to the EPE, which is the electricity concessionary in the State of Amazonas. The goal is to electrify 95 isolated communities with solar photovoltaic systems by the end of 2012. For this purpose, it was necessary to elaborate the reference projects in a standardized and practical way. The characteristics of the photovoltaic systems that will supply the communities are similar for all cases in: days of autonomy, system voltage, frequency, lifespan, etc. More important than the characteristics of the system are the estimation of the costs that will secure a correct bidding process and that the private companies will find the projects attractive enough to invest. The bidding price cannot be too low otherwise the private companies will not participate, and it cannot be too high otherwise the government is paying too much for the service.

But, once again, the prices are directly proportional to the size of the PV system, so a rough design has to be done for each community according to the energy demands they present. A relevant point to the design of the energy systems for rural communities that Ordinance Nº493 presents is:

To guarantee the energy supply to consuming markets, Distributors can contract the sufficient amount of capacity reserve to ensure that there will be enough energy in case of more equipment to be connected and consumer growth in future years, except for Remote Regions.

In other words, rural energy isolated systems will be designed and installed to handle the communities present energy demand. It is not allowed to install a system to provide the community for more years than the first one. The expansion of the energy system will be done later as the community grows. This is another good reason to have a modular system to expand the energy supply in an easy and fast way.

Legal framework sets the basis to understand how rural electrification projects are structured and implemented in Brazil. It is a process that needs continuous review and improvement. As new challenges appear and new goals want to be reached, the legal framework needs to adapt to support the execution of projects and bring economic, technical, environmental and social sustainability to the projects.

3.2 Programa Luz para Todos –Light for All Program

Since 2003, rural electrification has received a strong impulse by the Brazilian Federal Government through the “Luz para Todos”19 Program. Its goal is to supply approximately 15 million Brazilians with electricity until December 2015. This of course, includes the Amazonia with all the difficulties that this region presents (Olivieri 2011). 19Luz para Todos (in English, Light for All).


20

The arrival of “Light for All” has promoted a true revolution in the rural areas by bringing benefits like nighttime education and 24 hour refrigeration. The Program has been contributing to modify the picture of social exclusion. The electric power benefits are countless and have encouraged families to stay in the country and to develop productive activities, improving quality of life and generating job and income. It has encouraged 480,000 people to return to life in rural areas. (Ministry of Mines and Energy 2010). The Program “Light for All” is much more than the possibility to turn the light on; it is one of the greatest programs on social inclusion existing in the world, which brings to families the rescue of dignity and the accomplishment of citizenship (Ministry of Mines and Energy 2010).

The main goal of the government is to use energy as a socio-economic development tool for rural communities, contributing to eradicate poverty and increase family income. Electricity will allow the integration of social programs of the Federal Government such as health, education, water supply and sanitation (Eduardo José Fagundes Barreto 2008).

It was verified that the unassisted families were mainly located in the regions of lower Human Development Index (HDI)20, and that about 90% of them would earn income below three minimum wages monthly salary (See Figure 2.9). These were unmistakable data from the association between the access to electric power and economic and social development. The two maps in Figure 3.5 show the clear relation between energy availability and the quality of life people have.

The program wishes to cover rural energy demand with one of the next three alternatives:

• Grid Extension • Decentralized Generation Systems with Isolated Grids (Mini-grids) • Individual Generation Systems (Solar Home Systems)

And the main target priorities of the program are summarized in Figure 3.6.

20 The Human Development Index (HDI) is a comparative measure of life expectancy, literacy, education and standards of living for countries worldwide. It is a standard means of measuring well-being, especially child welfare. It is used to distinguish whether the country is a developed, a developing or an under-developed country, and also to measure the impact of economic policies on quality of life.


21

Electric exclusion - Rate of services provided in % Human development index – HDI

Figure 3.5: Comparison between Energy Supply and Human Development Index Source: (Ministry of Mines and Energy 2010)

Figure 3.6: Light for All Program Priorities Source: (Ministry of Mines and Energy 2010)

3.2.1 How “Light for All” works The description of the dynamics of the program will be divided in the next sections:

Coordination and Operation

In addition of being nationally coordinated by the Ministry of Mines and Energy and operated by Eletrobras, “Light for All” counts on the regional coordination of

•  Cities which Rates on Electric Power services provided to homes are below than 85%, calculation based on Census 2000;

•  Cities with Human Development Rate lower than the state average; •  Communities affected by electric power plants dams or by works of the

electric network; •  Projects that focus on the communitarian productive use of electric

power and that provide for the integrated local development; •  Public schools, health clinics and community wells of water supply; •  Projects for the communitarian development of family farming or of

handcraft activities of family base; •  Rural electrification projects on hold by lack of resources, which assist

communities and rural villages; •  Population in the surroundings of Nature Preservation Units •  Population in areas on specific use of especial communities, such as

minorities.

Priorities of the Light for All Program


22

companies controlled by Eletrobras. Each one of these companies has a coordinator responsible for the actions of the Program, corresponding to his Geoeletric21 region; they are also responsible to organize the Management Committee22, coordination teams of each State and to supply logistic support for the good performance of its activities (Ministry of Mines and Energy 2010).

The Role of Eletrobras

Eletrobras, is responsible for the technical and financial analysis of projects from “Light for All”, presented by concessionaires of electric energy and cooperatives of rural electrification. It sends to the Ministry of Mines and Energy the analysis of the project and releases, after signature of the contract, the financial resources for the projects. The company is also responsible to inspect the works performed and ensure the proper use of financial resources.

Project Execution

The performing agents are the electric power concessionaires and the cooperatives of rural electrification that carry out the services provided by “Light for All”. So far, 60 concessionaires and 33 cooperatives throughout the Brazilian States provided services by the Program.

The electric power companies perform the survey about the demand of rural electrification in the region where they act and elaborate the services program, which is sent to Eletrobras for budgetary and technical analysis. After its approval, the contract between the performing agent and Eletrobras is signed, to start up the project.

It is up to the performing agents to be accountable for the projects of electrification, engineering, installation of construction signs, to get environment licenses and authorizations and for indemnity resulted from the passage of the electric network through private owned areas.

Enrollment

The inhabitants of rural regions with no electric power at home should look for the office or for the representative of the electric power company located in their city and then they should request the electric power installation through an enrollment process.

The management committee and the schedule, by the executor agent, define the priority of the service. 21 There are four companies controlled by Eletrobras that manage generation, transmission and distribution in different parts of the country. They are: Chesf, Eletronorte, Eletrosul, and Furnas, Each company is responsible for a number of states. 22The Management Committee in each state, which is a participative forum; is responsible to determine the priority of services provided and to follow up the implementation of the Program. Each Committee is composed by nine representatives, the coordinator, one from the state government, one from the state regulation agency, one from concessionaires of electricity and one from the cooperatives of rural electrification. The remaining are chosen amongst the organized entities of the civil society.


23

Investment Participation

There are plans of investments from the Federal Government, State Governments and from executor agents.

A Term of Commitment signed together with the federal government, state government and performing agents, with the intervention of the National Agency of Electric Energy - ANEEL23 and Eletrobrás, defined the participation of each one.

3.2.2 The Program in Numbers Until August 2008, 470.230 households were electrified in north Brazil, the majority of these with grid extension including isolated systems in Acre, Rondônia and Amazonas. In the state of Amazonas more than 60 thousand connections need to be made, all in isolated areas (Di Lascio 2009).

The latest numbers for rural electrification given by Amazons Energia24 in the state of Amazonas and for the year 2011 are: 68.205 households already supplied by grid extension and 12.795 still pending. These will be supplied by the grid or by renewable energy systems. Most of which will be PV solar energy as Individual Solar Home Systems or Mini grids.

A survey to register the Improvements due to the program for household and communities was carried out by the Brazilian Ministry of Mines and Energy (Zaytecbrasil Research Services 2009). 9 from 10 interviewees said that the quality of life improved after the arrival of electric energy. The income improved for 35,6% of the beneficiaries, 40,7% could begin schooling activities in the night period and health attendance improved in 22,1%. These and other improvements are gathered in Figure 3.7.

The Federal Government, in the Light for All Program, decided to make the electric installation free, including electric meters. The beneficiaries would have to pay only for what they used, like every other Brazilian. Figure 3.4 shows that almost 25% of the beneficiaries pay R$11 to R$20 (€4,4 to €8)25. This is a very low value, even for rural households. The idea is to help the communities, not to sink them with high energy costs, so in cases where there is grid expansion, the final users pay the same subsidized price that takes in account the costs of transporting energy to remote regions. In the case

23 ANEEL – Agencia Nacional de Energia Electrica (in English, National Agency of Electric Energy) is a special department of the Ministry of Mines and Energy which seeks to regulate generation, transmission, distribution and comercialization of electric energy. It has the power to authorize the installation of energy services and guaranty a fair tariff to the final user. 24Amazonas Energia, is the power utility company in the State of Amazonas and is part of the Eletrobras Group. 25The Real is present-day currency of Brazil. Its sign is R$ and its ISO code is BRL. The exchange rate to October 2011 is 1.00 EUR to 2.52 BRL


24

of isolated systems with renewable solar energy, the government participates with a large amount of investment, near 80%, to help the energy cost remain low for the user.

Figure 3.7: Improvements in Communities due to “Light for All”


Figure 3.8: Monthly Payment for Electricity Source: (Zaytecbrasil Research Services 2009)

91.2% 88.1%

25.2% 35.6%

34.2% 21.3%

24.4% 27.1%

33.6% 29.8%

22.1% 40.7%

14.4%

Quality of life Living conditions

Participation in social and cultural activities Family income

Job opportunity Cultivation area

Agricultural productivity Community safety

Food availability New products availability

Health service Night schooling activities

Internet and Computer access

6.9%

17.3%

24.9%

16.3%

16.9%

10.6%

2.9%

4.2%

Up to R$5,00 (€2,00)

Over R$5,00 up tp R$10,00 (€2,00-€4,00)

Over R$11,00 up to R$20,00 (€4,36 - €7,93)

Over R$21,00 up to R$30,00 (€8,33 - €11,90)

Over R$31,00 up to R$50,00 (€12,30 - €19,84)

Over R$51,00 up to R$100,00 (€20,23 - €39,68)

Over R$100,00 (€39,68)

Did not answer


25

Figure 3.9: Average monthly energy consumption


Nevertheless, the monthly payment for electricity is irrelevant if the monthly energy consumption is not presented. Figure 3.9 presents the average monthly energy consumption in the last 12 months according to the measurements taken by the energy meter installed in each household. 82,2% of the households consume less than 180kWh/month. And 33,9% of households consume less than 80kWh/month. Just for means of comparison, according to Nagakami (Hidetoshi Nakagami 2006), who performed an energy consumption study in 2006 on several households around the globe, the average energy consumption for a household in the USA is 580kWh/month (excluding heating, cooling and water heating). This energy demand will have to be reviewed at the moment of designing the renewable energy system.

Even with the “Light for All” Program, the electrification of the Amazonia region is a huge challenge for the electric sector. Not only because of the difficulties due to the complexity of the terrain and accessibility, but also due to the energy management structure in charge of the power utility companies (also known as Concessionaries) and the legislation framework that has to adapt to these type of programs. This means that besides the energy, the program has to develop tools for the sustainability of the program itself

The next chart summarizes some interesting figures that have risen until now due to the execution of the program:

21.2%

33.9%

27.5%

5.0% 6.2% 6.2%


26

Figure 3.10: "Light for All" in numbers

Source: (Ministry of Mines and Energy 2010)

The GIZ26 supports the Brazilian Energy Program with technical cooperation in Rural Energy Supply, Renewable Energies, Energy Efficiency and Energy Planning (Cooperação Técnica Brasil-Alemanha 2009). It is an active part of the “Light for All” Program and the whole Brazilian Energy Program. The following difficulties regarding the management and execution of the program have been identified by this organization for rural electrification projects in the Amazonia (GIZ-EPE 2011):

• The concessionaries have little interest in electrifying isolated areas. • The concessionaries have little or no experience with new energy technologies

(solar, wind, biomass, etc.)

26 The German Technical Cooperation - GIZ works in Brazil on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). Through technical exchange and cooperation, GIZ aims to ensure ever-closer coordination with the scientific and technical cooperation, the private sector and research institution.

•  To bring access for inhabitants of rural areas up to 2015. •  Services provided (up to May 2009): 2 million power connections;

assisting 10 million people.

Goal of the Program

•  R$ 20 billion (~€8 billion), once R$ 14 billion (~€5,6 billion) are resources from the Federal Government

Foreseen budget

•  Estimate of 300 thousand new direct and indirect job posts.

Job generation

•  883 thousand km of electric cable, equivalent to 22 laps around the earth.

•  4,6 million poles •  708 thousand power transformers

Materials Used

•  Improved study opportunites to 40,7%, job opportunities to 34.2%, income to 35.6%, and healthcare to 22.1%, of assisted families.

•  1,586,000 families are able to watch TV in their homes and 1,466,000 families purchased a refrigerator.

•  It has encouraged 480,000 people to return to life in rural areas.

Results


27

• The concessionaries have little or no experience with management of grids fed by renewable energy technology.

• Energy planning for isolated areas is more complicated and expensive. • Application of new technologies is expensive. • Client support is more complex and expensive. • Operation and Maintenance costs are higher (longer distances, hard accessibility,

etc.) • The application of new technologies is not sufficiently regulated.

To overcome these administrative and technical challenges in Amazonia, all stakeholders are to have close communication, especially the concessionary Amazonas Energia that is the central player for planning and execution of energy projects in this region.


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4 PV Mini-grids in Amazonia

This chapter firstly presents the reason to implement this type of renewable energy solution, followed by the characteristics the system should have to properly work and be monitored in Amazonia. Also a discussion about different configurations for PV mini-grids is presented.

4.1 Why Photovoltaic Mini-grids in Amazonia

Technology options for electrification with mini-grids depend on a range of factors. Key among them are distance from the electricity grid, plans for extension of the national grid, site-specific renewable resources (e.g., solar, wind, and hydropower), diesel prices (or other fossil fuel), issues of access and logistics, and resources and requirements of funding sources, as well as environmental and social factors that will determine the success and sustainability of the energy system (Alliance for Rural Electrification 2011).

Assessing the least-cost option and the types of PV systems and configurations27to consider can be done fairly quickly with information on facility locations and their energy demands, availability of and potential for grid connection, and diesel-fuel

27 Types of PV systems and configurations would be: mini-grid or individual solar home systems. Mini-grids could be: 100% PV or Hybrid PV-Diesel.

Chapter 4 PV Mini-grids in Amazonia

29

affordability and reliability of supply28. In the Brazilian Amazonia, the friendliest green technology wants to be used, but it has also to be economically sustainable to be considered as a feasible option by the government. The decision tree shown in Figure 4.1 is an example of how the PV mini-grids were selected as the best option for the region. The path is shown with red circles.

Figure 4.1: Decision tree for least-cost technology choice Source: (Africa Renewable Energy Access Program 2010)

The path taken in Figure 4.1, was taken as a result of answering the next questions:

• Is grid within 3km or coming within 3-5 years, and connection possible? No. Unfortunately, rural electrification decisions and timing are typically subject to strong political and other pressures, often making it difficult to foresee when particular communities will be connected. If a rural community is likely to receive a grid connection within five years, its facilities are not likely PV system candidates. For isolated communities in the Amazonas State there are no plans for grid connection. There is a plan though to interconnect Manaus29, the state capital, to the National Grid, but this is no likely to happen in the near future.

28 Reference prices for Diesel were given in Section: 2.2.2 Current Situation of Energy Supply. 29Manaus is the capital of the state of Amazonas. It is situated at the confluence of the Negro and Solimões rivers. It is the most populous city of Amazonas State with more than 2 million inhabitants and the major metropolitan area in northern Brazil.


30

• Electrical load estimate <1,5kWh/day? No. The Daily Energy Demand for a single household is indeed less than 1,5kWh/day, but mini-grid systems as a whole will have at least 10 users. So its consumption would be around 30 to 45 kWh/day. This daily energy value is detailed thoroughly in section 5.3.2. Energy Load Profile.

• Electrical load estimate between 1,5 and 15kWh/day? Yes. As explained in the Answer for Question #2, the average consumption of only one CU is around 1,5kWh/day. A community will have higher consumption but the maximum consumption is still unknown and will be defined later when the characteristics of each community is presented. Anyhow, even if the demand is over 15kWh/day the solution will be a PV system as a Diesel generator or a Hybrid system will not be considered as an option for isolated communities in Amazonas

• Diesel generator on site and operational? No. Most of the communities do have Diesel generators, which they run to supply energy at nighttime, but they will not be considered as operational since the purpose of installing a PV mini-grid is to reduce to the minimum Diesel use in the Amazon. These generators operate usually from 18.00 to 22.00 to supply lighting needs, and they usually are poorly maintained and highly inefficient.

Therefore, as seen in Figure 4.1, if followed the sequence of questions and answers the result is to: Consider stand-alone PV and centralized PV or combination.

Reference costs for renewable technologies in the Amazon region estimated by CELPA30 in 2010 are presented in Table 4.1. Solar Home Systems (SIGFI) are extremely costly in comparison with the other more traditional technologies, this is another reason for considering to diminish costs using mini-grids instead of individual systems. On the other hand, the cost of energy for the diesel solution is according to the prices presented Section 2.2.2 (around 2.6R$/kWh or 1.03€/kWh). It is important to mention that this price does not mention strong subsides that Diesel has for energy generation. PV technologies first competitors are Diesel generators.

Table 4.1: Investment costs for other RE technologies Source: (Pinheiro & CELPA - Centrais Eletricas do Pará 2011)

Technology Power kW Implementation € €/kW SIGFI30 (SHS 30kWh/month.CU) 1 6738 6738 Biomass (Gasification) 50 228512 4570.24 Micro hydro 50 90909 1818.18 Diesel 50 56818 1136.36 Installed power per CU 300W

Grid extension 5km (7900€/km)

30 CELPA – Centrais Eletricas do Pará, is the Energy Utility Company of the State of Pará, which has also installed many renewable energy systems to electrify isolated communities in its Amazonia Region.


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Traditional Micro Hydropower, i.e., with Pelton turbines, cannot be applied since the available water head is very low, usually 5m height for each 1km of the river, so there is no chance of building a penstock at any place. Currently there is research in the area of Hydrocinetic Turbines, which can convert slow water speed (2 to 3m/s) into electric energy. The difficulties for this technology are the varying river height (as much as 12m during the year), the anchorage system and dangerous material like wood and animals that are dragged by the river and could damage the turbine rotor. This technology will still have to run several tests to prove itself for the Amazonia.

Biomass is the most abundant resource in the Amazonia region and agricultural products and wastes can be used for energy production, with gasification or combustion technologies. The difficulties consist on generating enough and a constant supply of Biofuel to have steady energy production. Energy from bio fuels requires a strong business model in which the communities play an important role with private investors and the energy utility company. The raw biomaterial should be produced by the community and sold to a private investor who has the technology to transform raw material into energy. The concessionary would pay the private investor and regulate all the energy production chain. A research project has began at the CDEAM31to study energy generation with ethanol from Mandioca32, which is a widely spread regional crop and one of the basic nutritional sources of isolated communities. The technology exists but the economic sustainability of the project in still unknown due to the lack of a local business model and the interest of the private sector.

So technically and economically, PV mini-grids seem to be the best feasible option. Nevertheless a much more profound study about the feasibility of this alternative should be done, and also considering environmental and social impacts in the region. Unfortunately it is yet too soon to evaluate many success indicators since electrification with PV mini-grids is new in the Amazonia and up to know there is still research going on to determine the optimal technical characteristics and the implementation methodology that a rural energy project of this kind should have.

4.2 Photovoltaic Mini-Grids

Mini-Grid PV systems are autonomous power grids being supplied with energy from a photovoltaic generator. Apart from power consumers such as lamps, radios, TVs, and refrigerators, a stand-alone PV system is made up of four basic components: a power

31 CDEAM – Centro de Desenvolvimento Energético Amazônico (in English, Center for Amazon Energy Development) is an Energy Research Center part of the Federal University of Amazonas. Web site: http://www.cdeam.ufam.edu.br 32Mandioca, (Manihotesculenta), also called yuca or manioc, a woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceae (spurge family) native to South America, is extensively cultivated as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchytuberous root, a major source of carbohydrates.


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generator (e.g., PV generator), a storage battery, a charge controller, and an inverter. These components can be coupled at various system levels – on the DC side, on the AC side, or in hybrid systems. The next subsections will present a more detailed description of these two types of technological configurations. The 12 Mini-grids that have already been installed by Eletrobras in the region will be used as a standard configuration pattern (Eletrobras Amazonas Energia 2011).

4.2.1 DC Coupling In a DC coupled system, all loads and generators are coupled exclusively at the battery voltage level. A DC supply on the basis of a 12-Volt battery is particularly suitable for simple system constellations. Especially when the electricity is to be used primarily for lighting, such as in solar home systems (SHS) in the power range of a few hundred Watt. During daylight hours the battery stores the energy supplied by the PV generator. This energy is then available in the evening to power the lighting system. With the help of an additional small inverter, it is also possible to operate conventional AC power consumers in the DC system (Steca Elektronik GmbH 2011b)

In general, it is advantageous if AC consumers can be utilized with the addition of an inverter. These are available worldwide and can be purchased at low cost. See Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: A DC coupled power system

Source: (Wollny 2005)

4.2.2 AC/DC Systems Hybrid AC-DC systems are especially suitable for connecting mid-range AC power consumers with DC generators. With such systems, the battery on the DC side can be simultaneously charged via a combustion unit (see Figure4.3). The demands on a hybrid system differ from those on a solar home system. Hybrid systems are used to supply


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remote power consumers and are able to handle higher energy requirements. Accordingly, such AC-DC systems are typically used in farmhouses, small businesses, and farmsteads (SMA Solar Technology AG 2010).

Figure 4.3: An AC/DC coupled Hybrid System


4.2.3 AC Coupling The connection of all power consumers and generators are on the AC side (see Fig. 4.4) offers a decisive advantage: it enables systems to be built up or expanded with standardized components on a flexible, modular basis (Cramer 2008).

Renewable and conventional power sources can be combined, depending on the application and the available energy carrier. This is a particular advantage in situations where the grid structure is weak. The connected energy sources charge the batteries and supply energy when it is needed. If inverters and combustion units are intended for that purpose, a connection to the public grid is possible. Adding further generators, thus enabling it to handle a rising energy demand, can easily expand the system. Additionally connected AC sources result in a real increase in capacity on the AC side.

AC coupled systems can be used to supply all power consumers. Hence, they are ideally suited for applications in rural areas of developing and newly industrialized countries. Battery inverters automatically check the availability of the grid and the system components. This simplifies the operation of the system and keeps investment costs down.


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Figure 4.4:An AC coupled hybrid system


Expandability and the type of connection of the individual components play a key role in off-grid power supply systems. The AC coupling enables power generators of all kinds as well as standard power consumers to be connected to the stand-alone power grid. In Figure 4.5, the system is easy to expand both on the consumer and on the supply side in case other power generators beside PV were available.

Figure 4.5: Modular and flexible AC coupled hybrid system

Source: (SMA Solar Technology AG 2010)


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Advantages of AC Coupling

The Advantages of AC Coupling and connecting several PV power generators in Parallel are (Cramer 2008):

• Structure 100 % compatible with the public grid. • Simple installation, since standard household installation components can be

used. • Addition of power of all components feeding into the grid. • Scalable as desired, even for relatively large systems (from 2 kW up to 100kW) • Easily expandable. • Combinable with net-parallel and isolated power generators (diesel units, small

hydroelectric plants, wind turbines, etc.). • Top reliability due to redundant system structure.

AC coupling will be suggested as the best option for the Mini-Grid configuration if the voltage and power are according to it.

4.2.4 System monitoring Since the biggest challenge in the Amazonas is accessibility the systems must count with a long distance monitoring and operating system. The 12 mini-grids that have already been installed have a monitoring system and it will be described now.

A Center for Operation and Surveillance – COS, is located at the concessionary headquarters i.e., Amazonas Energia, in Manaus, from where the operational parameters of the mini-grid and the consumers can be viewed. Measurements are gathered at the Remote Terminal Unit – RTU and sent through a GESAC33 satellite system to the COS from the mini-grid where they are displayed on screens by a special software called SAGE34. Different parameters are measured at several points of the grid i.e. PV modules, battery bang, DC bus, AC bus, inverters, charge controllers and in the transmission lines.

The Data Acquisition System gathers all the values that are sent to the monitoring software. Figure 4.6 shows the diagram for the Data Acquisition System for a single PV generation block with all the parameters that are measured. Other generation blocks that make up the system must follow the same pattern. In this design, parameters such as AC bus current, ambient temperature and irradiance are common for all generation blocks.

33 GESAC is a special telecommunication system for data transfer and long range satellite monitoring. 34 SAGE is a special software developed by CEPEL – Centro de Pesquisas de Energia Eletrica (in English – Center for Electric Energy Research), to monitor thermal power plants. It has been adapted for the 12 PV mini-grids project and can collect historic data about energy generation, demand, radiation, etc that the community has.


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Figure 4.6:Data acquisition system for a PV generation block

Source: (Eletrobras Amazonas Energia 2011)

A screenshot of the monitoring system can be seen in Figure 4.7. The values are displayed together with a layout of the system. The panels, charge controllers and batteries connected to the DC bus and the inverters and synchronization box connected to the AC bus near the bottom right corner of the screen.

Figure 4.7: Monitoring Software Screenshot


The Data Transmission System is represented in Figure 4.8, which also includes the “prepaid” consumer system for each community. The main server at the Concessionary


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Amazonas Energia receives the information from the PV system (RTU) and each prepaid (consumer) terminal through a TCP/IP port. Each terminal sets communication with the server through a fix IP address. For each RTU and prepaid terminal registered in the system, the connection server makes available in its IP a TCP/IP port for the integration with the SAGE software at the COS.

Figure 4.8: Data Transmission System Source: (Guascor Solar do Brasil 2011)

The consumers play an important role in a renewable energy system. Their energy behavior should be monitored for research purposes and also to avoid system overload. Each household has a smart electricity meter that registers energy consumption in kWh and power in kW during the day. It also registers interruption of service and its duration in each home.

Another interesting feature is the possibility to buy “pre-paid” energy. The consumer can buy the amount of energy he wishes to consume each month. This is an excellent model that allows the user to control the consumption and have an energy budget. It also promotes energy efficiency and wise energy use in every household. The beneficiary can really feel the direct impact of energy efficiency measures right away.

4.2.5 Energy distribution Energy supply is generally a low voltage (LV) above ground distribution grid with 1 phase (A) and neutral (N). Nominal voltage of 120V and 60Hz frequency will be


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supplied by the energy system. A basic grid layout for a community with 13 consumer units is shown in Figure 4.9.

To protect the energy system from eventual short circuits or overloads, at the beginning of the grid there is a single-phase circuit breaker. In case that there are 2 AC buses there must be 2 circuit breakers one for each grid.

The grounding system must be done by copper rod buried grid. All metallic parts from the panels, casings, supporting structures must be grounded. Neutral must also be grounded and every end point of the grid as well. Lighting protection is also taken account since the Amazon receives great amount of thunderstorms and lightning.

Figure 4.9: Mini-grid pole layout of a 10CU community


30m

30m

30m

30m

30m

30m

30m

3# 1/0 (1/0)CAA

3# 1/0 (1/0)CAA

USINA FOTOVOLTAICA

Chapter 5 Standardization of PV Mini-grids for Isolated Communities

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5 Standardization of PV Mini-grids for isolated communities

This chapter presents the justification and methodology used to standardize PV mini-grids in Amazonia. The standardization will be done for a sample of 71 communities of 2 Amazonas State municipalities which are to be electrified by PV Mini-grids in late 2012 as part of the “Light for All” electrification program.

5.1 The need for standardization

In early 2011 the first PV mini-grid energy systems were installed in 12 rural isolated communities in the state of Amazonas as part of the “Light for All” Program. The configuration and dimensioning of the energy supply systems that were presented in the Reference Project were done through: the analysis of the social, economic and energy profile of the communities; and yearly operating simulations using estimated loads and adequate renewable energy resources (solar irradiance) as input for a simulation software. As seen in Table 5.1, where the 12 supplied communities are listed, the mini-


40

grids attend communities from 13 up to 23 CU’s or Consumer Units35, which already gives an idea of the average size of communities to be served in Amazonia. These 12 Mini-grids installed in April 2011 are currently fully operational and are a breakthrough as a model for rural electrification in Brazil. An aerial view of community of Sobrado (N°12) is presented in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1 PV mini-grid at Sobrado community in Amazonia 9.6kWp (19 CU)


Table 5.1: First 12 communities with PV mini-grids in the State of Amazonas Source:(Eletrobras Amazonas Energia 2011)

Community Consumer Units

PV Mini-grid Power [kW]

Grid extension

[m]

Distance from Manaus

[km] 1 São Sebastião do Rio Preto 13 10.8 250 106 2 Terra Nova 24 16.2 735 262 3 NossaSenhora do Carmo 13 10.8 267 345 4 Mourão 20 13.5 1.196 1.179 5 Santo Antônio 15 10.8 720 1.168 6 NossaSenhora de Nazaré 15 10.8 631 229 7 Santa Luzia 22 16.2 320 213 8 Santa Maria 23 16.2 272 270 9 São José 17 13.5 380 242

10 Aracari 14 10.8 458 147 11 Bom Jesus do Puduarí 27 18.9 460 62 12 Sobrado 19 13.5 240 135

TOTAL 222 162.0 5.929

35 CU – Consumer Units, is the gathering of several electric appliances which common characteristic is they receive energy from a unique point, with individualized energy metering and corresponding to only one consumer.


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The design process, which determines the size of the system and therefore the installation costs, takes a considerable amount of time and requires of qualified personnel which unfortunately are not yet available at the concessionary. O&M costs are also another figure to be estimated but simpler to determine according to the systems size. The availability of a standardized modular system would reduce the time of this process by saving time with the cost calculations and secondly the possibility to rapidly design, install and later expand the mini-grid (Cramer 2008).

Modular design or "modularity in design" is an approach that subdivides a system into smaller parts (modules) that can be independently created and then used in different systems to drive multiple functionalities (Wikipedia 2011b). A modular system can be characterized by the following:

• Functional partitioning into discrete scalable, reusable modules consisting of isolated, self-contained functional elements

• Rigorous use of well-defined modular interfaces, including object-oriented descriptions of module functionality

• Ease of change to achieve technology transparency and, to the extent possible; make use of industry standards for key interfaces.

Regarding PV mini-grids, besides reduction in cost due to lesser customization (modular design instead of one by one), and flexibility in design, modularity offers other benefits such as augmentation (adding new solution by merely plugging in a new module), and exclusion. PV modular design is an attempt to combine the advantages of standardization (high volume normally equals low manufacturing costs) with those of customization. A downside to modularity (and this depends on the extent of modularity) is that modular systems are not optimized for performance. This is usually due to the costs created of over sizing the systems to fit a majority of users. This performance loss will be analyzed further on to evaluate if it is really effective to create a PV modular unit.

Solar technology manufacturers have standardized PV systems especially what are Solar Home Systems – SHS and most recently on-grid connected PV modules for urban households(Siliken 2012).

In Brazil there has been an extensive use of SHS or SIGFI36 to electrify isolated households as part of the “Light for all Program”. Five types of modular systems have been standardized by the ANEEL according to the energy they can supply per month (kWh/month). The categories were published in Normative Resolution N°83 on September 20, 2004 (ANEEL - Agencia Nacional de Energia Eletrica 2004), see Table 5.2.

36SIGFI - Sistema Individual de Geração de Energia Elétrica com Fonte Intermitente (in English, Individual Electric Energy Generation System from Intermittent Source). The SIGFI is a Solar Home System implemented by the concessionary and consisting of a PV Panel, Battery and Conditioning system Battery charge controller and Inverter


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Table5.2: Standard sizes for Solar Home Systems according to ANEEL. Source: (ANEEL - Agencia Nacional de Energia Eletrica 2004)

Standard Type

Reference Daily consumption (Wh/day)

Autonomy (days)

Minimum Available Power (W)

Monthly Available Energy

SIGFI13 435 2 250 13 SIGFI30 1000 2 500 30 SIGFI45 1500 2 700 45 SIGFI60 2000 2 1000 60 SIGFI80 2650 2 1250 80

In 2006, a total of 27.494 SHS´s by Electroacre37 (13.323 systems) and Amazonas Energia (14.171 systems) were installed in cooperation with Electrobras and GIZ. See Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Household with a SIGFI30 Solar Home System (left)

Figure 5.3: Battery bank and circuit box with charge controller and inverter. (right) Source: (Diretoria de Planejamento e Engenharia Eletrobras 2009)

The total installation costs for the SIGFI30 is R$22.000 (€8730)38 and the O&M cost are around R$175 (€70) per month per household. The system provides 30kWh/month, which is enough for: 1 Radio, 1 TV (+ Satellite Antenna), 3 CFL39 and 1 Refrigerator (that consumes up to 18kWh/month). This is a modular “plug and play” system that has successfully covered energy needs of thousands of households. It is fast to install and serves all users equally (Diretoria de Planejamento e Engenharia Eletrobras 2009).

The drawbacks of the system according to the concessionaries, i.e. Eletroacre and Eletrobras, are with the O&M procedures and costs. Since the whole system is in each household, there have been many cases where users have damaged the components due to simple curiosity or an attempt to repair a failure. Also maintenance is a time and money spending issue since the technician must visit a large number of households and also deal with the users. Equality of energy supply is fair, but it is not efficient. There

37Electroacre – Power Concessionary of the State of Acre in northern Brazil. 38The Real is present-day currency of Brazil. Its sign is R$ and its ISO code is BRL. The exchange rate to October 2011 is 1.00 EUR to 2.52 BRL 39CFL – Compact Fluorescent Lamps.


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are users that use a maximum of 9kWh/month and others who are reaching the 30kWh/month limit and since there is a fixed tariff of 2,76R$/month (€1.10/month), there cannot be any income increase due to the energy surplus from low to high consumers (Eletroacre 2011).

These drawbacks are reasons to have mini-grids, where energy generation first of all is centralized so maintenance is much more simple, cheap and fast. Fewer failures are also expected to appear since users intromission is reduced to the minimum, they will only have the energy plugs like a regular urban household. Also variable tariffs can be charged according to consumption and the system can be designed for optimum and economic performance.

5.2 Methodology for Standardization

More than one standardized modular system will be designed to cover the energy demand of the communities but the number will try to be kept to the minimum (around 3 to 4 standards). The standardization will be done only for the generation system and not for the distribution system since the design of the grid presents no difficulty and there is already enough experience for installation and costs per meter of electric grid. Besides, the design of the distribution grid is specific for each site.

Figure 5.4: PV mini-grid standardization methodology

The methodology will be handled similar to the process of designing a single-user PV system (see Figure 5.4) but with some variations that are mentioned in the next sequence:

1. Community Energy Analysis.

The first step will be the characterization of the user and the evaluation of available energy resources (in this case solar irradiance). A typical power and energy consumption pattern (load curve) must be found, so it is necessary to first identify groups of communities that have similar energy consumption behavior. Not all of them will have the same consumption, so a “community binning” with statistics will be done to identify the number and range of sizes that the modular systems should have.

2. System Simulation

Once the demand for power (kW) and energy (kWh/day) have been determined according to the number of consumer units in the community, simulations will

Community Energy

Analysis Simulation Technical

Design Evaluation Cost structure

PV mini-grid Standards


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be performed to size the systems for each energy consumption range. The simulation consists in determining the number of PV panels, inverters, charge controllers and batteries and also the technical behavior of the system in time. The result of the simulation will be the selection of the number of standardized modules needed. The software HOMER40 will be used for this stage of analysis.

3. System design

When the standard systems are known and the quantities of components for the generation systems are determined, it is time for specific technical design. This is basically having the connection diagrams for the components and how they will be arranged to fulfill the modular concept. Solar panels, batteries, inverters and charge controllers, will be sized and clearly specified according to the availability in the market.

4. Results and Validation

As mentioned before, the downside of standardization is over or under sizing the system. In the first case the system will have excessive surplus energy and will be over priced. In the second case, energy shortage will be inevitable. An evaluation will be performed to quantify these deviations and if it is acceptable for the concessionary’s need.

5. Cost structure

The costs of each configuration will be determined; as well as the O&M costs to maintain the system operational and other economic indicators like the LCOE. The reference project requires this information to decide the feasibility. This analysis will be done with nationalized prices for the Brazilian market in 2012. Evaluation

This methodology will be developed in the following Sections 5.3 to 5.8.

5.3 Community Energy Analysis

The challenge that Amazonas Energia has for 2012 is to electrify 71 isolated communities from 2 different municipalities: Carauari41 and Barcelos42. Figure 5.5 and

40The HOMER energy modeling software is a powerful tool for designing and analyzing hybrid power systems, which contain a mix of conventional generators, cogeneration, wind turbines, solar photovoltaic, hydropower, batteries, fuel cells, hydropower, biomass and other inputs. It allows to model different energy systems, comparing the results and getting a realistic projection of their capital and operating expenses. Visit http://homerenergy.com/software.html 41Carauari is a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Amazonas. Its population was 25,918 (2005) and its area is 25,767 km². (Latitude: 00'58'11", Longitude: 62'56'00''). Wikipedia


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5.6 show the position of these municipalities within Amazonas State in north Brazil. The complete list of communities with information like: Name, Number of households, Distance from Manaus, etc., can be found in Appendix A in Table A.1 and Table A.2.

Only communities with more than 10 Consumer Units will qualify to have a mini-grid. Individual Solar Home Systems (SIGFI30) will electrify the ones with fewer amounts. Notice that, buildings such as churches, schools and community centers count each also as a consumer unit and not only households. So a community with 7 homes, 1 church, 1 school and 1 community center would be a community with 10 consumer units. This information can also be found in Appendix A in Table A.1. and A.2.

Figure 5.5: Municipality of Carauari Figure 5.6: Municipality of Barcelos

*Manaus the state capital is the red dot. Source: (Wikipedia 2011a)

5.3.1 Solar Resource Amazonia has typically clear sky with high direct radiation conditions (~1000 W/m2) in the summer season (May to October) and the winter season characterized by heavy rains presents cloudy skies but still with good values of disperse radiation that allow PV generation.

Solar resource for both municipalities is fairly the same and Figure5.7 shows values measured by the CRESESB43. Ambient temperature is presented in Figure 5.8, which directly affects on PV panels and Battery efficiency.

42Barcelos is a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Amazonas. Its population was 32,169 (2005) and its area is 122.476 km². (Latitude: 04'52'38'', Longitude:66'53'47''' ) Wikipedia 43CRESESB – Centro de Referência para Energia Solar e Eólica (in English, Reference Center for Solar and Wind Energy). This institute provides radiation and wind speed measurements for all Brazilian territory according to latitude and longitude values. Visit: http://www.cresesb.cepel.br/principal.php


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Figure 5.7: Solar Irradiance

Source: (CRESESB 2012)

Figure 5.8: Ambient Temperature

Source: (NASA 2012)

5.3.2 Energy Load Profile The community energy load profile will be the sum of the load curves of each consumer type: household, church, school, health point, etc. The information for consumer behavior (hours of use of appliances) has been obtained from a study performed by the CDEAM44 and Amazonas Energia as part of the 12 mini-grid project. Special attention will be given to the households since the sum of them represent the largest load and will determine the base pattern of the load curve.

44CDEAM – Centro de Desenvolvimento Energético Amazônico (in English, Center for Amazon Energy Development) is an Energy Research Center as part of the Federal University of Amazonas. Web site: http://www.cdeam.ufam.edu.br

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean Dev

Barcelos 4.61 4.64 4.67 4.42 4.31 4.36 4.81 5.42 5.08 5.17 5.19 4.78 4.79 1.11 Carauari 4.19 4.14 4.06 4.03 3.86 3.89 4.5 4.78 4.44 4.61 4.5 4.14 4.26 0.92

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Dai

ly S

olar

Irra

dian

ce [k

Wh/

m2/

day]

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean Dev

Barcelos 26.1 26.4 26.4 26.1 25.9 25.7 25.8 27.0 28.5 29.0 27.6 26.4 26.8 1.1 Carauari 26.0 26.2 26.3 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.8 28.9 30.2 30.4 28.6 27.0 27.4 1.7

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Am

bien

t tem

pera

ture

[°C

]


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Table 5.3 presents the main appliances of a household and their values of power, hours of use and energy.

Table 5.3: Household appliances Source:(Guascor Solar do Brasil 2011)

Appliance Specification Place Qty. Power [W]

Use [h/Day]

Energy Wh/day

Recommended Time of use

CFL 9W/115V Room 1 9 4 36 19:00 – 22:00 CFL 9W/115V Kitchen 1 9 4 36 19:00 – 22:00 CFL 9W/115V Living room 1 9 12 108 19:00 – 06:00* Refrigerator Class A. Max. Capacity: 200 l. Power 64W. Max. Consumption 24kwh/month

Kitchen 1 64 7 448 -

Communication kit: TV (21”max) +DVD+Antena+Radio

Living room 1 90 6 540 Varies

TOTAL 181 1168 *At least one light stays on all night long

Notice that that the refrigerator and communication kit are the largest consumers by far, so efficiency measures should focus in reducing consumption of these appliances. The load curve for a Class A45 refrigerator is shown in Figure 5.9, where it is clear that the refrigerator has a step function type curve. There is no possibility to work at partial power load. The energy consumption will depend on the time the compressor remains on and is in direct relation to the opening frequency of the refrigerator door (10 to 15 times per day). For practical purposes the refrigerator energy curve will be distributed along the day according to the average daily energy consumption.

Besides households, there are other consumer types, such as a church or school. Common equipment like pump does not count as a CU but must be considered for the energy load. See Table 5.4 for a list of consumer’s typical consumer. Figure 5.10 presents this comparatively.

45 Class A is one of the 6 divisions that the Brazilian Energy Program has for energy efficiency for household appliances.


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Figure 5.9: General pattern of a power demand curve of a refrigerator

Source: (Stamminger 2008)

Daily energy demand was calculated using Eq. 5.1 by means of the installed power of the building and the operating hours per day.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 [𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦] = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 [𝑘𝑊]×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 [ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠/𝑑𝑎𝑦] Eq. 5.1

The individual energy load curves for the different buildings are shown in Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.10: Comparative Power and Energy for different consumer types

*Common equipment that does not have individual metering


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Table 5.4: Energy and Power characteristics of community buildings Source: (Eletrobras Amazonas Energia 2011)

Consumer Description Installed Peak Power

Wp

Daily Energy

Demand kWh/day

Household Is where each family with a variable group of members resides. Typically: Father, mother and three or more children. Illumination (3 lamps), communication and refrigeration. See Table 5.3.

117 1.17

School Usually each community has one only for elementary teaching. May have one or two computers plus lighting.

500 2.00

Teacher house* Where the schoolteacher resides. Consumption similar to household.

117 1.17

Community center One of the most vital buildings in the community where organizational meetings and recreation are held. Have lighting and most probably a strong sound system.

300 3.45

Community house* Like the community center but much smaller and consumption similar to a household.

117 1.17

Church Up to two in each community: catholic and evangelical. Has lighting and strong sound system. Mostly functional at weekend nights.

150 0.45

Health post Rarely present in the communities. Lighting plus refrigeration for medicine.

200 2.56

Radio post Present in some communities, and constantly replaced by a computer with an internet link that is operated by the schoolteacher.

100 0.45

Monitoring system Belongs to the mini-grid and sends measurements through satellite to the concessionary.

100 2.40

Community pump Dry land communities have been built apart from the river to avoid flooding. Usually 10 to 15m head.

90 0.54

The daily energy load curve for a community will be the sum of all the households plus all the extra buildings and common equipment. The following drawbacks are present when using this methodology:

• Equal consumption patterns: we are considering that the appliances present in the households have the same exact working hours, and therefore they turn on at exactly the same time. This is does not happen in reality, where each household will have a unique consumption pattern even though it might have the same daily energy consumption.

• Inexistent power peaks: When considering for example, that all the refrigerators of a community turn on at the same time, there will be false power peaks in the load curve. The truth is that refrigerators will start at different hours, having


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distributed energy consumption throughout the day, creating a base consumption pattern for the community.

• One-hour time step: The minimum time consumption unit is one hour. So if a consumer uses energy only for a fraction of time, i.e., the compressor of the refrigerator works only 15min, the church sound system only works for 30 minutes at the beginning and end of the service, this cannot be registered to have the exact amount of energy needed. The final consequence of assuming 1-hour time steps will be the slight over dimensioning of the energy system. Anyway, a smaller time step is unpractical and would make the design process longer.

As seen in Figure 5.11 the community center is the largest consumer, followed by the school and health post. Nevertheless it is to mention that the community center is not a permanent consumer since it is used mainly on weekends, holidays or special occasions. Even though individually, these users overpass one household, the gathering of households will be the ones to set the pattern of the energy load profile and also the base load (the load never reaches zero at the community even at nighttime). There are two clearly identified power peak: the first one is at midday from 11:00 to 14:00 and the second one is from 18:00 to 21:00 due to family gathering after the workday.

The load curves for communities with 10 to 50 households are presented in Figure 5.12, considering that they have one of each service buildings, i.e. church, school, community center and health post, and all the common equipment, i.e. pump, radio post and monitoring system. This will be used further as an input for the energy simulation software.


51

Figure 5.11: Energy Load Profiles for different buildings in rural Amazonia

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52

Figure 5.12: Energy Load Profile for different size isolated communities

The 12 mini-grids that already have been installed by Eletrobras (Table 5.1) have been monitored and the load profiles obtained from the monitoring software can be seen in Figure 5.13 and Figure 5.14. These are “real life” profiles that represent current energy consumption for the Amazonian community of Sobrado (19 Consumer Units – 9.6kWp). Their pattern should concur with the theoretic load curves presented in Figure 5.12.

The next remarks are mentioned about the real life load profiles:

• Load profile shown in Figure 5.13 presents low consumption during the day since during the week most people are out of their homes working. The power peak during the week begins at 18:00 and ends around 22:00.

• Load profile shown in Figure 5.14 has higher consumption during the day, assuming people stay at home on the weekend.

• The peaks of Figure 5.14 correspondent to the theoretical load profiles from Figure 5.13, that is around 18:00 to 21:00.

• People are leaving lights on during the night and turning them off at dawn. • Both load profiles have a strong constant base load that is almost around one

half on the power peak. The load never reaches low values close to zero, and even at night there is a significant consumption. This demonstrates that the distribution of refrigeration load along the day is a valid approach.

• For two consecutive days (November 26 and 27, seen in Figure 5.13), there is a strong variance during nighttime. Night consumption should be similar since most of the community is sleeping and usually the same appliances are left on. But a difference of about 100W is seen for these consecutive days. This induces

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 10 CU´s 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.4 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.6 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.1 1.5 0.9 0.5 0.6

20 CU´s 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.0 1.7 1.7 3.5 3.6 3.0 1.5 1.0 1.0

30 CU´s 1.5 1.2 1.5 1.2 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.6 1.3 2.5 2.5 5.0 5.1 4.5 2.0 1.4 1.4

40 CU´s 1.9 1.7 1.9 1.7 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.8 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.4 1.6 3.3 3.3 6.5 6.6 6.0 2.6 1.8 1.8

50 CU´s 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 1.9 4.0 4.0 8.0 8.1 7.5 3.2 2.2 2.2

0

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3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Inst

alle

d po

wer

[kW

]

Communities with a Monthly Energy Demand per Consumer Unit of 50 -60 kWh/month


53

the idea that there might be an error with the measurement devices and that the reliability of the monitoring system should be checked.

The real life curves and the theoretic curves are at least similar “pattern-wise” with matching peaks and a significant base load distributed along the day. It must be mentioned that it is very difficult to find a standard load pattern for all communities. Energy consumption does not only depend on the appliances in the buildings, but on other socio economic and geographic indicators such as: cultural habits, monthly income, family members and type, distance from the city, and such. So it is very difficult to establish one single energy load curve pattern for all communities. The best approach therefore is to create ranges of energy consumption per month and per Consumer Unit as done by the ANEEL for Individual Solar Home Systems (see Table 5.2).

5.3.3 Energy Binning Standardization requires identifying batches (bins) of users that have similar characteristics (consumer units, energy and power demand) and can be placed under one modular system. Energy binning is a statistical method that will be used to see primarily if a relation exists between energy or power and number consumer units; and secondly how many modular systems are needed to cover the entire universe of users.

The next energy indicators will be defined before:

• Daily Energy Demand [kWh/day]: is the community daily energy demand obtained from the load curve analysis and the number and type of consumer units. It represents the total minimum amount of energy that should be supplied to the community to operate correctly during the day.

• Monthly Energy Demand per Consumer Unit [kWh/month/CU]: is the Monthly Energy Demand divided by the number of consumer units. The auction to contract a private company to provide an energy service is elaborated on a basis of the monthly energy that has to be supplied to a consumer of a community (see Table 5.2). This value is an average value of consumption per consumer unit. Not all of them consume the same amount of energy.

• Installed Power [kW]: is the sum of the installed power of all consumers in the community. It gives an idea of the energy peak that could be reached in case all the consumers (and appliances) would be turned on at the same time.

• Maximum Power Demand [kW]: is the real maximum power reached by the community considering that all the consumers will not be at full power at the same time. It will be defined as 80% of the Installed Power.


54

Figure 5.13: Weekday real life load profile for isolated community (19 CU)

Figure 5.14: Weekend real life load profile for isolated community (19 CU)


55

The list of the 71 communities that represent the universe, along with these energy indicators can be seen in Appendix B in Table B.1 and B.2.

Daily Energy Demand, Monthly Energy Demand per Consumer Unit and Installed Power have been plotted for the communities of each municipality. These plots can be seen from Figure 5.15 to 5.20. Some “bins” of energy consumers can already be identified.

When plotting a dispersion graph of Energy Demand and Power as function of the Number of Consumers it is clear that Energy and Power Demand have a linear behavior respect to Number of Consumer Units, this can be seen in Figure 4.23 and Figure 4.24.The average Monthly Energy Demand can be clearly seen in Figure 4.25 in a range between 40 and 60 kWh/month per Consumer Unit.


56

Figure 5.15 - Daily energy demand - Carauari

Figure 5.16: Daily energy demand – Barcelos

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*Community name - Number of Consumer Units


57

Figure 5.17: Monthly energy demand per CU – Carauari

Figure 5.18: Monthly energy demand per CU – Barcelos

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Figure 5.19: Power demand – Carauari

Figure 5.20: Power demand - Barcelos

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59

Figure 5.21: daily energy demand dispersion

Figure 5.22: Monthly energy demand per CU dispersion

Figure 5.23: Power demand dispersion

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Carauari Barcelos

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60

To determine the number of standard modules a frequency analysis will be done to find out which energy and power values are more predominant in these communities.

First a frequency diagram of the number of consumers per community will be plotted. This is to see what sizes of communities are more common. Figure 5.24 shows that 61.8% of the communities have between 10 to 15 CU´s. The next group with 17.6%, are communities ranging from 15 to 20 CU´s. This means that almost 80% of the communities have only up to 20 CU´s and 96% of them have up to 30 CU. This is important to know since a vast amount of communities could probable covered by two or three standardized systems and the rest by a combination of these.

Figure 5.24: Community size frequency

Table 5.5 presents the “bins” of consumer units of Figure 4.24 along with the mean energy consumption and mean power of each bin of consumers. Nominal modular system values could be similar to the means of energy and power of these groups. The standard deviation is also presented to have an idea of the range of energy and power that a group should cover. The average deviation is around 10%, which turns out to be an acceptable range factor for modularity. This standard deviation will be considered when establishing the coverage that a standardized module will have.

Table 5.5: Consumer Units Bins according to Energy and Power Group No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Consumer Unit Bins 10-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50

Probability frequency 63.4% 16.9% 9.9% 5.6% - 1.4% 2.8% -

Avg. Daily energy demand kWh/day 22.7 18.9 10.6 15.7 - 4.0 4.0 - Std. Dev.kWh/day 9.4 7.6 6.5 6.5 - 0 0 -

Avg. Monthly demand per CU kWh/month/CU 57.7 60.5 75.2 69.4 - 4.0 120.0 - Std. Deviation kWh/month/CU 6.8 8.4 10.6 12.9 - 0 0 -

Avg. Power kW 2.4 2.0 1.0 1.7 - 0.3 0.3 - Std. Deviation Power kW 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.8 - 0 0 -

63.4%

16.9% 9.9%

5.6% 0.0% 1.4% 2.8% 0.0%

10-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50

Freq

uenc

y [%

]

Consumer Units per Community


61

A look at Table 5.5 gives the first clue about the standard sizes to choose. The probability of big communities is very low, so the modular sizes to consider as a priority will be for the first 3 groups of bins (up to 25 consumer units). Larger communities will simply have a combination of two or more modular sizes.

It is interesting to analyze some other frequencies from the 71-community universe. As seen in Figure 5.25, almost 50% of the communities have energy consumption between 20 and 25 kWh/day. Figure 5.27 shows again that almost 80% of the communities have up to 3kW of installed power. This means that special attention must be given to small communities since they are more likely to happen than larger ones. Figure 5.26 shows that the majority of Consumer Units are in consumption range between 45 and 60 kWh per month, according to the standards presented by the ANNEL (see Table 5.2).

These statistical findings will be used as reference when deciding on which standardized sizes of mini-grid to choose.

Figure 5.25: Daily energy consumption frequency

Figure 5.26: Monthly energy demand frequency

0%

15%

49%

13% 9% 7% 6%

0% 1%

10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55

Freq

uenc

y [%

]

Daily Energy Consumption [kWh/day]

0%

24%

38%

30%

7%

1%

40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70

Freq

uenc

y [%

]

Monthly Energy Demand [kWh/month/CU]


62

Figure 5.27: Power frequency

5.4 Simulation

A professional system design, including dimensioning of PV generator and battery, is of prime importance for the efficiency and operational reliability of stand-alone power systems. It must take into account not only the energy consumption profile, but in particular the fluctuations in availability when using renewable power sources.

The design basically involves adapting a system to specific energetic and geographical conditions, as well as to the energy behavior of the system user. These conditions are influenced by:

• Solar fraction • Autonomy time • Energetic behavior • Component manufacturer • Geographical location

For an initial estimate of system size, necessary components and costs, a rough design can be accomplished with a simulation in HOMER v3.646 that will focus on estimating the sizes of the 4 basic components of the Generation System (PV, Charge Controller, Inverter and Batteries). The energy and power characteristics of the 8 community ranges shown in Table 5.5 will be introduced in HOMER to have as results 8 system configurations and their performance indicators.

46The HOMER energy modeling software is a powerful tool for designing and analyzing hybrid power systems, which contain a mix of conventional generators, cogeneration, wind turbines, solar photovoltaic, hydropower, batteries, fuel cells, hydropower, biomass and other inputs. It allows to model different energy systems, comparing the results and getting a realistic projection of their capital and operating expenses. Visit http://homerenergy.com/software.html

0%

45%

37%

13%

1% 4%

1 kW 2 kW 3 kW 4 kW 5 kW 6 kW

Freq

uenc

y [%

]

Inverter Power [kW]


63

5.4.1 Simulations Input • Primary Load Inputs: HOMER requires the hour-to-hour power demand. In

Section 5.3.2 Energy Load Profile the typical load curve was determined. Figure 5.12 presents the hour-to-hour load profile that has to be introduced in HOMER. Table 5.6 presents once more a summary of consumption and peak power for the 8 community ranges that were chosen. The load curve is considered constant for the whole year, no difference from month to month, or weekday to weekend. As seen in Table 5.6, the simulation will be done for 8 groups, starting in communities with 10 CU up to 50 CU in steps of five.

Table 5.6: Energy Demand Summary

Group No. Number of CU Daily Energy Consumption

kWh/day

Power peak kW

1 10-15 30 2.9 2 16-20 37 3.6 3 21-25 45 4.4 4 26-30 52 5.1 5 31-35 59 5.9 6 36-40 67 6.6 7 41-45 74 7.4 8 46-50 82 8.1

• Solar Resource and Ambient Temperature: The solar irradiance of Carauari will be considered for both municipalities (Barcelos and Carauari), since it is the lowest of the two with a scaled annual average of 4.63 kWh/m2/day47. The ambient temperature from Barcelos will be considered since it is the highest with 27.4ºC. HOMER requires the month-to-month solar irradiance and ambient temperature which can be found in Section 5.3.1 in Figure 5.7 and Figure 5.8 respectively.

• Technical Parameters: the parameters summarized in Table 5.7 are the same for all simulations. Other parameters in the software that are not listed in the next table were left with default settings. Battery type and DOD was selected according to a 7-year operating lifetime. Efficiencies for PV panels and controllers where considered from standard values existing in the market. Notice that no economic prices or parameters will be considered since HOMER will only be used to design the components. The cost analysis will be done separately.

47 CRESESB online database visit: http://www.cresesb.cepel.br/principal.php


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Table 5.7: Simulation Parameters for HOMER Parameter Value / Characteristic

Batteries

Battery Type: Vented lead-acid, tubular-plate, and deep-cycle battery. OPzS

Nominal capacity 600 Ah (1.2kWh)48

Nominal voltage 2V

Minimum state of charge49 60%

Batteries per string 24 (48V Bus)

Minimum battery life 7 years

Autonomy days 2 days

PV modules

Solar panel Steps of 1000W

Lifetime: 20 years

Derating factor50 80%

Slope: 4.8º

Azimuth (W of S) 180º

Ground reflectance 20%

Temperature coef. of power -0.4%/C

NOCT 47ºC

Efficiency at STC 13%

Inverters and Charge Controllers

Controller/Inverter type Steps of 1kW

Lifetime 10 years

Efficiency 95%

Controller capacity relative to inverter 100%

Controller efficiency 85%

Maximum Annual Capacity Shortage51

15%

48 This small battery size was considered to have small steps during the simulation. Later on this can be altered to run a simulation with the definitive battery model and type. 49 A low DOD (depth of discharge) is required to extend battery life to the maximum. Hoppecke offers a 1500 cycle battery life at 80% DOD. Considering only one cycle per day this would be approx. 4 years. 50A factor that accounts for losses due to temperature effects, dirt, etc. 51The maximum allowable value of the annual capacity shortage, as a percent of total annual load.


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HOMER allows the creation of a small grid diagram to represent the basic interconnection of the equipment that is subject of analysis. Figure 5.28 shows the diagram for a 15-consumer unit community with a 30kWh/day energy demand and a 2.9kW power peak.

Figure 5.28: HOMER energy grid components interconnection

5.4.2 Simulation Output and Selection of Modular Systems Simulations are performed for the 8 community bins and the results of interest (installed power, battery bank capacity and inverter) are summarized in Table 5.8.

Table 5.8: Simulation Results from HOMER Community Info Main Simulation Results

Range Energy Demand Power PV Power Battery Capacity Inverter Power #UC kWh/day kWh/month.CU kWp kW kWh kW 10-15 30 59 2.9 9.7 144 3 16-20 37 56 3.6 12.1 192 4 21-25 45 54 4.4 14.4 240 5 26-30 52 52 5.1 17.2 288 6 31-35 59 51 5.9 20 336 7 36-40 67 50 6.6 22 384 8 41-45 74 50 7.4 24.3 432 9 46-50 82 49 8.1 27.4 480 10

As expected, the size of the system increases according to the size of the community. What will be standardized are: the Generation Block, Inverter Block and Storage Block. The Generation Block can be seen as PV modules that can be simply connected in parallel to the AC bus via a Grid Inverter, as well as the Energy Storage via a Battery Inverter, which comes with an integrated battery charger to control de charging process of batteries. These three blocks can be seen in Figure 5.29.


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Figure 5.29: Blocks to be standardized for Mini-Grid formation

To find the factor of increase from one system to another, the average difference between batches is calculated. The results are two basic modular units (standards) according to the number of consumer units:

Table 5.9: Basic Modular Unit Blocks

Generation Block

(PV modules+Grid Inverter)

Battery Block (Battery Bank)

Inversion Block (Grid manager)

Standard Basic Modular

Unit

Type I 10 to 30 Consumer Units 3kW 48kWh 2kW

Type II 31 to 50 Consumer Units 5kW 96kWh 4kW

The configuration of the mini-grid will be AC Coupling (see Section 4.2.3). With this in mind, the Generation Block needs to be determined, that is, finding the amount of panels it is made of and the inverter size needed to feed the AC grid to charge batteries or feed the load. Each Battery Block is also connected to the AC bus through an inverter and is made of twenty-four 2V batteries in series, this because a 48V DC bus is required.

Each community system should be a combination of one or more of this basic system sizes. For example, in the 21-25 Community Range the required PV Capacity is 14.4kW, so if each Generation Block has a size of 5kW then 3 of them would be needed to cover the demand52.

One of the downsides of standardizing is sub or over dimensioning. When deciding on a modular system, a community whose number of CUs is at the lower boundary of a range can have an oversized system, e.g., a community with 10 CUs with a system that could supply up to 15 CUs. An analysis of this will be done in Section 5.6 Results and Validation.

52 PV Capacity14.4kW÷ PV block capacity 5kW=2.8 blocks, but since the block number must be a whole number, we consider 3 as the rounded up answer.


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The next section will give a further description on the configuration of the Mini-Grid, the number of standards and the components of these three selected standards according to the availability in the market.

5.5 Technical design

5.5.1 Functionality The Battery Inverters are connected to a battery bank and form the AC grid of the stand-alone power system. At the same time, they control the voltage and frequency on the AC side (110V 60Hz single phase). Generators as well as power consumers are connected directly to the AC grid. Whenever there is a surplus of energy (e.g., when solar irradiation is high and consumption low), the stand-alone power inverter draws energy from the AC grid and uses it to charge the batteries. When there is an energy shortage (little or no solar irradiation and high consumption), the battery inverter uses the batteries to supply the grid (see Fig. 5.30).

Various power generators can be connected to the stand-alone power grid: PV modules with inverters and diesel generators. The latter can step in when the battery charge is low and there is not enough solar irradiation available for recharging.

Figure 5.30: PV Energy yield and Demand Source: (SMA Solar Technology AG 2010)


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The technical design will consist of the configuration and technical specifications of the blocks that form the Basic Modular Unit (see Table 5.9) based of the market availability of the components. International standards for each component already exist and are defined in the International Standards for Off-Grid PV System Components these should be taken in consideration when selecting each component (Africa Renewable Energy Access Program 2010). See Appendix C, Table C.1.

5.5.2 Generation Block Each Generation Block is formed by a layout of PV Modules and one Grid Inverter that will be connected in parallel with other blocks to feed the AC bus. First, the PV array configuration will be designed and later the Grid Inverter will be selected. Also the basic technical specifications that these components should have are presented.

PV Modules Technical Specifications

• Mono crystalline silicon, with at least 13% efficiency • Minimum nominal power of each solar module: 120Wp at STC53. • All modules of the array must be from the same manufacturer. • The PV modules must be certified according to the Standard IEC54

61215 - Crystalline Silicon Terrestrial Photovoltaic Modules: Design Qualification and Type Approval (IEC - International Electro technical Commission 2005).

• Protection Class II according to the Standard IEC 61215. • Each module must have an IP 6555 junction box mounted on the backside

of the panel. • The modules must have an aluminum frame with proper rack fixing

system. • Minimum 10-year guarantee for modules, which present failures

according to the Standard IEC 61215. • Minimum 20 year guarantee for panels that present a power decrease

over: • 10% of Nominal power after the first 10 years • 20% of the Nominal power after 20 years. • Nominal voltage of the PV arrangement is 48V.

Grid Inverter Technical Specifications

• Single phase, 60Hz and 120V output voltage. • Adjustable set points. • System failure alarm.

53STC – Standard Test Conditions (1.000 W/m2, 25ºC, according to the Standard IEC 61215 and IEC 60904-3) 54 IEC – Internationl Electrotechnical Commission 55 IP Code – Ingress Protection Rating, IP65 is a dust and water tight mechanical casing.


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• MPPT – Maximum Power Point Tracking. • Low self-consumption. • Parallel operation with other Grid Inverters. • Operation consumption lower than 0,5% of the nominal power. • Minimum efficiency 95%. • Protection against: overload, overvoltage, under voltage, over

temperature, reverse polarity and countercurrent. • Resistant to 100% relative humidity and temperature between 25 and

50ºC.

Several configurations can be designed with different types and models of PV Modules while maintaining only one Grid Inverter per block. The grid inverter must be suitable for the maximum short circuit current56 and open circuit voltage57 (under STC58) of the PV array, and the maximum power of the array. Two standards arrays where selected according to the increase of PV power and are presented in Table 5.10. Two different module types are used and the complete data sheets for these modules can be found in Appendix C, Figure C.1 and C.2.

Table 5.10: PV modules available in the market and Array Configurations Source:(Kyocera Solar Inc. 2011), (Bosch Solar Energy AG 2011)

PV modules* Manufacturer Kyocera Bosch Module model: KD135 M245 3BB Module Power Wp 135 245 Voc V 22.1 37.7

Isc A 8.37 8.70

Array Configuration TYPE I -3kW TYPE II -5kW Modules in Series 23 11 Modules in Parallel (Strings) 1 2 Array voltage V 508.3 414.7 Array Current A 8.37 17.4 Total number of panels 23 22 Array power W 3105 5390 Nominal Array Power W 3000 5000 *Technical data at STC at 1000W/m2, 25ºC and 1.5AM

The rated current of the grid inverter should be approximately 20% higher than the total short-circuit current on all connected solar modules (~10A) (Steca Elektronik GmbH 2011b). See Table 5.11 for grid inverters that have the necessary requirements to

56 PV Block current: Module Isc × number of modules in parallel 57 PV Block voltage: Module Voc × number of modules in series. 58 Standard Test Conditions: 1000W/m2, 25ºC and 1.5AM


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manage a 3kW,5 kW and 10kW PV array. The complete datasheets of these grid inverters can be found in Appendix C, Figure C.3, C.4 and C5.

Table 5.11: Grid Inverters available in the market

Source: (Steca Elektronik GmbH 2011a; SMA Solar Technology AG 2011)

TYPE I – 3kW TYPE II – 5kW TYPE III – 10kW

Manufacturer STECA SMA SMA

Model Steca Grid 3000 Sunny Boy - SB5000TL Sunny Mini Central

10000TL Max DC Power –Wp* 3800 5300 10350 Max DC Voltage – V 800 550 700 Max Input Current – A 10 2 x 14 31 Nominal AC Output – W 3000 5000 10000 Max Output Current – A 16 22 44 Nominal AC Voltage – V 230 220 - 240 220 - 240 AC - Grid Frequency – Hz 50/60 50/60 50/60 Max. Effiency 98% 96.5% 97% *Technical data at 25 °C / 77 °F

The combination of these three types of configurations, allows covering the whole energy demand range of the communities, see Table 5.12. The required PV power of the communities was presented on Table 5.5 in Section 5.3.3.

Table 5.12: Generation Block Modular Standards RANGE 3kW PV Block 5kW PV Block Grid Inverters Max. PV Power

Consumer Units Qty. Qty. Qty. kWp 10-15 3 3 x 3000W 9 16-20 4 4 x 3000W 12 21-25

3 3 x 5000W 15

26-30 1 3 3 x 5000W + 1 x 3000W 18 31-35

4 4 x 5000W 20

36-40 1 4 4x5000W + 1x3000W 23 41-45

5 2 x 10000W + 1x5000 25

46-50

6 3 x 10000W 30

5.5.3 Inversion Block (Grid Manager) The Inversion Block also known as Grid Manager is the heart of isolated systems. It is equipped with various management circuits, which guarantee the stable operation of the power supply.

The Grid Manager is a battery inverter and is responsible for setting up a stable isolated grid. In doing this, it holds the voltage and frequency of the AC grid constant within specified limits (110V 60Hz 1P). Both users and generators are connected directly to this grid. If there is an energy surplus, the inverter charges the batteries. If there is a shortage, it supplies the grid with energy from the batteries(Wollny 2005).


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Since AC coupling with these types of components is the state of the art technology regarding hybrid systems, the market is much more reduced than for batteries, grid inverters and PV modules. The German manufacturers SMA (with the Sunny Island technology) and STECA (with the Xtender technology) are current leaders of the market and will be the reference for these components.

Technical Specifications of the Grid Manager (Battery Inverter)

• The inverter must dissipate the least Power, reducing losses and produce the least harmonics.

• Input voltage 48V and must be converted to 110VAC 1P (phase/neutral) with 60Hz frequency. It will serve standard television sets, refrigerators and other basic equipment.

• The inverter must have a minimum power of 1000W, short circuit protections, with a minimum efficiency of 90%

• Each inverter must operate in parallel with other inverters in the same AC power bus, so a master inverter will be defined and the other will be a slave to it. The master inverter will synchronize the AC power production of the other ones. In case that the master inverter fails, one of the slaves should be capable of taking its place.

• The inverters will be in charge of creating an electric AC grid and controlling its parameters.

• Connecting more inverters in parallel to the AC bus can do expansion of the system.

• The inverters will have a smart algorithm for charge/discharge of the battery. • Short circuit, overload and over temperature protections. • Support a 150% power overload up to 1 minute.

The number of stand-alone power battery inverters in single-phase systems with higher power outputs is determined by dividing the maximum load power Pmax by the product of the continuous power of the battery inverter PContinuous and the inverter efficiency ηinv

(SMA Solar Technology AG 2010).

𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔×𝜼𝒊𝒏𝒗

= 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒓𝒊𝒅 𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒔 Eq.5.1

Other main parameters that have to be taken for the selection of the Grid Manager are:

- Nominal AC voltage and frequency: must be the desired grid voltage in this case 120V 60Hz or 220V 50Hz (which can later be transformed to 120V 60Hz)

- Maximum Input Power: the Grid Manager must be capable of receiving the maximum power generated by the PV panels or other generators.

- Battery Voltage: the Grid Manager must be able to charge the battery block at the respective voltage (12V, 24V or 48V)

- Battery bank Capacity: the Grid Manager has a limit for batteries it can charge.


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The sum of the power of all loads must not exceed the rated power of the inverter. The maximum power of the inverter must be able to cover the starting currents of the loads. In order to allow the connection of more loads, Steca recommends over dimensioning the inverter by at least 20% (Steca Elektronik GmbH 2011b).

Each mini-grid must have at least a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 4 Grid Managers to ensure flexibility and simplicity. The power peaks of the communities are in a range from 3 to 10 kWp, so the smallest communities (15CU) should have two 2kW Grid Managers and the larger communities (50CU) could have four 3kW Grid Managers. Table 5.13 presents what SMA and Steca offer for these power values. The complete datasheets of these Grid Managers can be found in Appendix C, Tables C.6 and C.7.

Table 5.13: Grid Managers (Battery Inverters) available in the market Source: (Steca Elektronik GmbH 2011a; SMA Solar Technology AG 2011)

TYPE I – 2kW TYPE II – 4.2kW Manufacturer Steca SMA Model Xtender XTM 2600-48 SunnyIsland 4248

AC output (Loads) Continuous AC power W* 2000 4200

AC power for 30min W 2600 5400 Nominal AC voltage V 230 230 Nominal AC current A - 18

AC Input (PV or grid) AC Input voltage V <265 <250

AC Input frequency Hz 45...65 40...60 Input current A 50 56 Max. Input power W - 12.8

Battery DC Input Battery voltage V 48 48

Max. Battery charging current A 55 100 Battery Capacity Ah - 100...6000 Max. Efficiency 96% 95% *Technical data at 25 °C / 77 °F

These two types of configurations allow covering the whole energy demand range of the communities. It is not recommended to combine different manufacturer grid inverters; so no combinations are made in this case like for the Generation Block. See Table 5.14 for the quantities of inverters needed for each community bin (Bins can be found at Table 5.5 in Section 5.3.3).


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Table 5.14: Inversion Block Modular Standards

RANGE Grid Manager I

Steca XTM 2600-48 Grid Manager II

SMA Sunny Island 4248 Total Inverter Power # of Consumer Units Quant. Quant. kW

10-15 2 - 4.0 16-20 3 - 6.0 21-25 3 - 6.0 26-30 4 - 8.0 31-35 4 - 8.0 36-40 - 2 8.4 41-45 - 3 12.6 46-50 - 3 12.6

5.5.4 Battery Block The Battery Bank is formed from several Battery Blocks with a nominal 48V DC bus voltage. It is much easier to design the Battery Block since all of them are connected in parallel to the DC bus that enters the grid manager. The specifications for the battery bank are:

Technical Specifications of the Battery Bank

• Batteries must operate between 25 and 50ºC with a relative humidity up to 100%.

• Batteries type must be OPzS59, with a minimum capacity of 220Ah C20 each. • Life span over 2500 cycles with a 40% DOD - Depth of Discharge and

calculated for a 2 day of autonomy of the system. • All batteries in the bloc must be from the same manufacturer. • 2-year guarantee and the capacity degradation cannot exceed more than 20% in

this period. • The batteries must be certified according to the Standard IEC 60896 - Standard

Lead Acid Batteries (IEC - International Electro technical Commission 2004) • Nominal battery bank voltage: 48V.

Each battery block should have a nominal capacity of 48kWh (see Table 5.9). The best idea is that each battery string be equal to a 48kWh battery block. Thus the increasing of a battery string to the DC bus increases the storage capacity in 48kWh. In Table 5.15 a 48kWh string and also a 96kWh option is given for larger communities. The complete data sheets can be found in Appendix C, Table C.8 and C.9.

59OPzS –Stationary Flooded Tubular Lead Acid Battery


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Table 5.15: OPzS available in the Market Source:(HOPPECKE Batterien GmbH & Co. KG 2011), (Alphacell TM 2012)

Batteries Manufacturer Hoppecke Alphacell Model 10 OPzS 1000 16OPzS 2-2000 Nominal capacity [Ah] 1000 2000 Nominal voltage [V] 2 2 Endurance in cycles 1500 cycles at 80%DOD

Block Configuration Type I – 48kWh Type II – 96kWh Batteries in Series 24 24 Bus voltage [V] 48 48 Block Capacity [kWh] 48 96

These two types of battery block standards allow covering the whole energy demand range of the communities. See Table 5.16.

Table 5.16: Battery Block configuration

RANGE Block Type I -4 8kWh (24batts x 2h-1000Ah)

Block Type II - 96kWh (24batts x 2v-2000Ah)

Total Battery Bank Capacity

Consumer Units Qty. Qty. kWh 10-15 3 - 144 16-20 4 - 192 21-25 5 - 240 26-30 6 - 288 31-35 - 4 384 36-40 - 4 384 41-45 - 5 480 46-50 - 5 480

Now that generation, battery and inverter blocks have been defined it is necessary to evaluate that these cover most of the communities and the deviation from “border condition” communities is not high. This will be developed in the next section.

5.6 Results & Validation

It is intended that the modular standard systems cover the largest amount of communities possible. The standard units have been developed (3kW and 5kW) and the combination of these to satisfy the communities energy requirements. Figures 5.33, 5.34 and 5.35 present graphically how the standards for the Generation Block (PV modules + Grid Inverter), Battery Block (Battery Bank) and Inversion Block (Grid Manager) cover the real energy demand in a step function style. Excessive over sizing results in over pricing and under sizing results in energy black outs.


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The standards for PV Power and Battery Bank are fairly close to the real demand. The Grid Managers are oversized to avoid problems with overloading on the consumer side and also future expansion. Table 5.17 presents the maximum deviations that the standards have with the real demand of the batches. A positive deviation (which is the general case) indicates oversizing and negative deviation under sizing. The average deviation is 4% for the Generation Block and 3% for the Battery Block. Energy generation is expected to produce more than the simulated energy due to excellent irradiation conditions in the Amazon. The Grid manager block has an average oversizing of 36% that is a conservative value for oversizing this component according to trusted manufacturers (SMA Solar Technology AG 2010).

Table 5.17: Standard Systems Over-sizing Max. PV Power Battery Bank Capacity Grid Manager

Standard Real Deviation Standard Real Deviation Standard Real Deviation kW kW % hours hours % kW kW %

9 9.7 -4% 47 48 -3% 6.0 4 50% 12 12.1 3% 50 48 3% 6.0 4 50% 16 14.4 8% 52 48 8% 6.0 5 20% 19 17.1 9% 53 48 11% 8.0 6 33% 21 19.7 4% 47 48 -3% 8.4 7 20% 21 21.5 -5% 48 48 0% 8.4 7 20% 26 24.2 6% 50 48 4% 12.6 8 58% 31 27.6 12% 51 48 6% 12.6 9 40%

Avg. Dev. 4% Avg. Dev. 3% Avg. Dev. 36%

It is expected that since the market offer for components is also standardized, there will not be much difference if the generation systems are custom designed or a standard is used. Thus a new set of simulations will be performed with the border of batch communities (10, 16, 21, 26, 31, 36, 41 and 46CU).

The average difference between the biggest and smallest community of each batch is around 8%. See Figure 5.34, 5.35 and 5.36, where this is presented for the three block types: PV, Batteries and Grid Manager. If this average deviation is added to the over-sized average of 4%, it is to say that the standards are oversized in a range of 5% to 12% above the real community energy demands which is a very conservative value for standardization and considered applicable and valid.

See Table 5.18 and Figures 5.39 to Figures 5.46 for a complete presentation of the results of the standardized Mini-Grid and how the configurations for the 8 community batches would be. Notice that energy demand and peak power are also in range format to indicate the flexibility of the standards not only for number of CU but also for energy terms.


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Figure 5.31: PV Power - Standards vs. Real Demand

Figure 5.32: Battery Bank - Standards vs. Real Demand

Figure 5.33: Grid Manager - Standard vs. Real Demand

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

10-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50

Max

. PV

Pow

er [k

W]

Consumer Units

Standard Real Demand

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

10-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 Bat

tery

Ban

k C

apac

ity [k

Wh]

Consumer Units


0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

10-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50

Grid

Man

ager

Pow

er [k

W]

Consumer Units



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Figure 5.34: Border CU Deviation - Power

Figure 5.35: Border CU Deviation - Storage

Figure 5.36: Border CU Deviation - Grid Manager

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

10-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50

Max

. PV

Pow

er [k

W]

Consumer Units

Considering smallest CU in batch Considering largest CU in batch

Δavg. dev.=9%

0

100

200

300

400

500

10-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50

Bat

tery

Ban

k C

apac

ity [k

Wh]

Consumer Units


Δavg. dev.=8%

0

2

4

6

8

10

10-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50

Grid

Man

ager

Pow

er [k

W]

Consumer Units


Δavg. dev.=8%


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Table 5.18: Standard Modular PV Mini-Grids for Amazonas


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Figure 5.37: Mini-grid configuration #1

Consumer Units: 10 - 15 Energy demand daily (±2.5kWh): 30kWh Available Energy month per Consumer Unit: 59kWh Power peak (±0.5W): 2.9kWp

Maximum Solar Power: Blocks:

9kWp 3 x 3000Wp

Grid Inverter power: 9 kW 3 x 3000W

Battery Inverter power (grid manager): Blocks:

6kW 3 x 2000W

Battery Bank: Blocks:

144 kWh 3 x 48kWh


Consumer Units: 16–20 Energy demand daily (±2.5kWh): 33kWh Available Energy month per Consumer Unit: 49kWh Power peak (±0.5W): 3.2kWp


12kWp 4 x 3000Wp


Battery Inverter power (grid manager) : Blocks:

6kW 3 x 2000W


192 kWh 4 x 48kWh


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Consumer Units: 21 - 25 Energy demand daily (±2.5kWh): 40kWh Available Energy month per Consumer Unit: 48 kWh Power peak (±0.5W): 3.9kWp


15 kWp 5 x 3000Wp



6kW 3 x 2000W


240 kWh 5 x 48kWh


Consumer Units: 26 – 30 Energy demand daily (±2.5kWh): 48kWh Available Energy month per Consumer Unit: 48kWh Power peak (±0.5W): 4.7kWp


18kWp 3x5000Wp + 1x3000Wp

Grid Inverter power: 18 kW 3x5000Wp + 1x3000Wp


8.4kW 2 x 4200W


288 kWh 6 x 48kWh


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Consumer Units: 31 -35 Energy demand daily (±2.5kWh): 55 kWh Available Energy month per Consumer Unit: 47 kWh Power peak (±0.5W): 5.4 kWp


20 kWp 4 x 5000 Wp

Grid Inverter power: 20 kW 4 x 5000 W


8.4 kW 2 x 4200 W


288 kWh 6 x 48 kWh


Consumer Units: 36 – 40 Energy demand daily (±2.5kWh): 62 kWh Available Energy month per Consumer Unit: 47 kWh Power peak (±0.5W): 6.2 kWp


23 kWp 4 x 5000 Wp + 1 x 3000Wp

Grid Inverter power: 23 kW 2 x 10000W + 1 x 3000W


8.4 kW 2 x 4200 W


384 kWh 4 x 96kWh


82


Consumer Units: 41 -45 Energy demand daily (±2.5kWh): 70 kWh Available Energy month per Consumer Unit: 47 kWh Power peak (±0.5W): 6.9 kWp


25 kWp 5 x 5000 Wp

Grid Inverter power: 25 kW 2 x 10000 W + 1 x 5000W


12.6 kW 3 x 4200 W


384 kWh 4 x 96 kWh




30 kWp 6 x 5000 Wp



12.6 kW 3 x 4200 W


480 kWh 5 x 96kWh

Chapter 6 Economic Analysis

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6 Economic Analysis

Besides the basic technical specifications, the reference project for electrification must contain the global costs and cost of energy of the Mini-grid. With these values and indicators, an economic feasibility study can be performed later on to decide whether or not the state can ultimately finance the project during its lifespan (25 years). This chapter develops the cost criteria for these systems and at the end a complete example is given for a real community in Amazonas.

6.1 Cost structure

Costs will be categorized as follows: 1. Implementation Costs and 2. O&M Costs. The first is the initial payment needed to build and set-up the system the second one is the annual cost to keep it running (operation, maintenance and component replacements). The analysis of these values in a timeline will allow having a cash flow, which will then determine the annual disbursement from the government.

Implementation costs are made up from fixed and variable costs (that mostly depend on consumer units and distance from the municipality capital). See Equation 6.1 to 6.4 to see how implementation and also O&M are formed. For a description of the value of the costs see Table 6.1.


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Table 6.1: Cost structure information for PV mini-grids in Amazonia

IMPLEMENTATION COSTS

Item Description Costs Variable Costs Basic Components

PV Module Monocrystalline with glass and aluminum frame 2.58 €/Wp

Battery OPzS 2v 1000Ah or 2000Ah 0.56 €/Wh

Grid Manager With Battery inverter 1411.78 €/kW

Grid Inverter for PV with MPPT 680.02 €/kW

Accessories cables, plugs, connectors, racks, etc. 12% of the total sum of the basic components.

Energy Distribution, Monitoring and Transport

Grid (Extension) With fiberglass posts each 25meters. 11904.76 €/km

Mini-grid Automation Mini-grid Blocks can be operated from operation center. 5952.38 €

Monitoring System Communication system and satellite connections. 918.96 €/CU

Smart Grid Smart energy meters 522.14 €/CU

Transport of equipment Includes boat and car transport 1150.79 €/CU

Refrigerator Each household receives an efficient refrigerator 317.46 €/CU

Fixed Costs Implantation

Civil Works Dry Land Concrete, wood, and other construction material.

56296.70 €

Civil Works Riverside 70734.92 €

Labor Implementation Engineer, technicians and construction workers. 27777.78 €

Worker Transport Dry Land Transport of the workers by boat or car.

3616.78 €

Worker Transport Riverside 7953.03 €

O&M COSTS

Item Description Costs Preventive & Corrective Maintenance (Transportation)

Close (5hours) At least two visits of two technicians each year.

983.39 €

Mid (10 hours) 1780.81 €

Far (20 hours) 3375.65 € Part Replacement

Main component replacement.

Annualized value includes replacement labor and transportation. Battery: 7 years Grid manager: 10 years Grid inverter: 10 years Modules: 25years

758.73 €/CU

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 + 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 Eq. 6.1


85

𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 + 𝐺𝑟𝑖𝑑 + 𝐴𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 +𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔+ 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 + 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡

Eq. 6.2

𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐶𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠 + 𝐿𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑟 +𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 Eq. 6.3

𝑂&𝑀 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 Eq. 6.4

Notice that the costs presented in the previous table are for the specific case of Amazonas where transportation cost due to difficult accessibility is very representative. The process of how these prices were obtained will not be described since they were obtained directly from Eletrobras Amazonas Energia.

The cost structure is defined as incorporating the implementation cost plus the present value60 of the annual O&M expenditures (see Eq. 6.5), all of this based on the discount rate DR (6%) for the project lifespan N (25years). See Table 6.2. The costs structure is calculated for each of the 71 communities in Barcelos and Carauari. To see the costs for the 71 communities go to Appendix XX.

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 +𝑂&𝑀

(1 + 𝐷𝑅)!

!

!!!

Eq. 6.5

Table 6.2: Cash flow parameters

Item Description Value

Discount rate 4%-7% for RE projects in Brazilian economy 6% Project lifetime 20 to 25 years, usually the PV module lifetime is

considered 25 years

Available energy Minimum energy that the system must supply to each user. Total energy production is not considered since large quantities is dump

45 540

kWh/CU/month kWh/CU/year

Exchange rate61 2.52 BRL/EUR

Once the costs for the 71 communities are estimated, it is of main interest to see how each of the components affects the cost structure. The Battery Bank is the most expensive component with 27% of the cost of the basic components. Civil Works and PV modules are the most expensive components. Civil works and PV modules are also representative (21% and 13% respectively) and will most likely last the whole lifespan but it is important to consider the Battery Bank will have to be replaced at least every 7 years in the most optimistic case. The mini-grid operational system (monitoring system + automation + smart grid) accounts for 17% of the cost, which is also important and will have to be changed every 10 years or earlier in case new technology appears. Regarding implementation costs, what calls attention is a very high transportation cost of components to the community, almost 20% of the whole cost is needed just to take 60Present value, is the value on a given date of a payment or series of payments made at other times. If the payments are in the future, they are discounted to reflect the time value of money and other factors such as investment risk. Present value calculations are widely used in business and economics to provide a means to compare cash flows at different times on a meaningful "like to like" basis. 61The Real is present-day currency of Brazil. Its sign is R$ and its ISO code is BRL. The exchange rate to October 2011 is 1.00 EUR to 2.52 BRL


86

the components from Manaus to the community. See Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2 for more information about this mini-grid and implementation cost break up.

Notice that the values are average and there can be a 1 to 2% deviation depending on the distance of travel.

Figure 6.1: Mini-grid cost break down

Figure 6.2: Implementation cost structure

Costs are mainly a function of the number of consumer units. For fast cost estimation the next curves have been plotted where it is easy to know the initial investment cost and later the O&M cost that the government will have to pay for a community with certain number of consumer units (see Figure 6.3 and Figure 6.4). Since this thesis presents 8 mini-grid standards, the costs of implementation and O&M are presented in Table 6.3.

Solar Modules 13%

Battery Bank 27%

Grid Manager 6%

PV Grid Inverter 4%

Grid (Extension +

Connection to CU) 7%

Automation 4%

Monitoring System 8%

Smart Grid 5%

Accessories 7%

Civil Works 21%

Components and Construction

material 62%

Component transport

18%

Labor 8%

Worker transport 2%

Others 10%


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Figure 6.3: Implementation costs for isolated mini-grids in Amazonas

Figure 6.4: O&M costs for isolated mini-grids in Amazonas

Table 6.3: Standardized mini-grid costs (March 2012)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

0

200

400

600

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1000

1200

1400

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

thou

sand

EU

R/y

ear

thou

sand

BR

L/ye

ar

Consumer Units

Riverside Dry Land

0

10

20

30

40

50

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0

20

40

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10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 th

ousa

nd E

UR

/yea

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thou

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L/ye

ar

Consumer Units

Riverside Dry Land

Mini-grid

Standard

Consumer Units

PV Power

Power demand(±0.5kW)

Energy (±2.5kWh)

Implementation Cost

O&M Cost LCOE

# kW kWp kWh/day thousand € thousand€ /annum

€/kWh

1 10-15 9 2.9 30 206 - 220 12-15.5 2.69-2.07 2 16-20 12 3.2 33 240-290 16.1-18.8 2.09-1.97 3 21-25 15 3.9 40 292-303 18.7-21.3 1.87-1.71 4 26-30 18 4.7 48 326-338 22-24.6 1.73-1.61 5 31-35 20 5.4 55 365-377 24.6-27.2 1.63-1.54 6 36-40 23 6.2 62 401-412 27.8-30.5 1.56-1.49 7 41-45 25 6.9 70 441-452 31.2-33.8 1.52-1.46 8 46-50 30 7.7 77 475-487 34.3-37.1 1.48-1.42


88

6.2 Levelized Cost of Energy - LCOE

The initial cost of supplying and installing PV systems is too often the most prominent cost metric during project preparation, which can contribute to distorted investment decisions. The cost effectiveness of PV systems and other options should be compared in terms of their life-cycle costs of energy in money per kilowatt hour ($ per kWh). The LCOE is calculated in present-value terms, discounting both the costs and benefits (kWh) over the typical 20 to 25 years used in appraisals of PV investments. The cost would be the initial investment plus the present value of all future O&M costs over the lifetime of the investment (Lazard 2008). The kWh benefit is the present value of daily usable (available) energy of the system over the same period multiplied by the expected annual degradations of the system (≈98%)(Black & Veatch 2010). This energy value will be the energy that is available for the community over the time period, and not the energy generated by the system since surplus energy production is waste.

This can be translated into an equation, which contains the cost structure as numerator and the available energy as denominator and can be used to calculate the LCOE for communities from 10 to 50 consumer units. See Equation 6.2 and Figure 6.5 for the cost of energy for riverside and dry land communities.

𝐿𝐶𝑂𝐸 =𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + !&!

(!!!")!!!!!

!"#$%#&%' !"#$%&×(!!!"#$%& !"#$%&%'()* !"#$)!

(!!!")!!!!!

Eq. 6.6

Figure 6.5: Levelized cost of energy for PV mini-grids in Amazonas

Communities on the riverside are expected to have higher LCOE than communities on dry land, this due to difficult of access. Also smaller communities have a higher LCOE

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

LCO

E - E

UR

/kW

h

LCO

E - B

RL/

kWh

Consumer Units

Riverside Dry Land


89

than larger communities, this due to constant fixed costs and also better energy load management with larger grids. For example, the implementation team for a 15CU community is pretty much the same than for a community of 50CU. Also there are communal services like the school, health post and community center that both small and large communities have and in the case of large communities they can be shared by more households, so less energy per consumer unit is needed meaning a smaller PV System. The range of LCOE for dry land is 3.5 to 7 BRL/kWh (1.5 to 2.5 €/kWh) and the range of LCOE for riverside is 4.5 to 9 BRL/kWh (1.8 to 3.5 €/kWh). Notice that the curve tends to increase exponentially as number of CU decreases. For smaller communities than 10CU, SHS or other technologies must be considered.

LCOE for the mini-grids in Amazonas is relatively high in comparison with other mini-grids installed in rural areas. This is mainly because of high transportation costs to the communities. As seen in Figure 6.2, transportations costs at implementation stage account for almost 20% of the budget, and this high impact remains the same during the project lifetime for all required technical inspections. Table 6.3 presents the LCOE cost for the PV standards.

6.3 Example Design of a Mini-Grid with Modular Standards

The selection process of one of the Standardized Mini-grids for one of the 71 communities in study will be presented as an example.

Community Characteristics

The selected community will be Bacabal, a 20 CU community from the municipality of Barcelos (see Appendix XX for a complete list of all communities). The information for this community and the estimation of the energy demand is presented on Table 6.4 and Table 6.5.

Table 6.4: Basic Information for Bacabal Community Name Bacabal

Location Dry Land Distance from Manaus 444km

Time by Motor Boat 6 hours Grid length 1km Days of Autonomy 2 days


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Table 6.5: Energy Info for Bacabal

Buildings Qty. Ind. Consumption62

kWh/day Ind. Power

W Total Consumption

kWh/day Total Power

W Households 16 1.4 149 23.8 2384 School 1 2.0 500 2 500 Teacher house 1 1.4 149 1.4 149 Church 1 0.4 150 0.4 150 Health Post 1 2.5 200 2.5 200 Total 20

30.3 3383

Energy demand summary Daily Energy Demand 30.3 kWh/day

Monthly Energy Demand per CU 45 kWh/month/CU Installed Power

3.4 kW

Mini-grid Standard Selection and Technical Design

The standard that best matches these requirements is Mini-grid Configuration #2, whose characteristics are presented in Figure 6.6.




12 kWp 4 x 3000 Wp



6 kW 3 x 2000 W


192 kWh 4 x 48 kWh

Once the basic configuration is defined the main components for each block must be selected from the market. Some options of suppliers were already presented in Section 5.5 Technical Design. Table 6.3 presents a summary of the selected components.

62 The individual consumption and power for the building in the community are in reference to Table 5.4


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Table 6.6: Component selection for a Mini-Grid Configuration #2 Component Manufacturer & Model Qty. Description

PV Modules Kyocera DC 135 92 4 strings of 23 modules each connected in parallel to the AC bus through a Grid Inverter. See Table 5.10. Total power 12420Wp

Grid Inverter StecaGrid 3000 4 Will feed the AC bus with the generated PV energy. See Table 5.11

Battery Inverter (Grid Manager)

StecaXtender XTM 2600-48 4 Will form the AC bus and will control de battery bank. See Table 5.13

Battery Bank Hoppecke 10 OPzS 1000 96 4 strings of 24 batteries each to form a 48V DC bus. See Table 5.15

Cost Structure and LCOE

Table 6.7: Implementation costs for Community of Bacabal (March 2012)

Variable Costs Basic Components Life Unit Cost Capacity Cost €

PV Module 25 2.58 €/Wp 12420 Wp 32035.71 Battery 7 0.40 €/Wh 192000 Wh 76800.00

Grid Manager 10 1411.78 €/kW 6 kW 8470.67 Grid Inverter 10 680.02 €/kW 12 kW 8160.24 Accessories 10 12% of basic components 15055.99

Subtotal Basic Components 140522.61

Energy Distribution, Monitoring and Transport Life Unit Cost Value Cost €

Grid (Extension) 10 11904.7 €/km 1 km 11904.76 Automation 10 5952.38 € 1

5952.38

Monitoring system 10 918.96 €/CU 20 CU 18379.29 Smart Grid 10 522.14 €/CU 20 CU 10442.78

Transport of equipment

1150.79 €/CU 20 CU 23015.87 Refrigerator (only households) 10 317.46 €/CU 17 Houses 5396.83

Subtotal Energy distribution and Transport 75091.90

Fix Costs Implantation

Cost € Civil Works Dry Land

56296.70

Labor Implementation

27777.78 Worker Transport Dry Land

3616.78

Subtotal Fix Costs 87691.25

Total Implementation Costs 303305.77


92

Most important figures to notice are the next three:

1. The initial investment (or implementation cost); 2. O&M costs (which includes maintenance and replacement costs), which are

calculated in accordance to the costs presented in Table 6.1. 3. The LCOE, which is determined according to Equation 6.6 is also calculated

considering a discount rate of 6% and a 25-year project lifespan.

Table 6.8: O&M costs for Community of Bacabal (March 2012)

Preventive & Corrective Maintenance (Transportation) Costs Value Cost €

Preventive Mid (10 hours)* 1780.81 € 10 h 1780.81 Corrective Mid (10 hours)* 1781.21 € 10 h 1781.21

Part Replacement (Annualized reposition of main comps. Includes replacement labor and transportation) 758.73 €/CU 20 CU 15174.60

Total Annualized O&M costs €/annum 18736.63 *Annualized fixed cost per year.

LCOE can be considered as an economic indicator for comparison with other technologies. Table 6.10 presents a summary of the most important economic indicators for the evaluation of the project, such as: investment to installed peak power ratio (€/Wp) and the investment percentage in relation with the total LCOE which indicates the weight of implementation and O&M costs in the cost of energy. The cash flow was calculated with parameters presented in Table 6.2.

Table 6.9: Summary of economic indicators for Community of Bacabal Implementation cost € 303305.77 O&M costs €/annum 18736.63 Present Value (Implementation + O&M €) 542822.75 Investment €/Wp 24.42 LCOE €/kWh 2.01 LCOE BRL/kWh 5.07 Investment as % total LCOE 56%

It is usually mentioned that one of the advantages of RE are the low O&M cost, while the disadvantage is the high initial cost. As seen in Table 6.9, for Bacabal, O&M accounts for 44% of the LCOE. The cost to maintain the system must always be performed to verify if the low O&M cost really applies to the specific case study.

This procedure of mini-grid selection using the standard configurations and the cost structure analysis is suggested for other communities in the area of Amazonas. The concessionary Amazonas Energia Eletrobras could rapidly determine the information that the EPE requires with less time and effort than currently is needed.


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7 Conclusions

At last, this chapter provides conclusions of the outcomes and lessons learned during the elaboration of this thesis and a sixth month working stay at the energy concessionary Amazonas Energia in Manaus – Brazil. More over the future steps are presented as new research topics that could be pursued as a continuation of this work.

7.1 Results and Lessons learned

• The Amazonian region is of fundamental importance due to its known and unknown life forms, gathering of several countries and mostly for the influence it has as a regional climate regulator. This is why the Brazilian State as the largest stakeholder is to consider it as strategic and people who live in there as true pioneers who urgently need basic public services. In this sense, electricity is crucial for other services such as health and education. This electrification process must be considered as a vector for regional development and must consider people first selection and implementation of technologies in the area.

• Current Brazilian legislation63 for isolated systems supports in an exemplary manner the installation of renewable energy systems; much better than other countries with equal necessity in the Latin American region. Nevertheless, a

63 Law Nº12.111 and Ordinances Nº600 and Nº493.

Chapter 7 Conclusions

94

quick review of the current legislation has shown that it is very much state oriented and not market oriented. Current laws regulate the way that concessionaries, state offices and the private companies should interact, but it lacks of a strong focus to create a sustainable market for renewables in that specific region. Market incentives for private investors will open the market and allow the government to “sit back” and watch how electrification is carried out by companies interested in making some money with the government for a considerable amount of time (project life of 25 years). Feed-in tariffs do not apply for isolated PV grids since there is no connection to the national grid, so an attractive $/kWh per consumer unit per month could be defined to open and establish a market that will be in charge of electrification.

• Data collection in the Amazonian region requires vast amounts of time and energy; it is a very big area of land with considerable difficult access mostly done by boat. Energy concessionaries do not have sufficient resources to perform reliable data acquisition and the information bias has proven to be significant. A computational tool to estimate energy demand and future growth is an excellent manner to perform this task in a more economic and fast way, and deviation can be maintained in tolerable limits. Energy demand does not only depend on the currently available equipment in the community and the hours in which they are used. To attempt to have a standardized energy demand of the communities social-economic factors have to be taken in account, such as: income, distance from the municipality capital, age distribution, religion, organization in the community, local activities, etc. Real energy load curves obtained from monitoring PV mini-grids in Amazons demonstrate that it is very difficult to find a consumption pattern when only considering appliances, the number of consumer units and the development (increase) of the demand of the future.

• PV mini-grids are considered the best option for electrification of remote communities in Amazonia since they are autonomous and have no need for fossil fuel and so reducing pollution due to transport and operation. Nevertheless, designing 100% PV systems to match all year demand is not the most efficient way to go. Considering high radiation values, the mini-grids are likely to be over-sized and provide significant energy surplus during most parts of the year. A hybrid system (PV + Diesel) to cover the energy shortage during low radiation season can help to reduce the PV components specially the battery bank, which is the most sensitive component and can be a pollution agent in the region. Some communities already have diesel generators in operation that could be integrated to the grid and others would have to consider having one. Diesel transport to the region is already present and operation of the generator would be


95

necessary few times a year or when continuous low radiation days occur. Reducing system sizes will reduce the environmental impact of the mini-grid and also implementation, maintenance and replacements costs.

• Elaboration of reference projects is too detailed and the concessionaries do not count with a qualified team for such task. The objective of a reference project is to set the baseline for technology and costs for electrification. But the proposed technology should not be mandatory for the execution of the projects. The companies that participate in the bidding are likely to offer better solutions. So reference projects should maintain flexible to keep bidding offers high and allow the market to respond with new technologies. An example for this is the current configuration of mini-grids that have DC coupling technology according to the last reference project elaborated by the concessionary Amazonas Energia, and doesn’t allow AC coupling which presents considerable advantages and is more likely to be used for PV mini-grids ranging from 5 to 50 kWp. Reference projects should also have stronger focus on post-implementation management O&M mechanisms. Installation will last at maximum 2 months, and planned operation 25 years.

• Sustainability of a PV System (or Hybrid system) will strongly depend on the adopted management mechanisms, which are to be analyzed before the implementation of the system. Socio-economic factors play a much stronger role than appropriate technology that will determine sustainability and success, and must be considered at all stages of planning from resource availability, dimensioning of the system and installation to efficient procedures of operation and maintenance. Communities must be considered as independent human groups to be reached and that electricity will not only bring comfort but productive use of energy will really bring change and open the way to a new future. Energy serves social development and not the other way around.

• Compared with diesel generator sets, PV systems offer significantly lower operating costs. With no fuel expenses, the running costs of PV systems are mainly for periodic component replacements and maintenance. For energy concessionaries with difficulties meeting recurrent budgets, the attractiveness of PV systems is often that of avoiding the high recurrent costs and hassles of purchasing, transporting, storing, and controlling diesel fuel. Diesel price almost triples when it reaches a remote community in the Amazonas. But caution with battery replacement costs. While low running costs are an advantage of PV systems, battery replacements require relatively large, periodic payments that often are not easily accommodated by organizations accustomed to modest or

Chapter 7 Conclusions

96

negligible annual budget increases for operating expenses. This is one of the reasons why batteries are the most delicate component of the system and should be treated with precaution. Cost analysis demonstrated that almost half of the LCOE (40 to 45%) is made up of O&M and replacement costs, in which a 7 year battery replacement period (in very optimistic cases) represent the sensibility factor.

• Standardization of PV mini-grids is an excellent tool for the energy concessionaries to rapidly determine initial and future payments; most standards have an average deviation of 4 to 5% when matching a community with a standard. The PV mini-grid makes up for approximately 60% of the implementation cost depending on the difficulty of access to the site. Labor costs to install the system are pretty much constant and considered as fixed costs. So the heart of the matter is still the PV system. Nevertheless the true complication is finding the energy demand of a community and the demand growth for at least the next 5 years. It has to be considered that there is repressed energy demand, this is for example, people who never have had energy or very few would be very happy when PV arrives with three basic services: illumination, communication and refrigeration. But once energy arrives it will be likely that other appliances will be considered, like: ventilation, mixers, computers, etc. It is still a discussion at concessionaries if people should be able to satisfy all energy needs or if there should be a limit to the energy they receive. It is polemic, since usually basic services should not be limited by the state, only by the purchasing power of the user.

7.2 Future steps

• Develop a methodology and computational tool that considers the number of users and socio-economic factors from isolated regions to determine energy demand and future growth for at least 5 years. Human development indexes are still not defined at community level. Information only exists from municipalities that unfortunately do not reflect the reality of the community, so community visits need to be made to establish the scope and purpose of factors to be analyzed. Once the methodology is developed, results must be compared with real life indicators to see bias and standard deviation to evaluate reliability of the methodology.

• Currently there are 12 operating 100% PV mini-grids with monitoring systems at the concessionary Amazonas Energia. Unfortunately no research is being made in any area whatsoever. The baseline for all discussions should be the


97

experiences and results from the evaluation of load curves, irradiation, failure of equipment, shortages, power peaks, over loads, etc. from these 12 mini-grids. This determination of this baseline seems to be a very appealing research topic that could settle a better ground for discussions about energy behavior of isolated consumers and their mini-grid, as well as costs.

• Standardization of pure PV mini-grid has been presented in this thesis. Now hybrid PV-Diesel systems could be standardized for the same community types in the Amazon. Hybrid systems can be seen as a solution to reduce costs and size of the grids. The viability of these systems should be analyzed, as well as the impact of maintaining fossil fuels in the market. The comparison of the LCOE of Hybrids PV-Diesel to just pure PV mini-grids could set standards to decide the appropriateness of each of these technologies.

References

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SMA Solar Technology AG, 2010. Solar Stand-Alone Power adn Backup Power Supply.

SMA Solar Technology AG, 2011. Sunny Family Catalogue 2011/2012.

Stamminger, R., 2008. Synergy Potential for Smart Appliances, Germany: University of Bonn.

Steca Elektronik GmbH, 2011a. PV Grid Connected Catalogue.

Steca Elektronik GmbH, 2011b. Steca PV Off-grid.

Wikipedia, 2011a. Brazil - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil [Accessed October 28, 2011].

Wikipedia, 2011b. Modular design - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_design [Accessed October 20, 2011].

Wollny, M., 2005. Flexible Concept for Off-Grid Electricity Supply, SMA Technologie AG.

World Wide Fund for Nature, 2008. Amazon Rainforest, Amazon Plants, Amazon River Animals,

Zaytecbrasil Research Services, 2009. Pesquisa Quantitativa Domiciliar de Avaliacão de Satisfação e de Impacto de Programa Luz para Todos - Quantitative Household Research of Impact and Satisfaction for the Luz para Todos Program, Brasil: Ministry of Mines and Energy.


101

Appendix A: Communities Information

Table A.1: Municipality of Carauari, Amazons-Brazil Source: (Eletrobras Amazonas Energia 2011)

Item Community Households Dry

Land or Riverside

Distance from

Manaus km

Time by

Motor Boat

School Community Center Church Health

Post Total CU

1 Bom Jesus 26 Dry land 844,0 4:20 h 1 2 0 1 30

2 São

Raimundo 25 Riverside 870,0 5:20hs 0 0 0 0 25

3 Vila Nova 19 Riverside 782,0 30

minutes 1 1 1 0 22 4 Bacaba 20 Dry land 748,0 2:10 h 1 1 0 0 22 5 Imperatriz 20 Riverside 840,0 4:10 h 1 0 1 0 22 6 Bauana 20 Dry land 879,0 4:50 h 0 1 0 0 21

7 São

José/Anaxiqui 15 Dry land 927,4 09:20hs 1 1 1 1 19 8 Vila Ramalho 14 Dry land 909,0 7:00 h 1 0 1 0 16

9

Santo Antônio de

Brito 13 Riverside 881,0 8:00 h 2 1 0 0 16 10 Ouro Preto 12 Dry land 882,9 7:44hs 1 1 1 1 16 11 Matatibem 13 Dry land 820,0 1:30 h 1 0 0 0 14 12 Fortuna 12 Dry land 846,0 3:20 h 1 0 1 0 14 13 Morro Alto 13 Riverside 905,0 8;40 h 0 0 1 0 14

14 Boca do Xeruã 10 Riverside 925,2 10:32hs 1 1 1 1 14

15 Ressaca 13 Riverside 764,0 1:23 h 0 0 0 0 13 16 Concórdia 12 Riverside 752,0 1:50 h 1 0 0 0 13

17 Santa Maria 9 Riverside 791,0 20

minutes 1 1 1 1 13 18 Zabreu 12 Dry land 816,0 1:30 h 1 0 0 0 13

19 Monte

Carmelo 13 Riverside 915,0 9:50 h 0 0 0 0 13 20 Xibauá 12 Riverside 929,0 10:30 h 1 0 0 0 13 21 Mamoriá 9 Riverside 762,0 1:30 h 1 1 1 1 13 22 Idó 9 Riverside 890,0 4:55 h 1 1 1 1 13 23 Boa Vista I 10 Riverside 910,0 3:40 h 1 1 0 0 12 24 Goiabal 8 Riverside 816,0 1:40 h 1 1 1 1 12

25 Barreira do

Idó 8 Dry land 867,0 5:30 h 1 1 1 1 12 26 Morada Nova 8 Riverside 926,0 8:10 h 1 1 1 1 12 27 Fazendinha 8 Dry land 854,0 3:30 h 1 1 1 1 12 28 Sororoca 8 Dry land 871,0 09:53hs 1 1 1 1 12

29 Lago do Serrado 11 Riverside 774,0 1:10 h 0 0 0 0 11

30 Pão 10 Riverside 863,0 5:10 h 1 0 0 0 11

31 Praia Nova 7 Riverside 794,0 40

minutes 1 1 1 1 11

32 Estirão do Carapanã 7 Riverside 802,0 1:00 h 1 1 1 1 11

Appendix A

102

Table A.1: Municipality of Carauari, Amazons-Brazil Source: (Eletrobras Amazonas Energia 2011)

Item Community Households Dry

Land or Riverside

Distance from

Manaus km

Time by

Motor Boat

School Community Center Church Health

Post Total CU

33 Providência 7 Riverside 821,0 1:50 h 1 1 1 1 11 34 Canta Galo 7 Riverside 909,0 5:40 h 1 1 1 1 11 35 Caroçal 7 Riverside 909,0 9:30 h 1 1 1 1 11 36 São Francisco 7 Riverside 913,0 9:40 h 1 1 1 1 11 37 Toari 7 Riverside 921,0 10:00 h 1 1 1 1 11 38 Remanso 10 Riverside 875,0 4:50 h 0 0 0 0 10 39 São João 6 Riverside 748,0 2:04 h 1 1 1 1 10 40 Adelândia 10 Dry land 825,0 1:30 h 0 0 0 0 10 41 Nova União 6 Riverside 856,0 5:20 h 1 1 1 1 10

Table A.2: Municipality of Barcelos, Amazonas –Brasil


Item Community Household

s

Dry Land / Shore

Distance

from Manaus km

Time by Motor Boat

School

Teacher house

Community

Center

Community House

Church

Health

Post

Radio

Post

Total CU

1

Piloto/ Iguarapé do Baruri - 42

37 Dry land 410.0 1:20 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 42

2 Tapira - 42 35 Dry land 286.0 24:00 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 42

3 Camaru - 39 32 Dry land 478.0 18:00 1 0 1 1 2 1 1 39

4 Florestal I - 27 21 Riverside 534.0 10:00 1 0 1 1 2 1 0 27

5 Ponta da Terra - 26 18 Dry land 431.0 3:00 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 26

6

São Francisco - 26

19 Dry land 604.0 6:00 1 0 1 1 2 1 1 26

7

Lago do Ataina/ Manacauácá - 22

21 Dry land 408.0 1:20 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

22

8 São Luiz - 21 15 Dry land 464.0 6:00 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 21

9 Bacabal - 20 16 Dry land 444.0 6:00 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 20

10 Canafé - 20 15 Dry land 570.0 18:00 0 0 1 2 1 1 0 20

11 Caju - 19 14 Dry land 376.0 24:00 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 19

12

Nova Jerusalém - 19

16 Dry land 633.0 40:00 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 19

13 Lesbão - 17 12 Dry land 456.0 9:00 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 17

14 São Roque - 17 16 Dry land 349.0 12:00 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 17

15 Baturité - 17 12 Dry land 484.0 7:00 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 17

16 Estrada do Caurés - 16 15 Riverside 396.0 5:00 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 16

17 Bulixu - 15 8 Dry land 440.0 5:00 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15

18 Samaúma - 14 9 Dry land 432.0 8:00 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 14

19 Bacuquara - 13 7 Dry land 480.0 24:00 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 13

20 Romão - 13 9 Dry land 446.0 8:00 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 13

21 Acuacu - 13 7 Riverside 555.0 19:00 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 13

22 Tomar - 13 7 Dry land 535.0 12:00 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 13

23 Valério - 12 6 Dry land 440.0 5:00 1 1 1 2 1 0 0 12

24 Estrada do Elói - 12 8 Dry land 397.0 5:00 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 12


103

Table A.2: Municipality of Barcelos, Amazonas –Brasil Source: (Eletrobras Amazonas Energia 2011)

Item Community Household

s

Dry Land / Shore

Distance

from Manaus km

Time by Motor Boat

School

Teacher house

Community

Center

Community House

Church

Health

Post

Radio

Post

Total CU

25 Daracuá - 11 7 Riverside 457.0 5:00 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 11

26 Boa Vista - 10 6 Dry land 455.0 5:00 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 10

27 Acuquaia - 9 4 Riverside 576.0 24:00 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

9

28 Seringalzinho - 9 5 Dry land 226.0 18:00 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 9

29 Santa Luzia - 9 5 Dry land 587.0 10:00 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 9

30 Santa Rita - 9 5 Dry land 536.0 10:00 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 9

Appendix B

104

Appendix B: Community Energy Data

Figure B.1: Typical load curve for Isolated Communities in Amazonas

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 10 CU´s 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 0.7 1.1 1.1 2.3 2.4 1.8 1.0 0.6 0.7

20 CU´s 1.0 0.7 1.0 0.7 1.0 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.6 0.9 1.5 1.5 3.0 3.2 2.5 1.3 0.8 0.9

30 CU´s 1.4 1.1 1.4 1.1 1.4 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 1.2 2.3 2.3 4.5 4.7 4.0 1.9 1.2 1.3

40 CU´s 1.8 1.5 1.8 1.5 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.7 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 1.5 3.0 3.0 6.0 6.2 5.5 2.5 1.7 1.7

50 CU´s 2.2 1.9 2.2 1.9 2.2 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.9 1.8 3.8 3.8 7.5 7.7 7.0 3.0 2.1 2.1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Inst

alle

d po

wer

[kW

]

Communities with a Monthly Energy Demand per Consumer Unit of 50 -60 kWh/month


105

Table B.1: Energy and Power demand municipality of Carauari, Amazonas-Brazil Source:(Eletrobras Amazonas Energia 2011)

Item Community Total UC´s

Daily Energy Demand kWh/day

Monthly Energy

Demand per CU

kWh/month/CU

Installed Power kW

1 Bom Jesus - 30 30 53.09 53 5.32 2 São Raimundo - 25 25 40.14 48 3.92 3 Vila Nova - 22 22 37.11 51 3.97 4 Bacaba - 22 22 38.15 52 3.97 5 Imperatriz - 22 22 35.15 48 3.82 6 Bauana - 21 21 36.15 52 3.47 7 São José/Anaxiqui - 19 19 33.72 53 3.54 8 Vila Ramalho - 16 16 26.22 49 2.93 9 Santo Antônio de Brito - 16 16 29.73 56 3.43

10 Ouro Preto - 16 16 29.26 55 3.09 11 Matatibem - 14 14 24.28 52 2.63 12 Fortuna - 14 14 23.25 50 2.63 13 Morro Alto - 14 14 22.73 49 2.28 14 Boca do Xeruã - 14 14 26.28 56 2.79 15 Ressaca - 13 13 22.28 51 2.13 16 Concórdia - 13 13 22.80 53 2.48 17 Santa Maria - 13 13 24.79 57 2.64 18 Zabreu - 13 13 22.80 53 2.48 19 Monte Carmelo - 13 13 22.28 51 2.13 20 Xibauá 1 - 13 13 22.80 53 2.48 21 Mamoriá - 13 13 24.79 57 2.64 22 Idó - 13 13 24.79 57 2.64 23 Boa Vista I - 12 12 23.27 58 2.48 24 Goiabal - 12 12 23.30 58 2.49 25 Barreira do Idó - 12 12 23.30 58 2.49 26 Morada Nova - 12 12 23.30 58 2.49 27 Fazendinha - 12 12 23.30 58 2.49 28 Sororoca - 12 12 23.30 58 2.49 29 Lago do Serrado - 11 11 19.31 53 1.83 30 Pão - 11 11 19.82 54 2.18 31 Praia Nova - 11 11 21.82 59 2.34 32 Estirão do Carapanã - 11 11 21.82 59 2.34 33 Providência - 11 11 21.82 59 2.34 34 Canta Galo - 11 11 21.82 59 2.34 35 Caroçal - 11 11 21.82 59 2.34 36 São Francisco - 11 11 21.82 59 2.34 37 Toari - 11 11 21.82 59 2.34 38 Remanso - 10 10 17.82 53 1.68 39 São João - 10 10 20.33 61 2.19 40 Adelândia - 10 10 17.82 53 1.68 41 Nova União - 10 10 20.33 61 2.19

Appendix B

106

Table B.1: Energy and Power demand municipality of Barcelos, Amazonas-Brazil Source:(Eletrobras Amazonas Energia 2011)

Item Community Total CU

Daily Energy

Demand kWh/day

Monthly Energy

Demand per CU

kWh/month/CU

Installed Power kW

1 Piloto/ Iguarapé do Baruri - 42 42 68.00 49.00 7.00

2 Tapira - 42 42 66.00 47.00 6.95 3 Camaru - 39 39 61.00 47.00 6.51 4 Florestal I - 27 27 45.00 50.00 4.77 5 Ponta da Terra - 26 26 42.00 48.00 4.57 6 São Francisco - 26 26 42.00 48.00 4.57

7 Lago do Ataina/ Manacauácá - 22 22 36.00 49.00 3.82

8 São Luiz - 21 21 35.00 50.00 3.77 9 Bacabal - 20 20 33.00 50.00 3.57

10 Canafé - 20 20 35.00 53.00 3.37 11 Caju - 19 19 32.00 51.00 3.48 12 Nova Jerusalém - 19 19 31.00 49.00 3.37 13 Lesbão - 17 17 30.00 53.00 3.23 14 São Roque - 17 17 27.00 48.00 2.72 15 Baturité - 17 17 28.00 49.00 3.08 16 Estrada do Caurés - 16 16 29.00 54.00 2.73 17 Bulixu - 15 15 27.00 54.00 2.93 18 Samaúma - 14 14 25.00 54.00 2.78 19 Bacuquara - 13 13 23.00 53.00 2.58 20 Romão - 13 13 25.00 58.00 2.63 21 Acuacu - 13 13 24.00 55.00 2.63 22 Tomar - 13 13 24.00 55.00 2.63 23 Valério - 12 12 22.00 55.00 2.48 24 Estrada do Elói - 12 12 23.00 58.00 2.53 25 Daracuá - 11 11 20.00 55.00 2.28 26 Boa Vista - 10 10 20.00 60.00 2.23

27 Acuquaia - 9 9 19.00 63.00 2.09

28 Seringalzinho - 9 9 19.00 63.00 2.09 29 Santa Luzia - 9 9 19.00 63.00 2.09 30 Santa Rita - 9 9 20.00 67.00 2.08


107

Appendix C: Data Sheets

Table C.1: International Standards for Off-Grid PV System Components Source: (Africa Renewable Energy Access Program 2010)

Appendix C

108


109

Figure C.1: Kyocera 135Wp Solar Module Source: (Kyocera Solar Inc. 2011)

Appendix C

110

Figure C.2: Bosch 245Wp Solar Module

Source: (Bosch Solar Energy AG 2011)


111

Figure C.3: Steca 3000 PV Grid Inverter

Source: (Steca Elektronik GmbH 2011a)

Appendix C

112

Figure C.4: SMA 5000TL Grid Inverter Source: (SMA Solar Technology AG 2011)


113

Figure C.5: SMA Minicentral 10000TL Grid Inverter Source: (SMA Solar Technology AG 2011)

Appendix C

114

Figure C.6: StecaXtender XTM 2600-48 Source: (Steca Elektronik GmbH 2011a)


115

Figure C.7: SMA SunnyIsland 4200 Source: (SMA Solar Technology AG 2011)

Appendix C

116

Figure C.8: Hoppecke 2V 1000Ah OPzSBattery Source: (HOPPECKE Batterien GmbH & Co. KG 2011)


117

Figure C.8: Alphacell 2V 2000Ah OPzS Battery Source:(Alphacell TM 2012)

Appendix D

118

Appendix D: Community Energy Costs

Table D.1: Costs for PV mini-grids in community of Carauari, Amazonas - Brazil

Item

Community

Situation Implementation cost €

Available

energy in 25

years kWh

Energy cost

Consumer units

kWh/month.

CU

Equipment and

Implementation

Equipment

transport

Labor cost

Labor

transport

Other implementation

costs

Total Implementation

costs

Present Value €

LCOE €/kWh

Monthly cost for

each community €/mon

th

1 Vila Nova 22 45 220,241.7

1 63,260.

88 27,206.

35 7,804.

36 33,398.0

5 351,911.3

4 297,000.00

-517,526.

07

1.743

1,725.09

2 Lago do Serrado 11 45 123,083.3

3 32,386.

25 27,511.

51 7,953.

03 51,937.7

8 242,871.9

0 148,500.00

-326,265.

70

2.197

1,087.55

3 Ressaca 13 45 356,138.44

37,874.29

27,535.88

8,001.35

48,590.67

478,140.63

175,500.00

-364,820.

62

2.079

1,216.07

4 Concordia 13 45 356,138.4

4 37,874.

29 27,586.

51 8,101.

70 48,273.2

1 477,974.1

5 175,500.00

-369,394.

18

2.105

1,231.31

5 Bacaba 22 45 555,009.11

63,260.88

27,624.01

8,176.04

15,309.05

669,379.08

297,000.00

-534,982.

66

1.801

1,783.28

6 Santa Maria 13 60 414,036.9

2 49,639.

52 27,187.

60 7,767.

19 41,364.1

8 539,995.4

2 234,000.00

-416,908.

99

1.782

1,389.70

7 Matatibem 14 45 378,817.2

8 40,638.

67 27,549.

01 8,027.

37 28,224.5

9 483,256.9

2 189,000.00

-384,125.

98

2.032

1,280.42

8 Zabreu 13 45 356,138.44

37,874.29

27,549.01

8,027.37

29,866.73

459,455.82

175,500.00

-366,006.

36

2.086

1,220.02

9 Fortuna 14 45 378,817.28

40,638.67

27,755.26

8,436.21

27,907.13

483,554.55

189,000.00

-402,759.

00

2.131

1,342.53

10 Boa Vista I 12 60 386,565.7

1 45,800.

23 27,792.

76 8,510.

55 44,134.2

8 512,803.5

3 216,000.00

-427,322.

31

1.978

1,424.41

11 Imperatriz 22 45 555,009.1

1 63,260.

88 27,849.

01 8,622.

05 33,715.5

1 688,456.5

5 297,000.00

-555,309.

59

1.870

1,851.03

12 Bom Jesus 30 45 713,216.1

5 86,961.

37 27,867.

76 8,659.

22 10,588.3

3 847,292.8

2 405,000.00

-704,863.

29

1.740

2,349.54

13 Bauana 21 45 533,346.68

60,382.49

28,154.17

8,770.72

19,068.82

649,722.89

283,500.00

-544,643.

1.921

1,815.48


119


Item

Community


Available

energy in 25

years kWh

Energy cost

Consumer units

kWh/month.

CU

Equipment and

Implementation

Equipment

transport

Labor cost

Labor

transport


costs


costs

Present Value €

LCOE €/kWh

Monthly cost for


th 31

14 Remanso 10 45 290,552.5

5 29,731.

38 28,154.

17 8,770.

72 53,264.9

4 410,473.7

6 135,000.00

-347,530.

99

2.574

1,158.44

15 Pão 11 45 310,169.99

32,386.25

28,191.67

8,845.06

51,620.30

431,213.27

148,500.00

-367,437.

04

2.474

1,224.79

16 Vila Ramalho

16 45 423,643.39

46,208.85

28,416.67

9,291.07

24,042.63

531,602.61

216,000.00

-478,380.

55

2.215

1,594.60

17 Sto Antônio do Brito

16 45 423,643.39

46,208.85

28,510.42

9,476.91

42,766.56

550,606.13

216,000.00

-486,850.

10

2.254

1,622.83

18 Morro Alto 14 45 378,817.2

8 40,638.

67 28,815.

58 9,625.

58 46,631.0

6 504,528.1

7 189,000.00

-457,999.

12

2.423

1,526.66

19 Monte Carmelo

13 45 356,138.44

37,874.29

28,946.83

9,885.76

48,590.66

481,435.96

175,500.00

-451,736.

87

2.574

1,505.79

20 Xibauá 13 45 356,138.44

37,874.29

29,021.83

10,034.43

47,955.74

481,024.71

175,500.00

-458,512.

51

2.613

1,528.38

21 São Raimundo

25 45 619,724.92

71,985.87

28,210.42

8,882.23

29,765.66

758,569.10

337,500.00

-621,556.

90

1.842

2,071.86

22 Mamoriá 13 60 414,036.9

2 49,639.

52 27,549.

01 8,027.

37 41,364.1

8 540,617.0

0 234,000.00

-429,283.

85

1.835

1,430.95

23 São João 10 60 329,848.2

4 37,926.

39 27,612.

76 8,153.

74 47,952.3

3 451,493.4

5 180,000.00

-361,938.

70

2.011

1,206.46

24 Praia Nova 11 60 358,729.0

7 41,925.

18 27,455.

26 7,841.

53 45,672.1

3 481,623.1

6 198,000.00

-372,473.

12

1.881

1,241.58

25

Estirão do Carapanã

11 60 358,729.07

41,925.18

27,492.76

7,915.86

45,672.13

481,735.00

198,000.00

-375,860.

95

1.898

1,252.87

26 Adelândia 10 45 290,552.5

5 29,731.

38 27,549.

01 8,027.

37 34,858.4

7 390,718.7

7 180,000.00

-313,135.

28

2.320

1,043.78

27 Goiabal 12 60 386,565.71

45,800.23

27,567.76

8,064.53

43,499.36

511,497.59

216,000.00

-406,995.

38

1.884

1,356.65

28 Providência 11 60 358,729.0

7 41,925.

18 27,586.

51 8,101.

70 45,672.1

3 482,014.5

9 198,000.00

-384,330.

50

1.941

1,281.10

29 Idó 13 60 414,036.92

49,639.52

28,163.54

8,789.31

41,364.18

541,993.47

234,000.00

-464,526.

51

1.985

1,548.42

30 Nova União 10 60 329,848.2

4 37,926.

39 28,210.

42 8,882.

23 47,952.3

3 452,819.6

0 180,000.00

-395,656.

84

2.198

1,318.86

31 Barreira do Idó 12 60 386,565.7

1 45,800.

23 28,229.

17 8,919.

39 25,092.8

9 494,607.3

9 216,000.00

-446,472.

81

2.067

1,488.24

32 Canta Galo 11 60 358,729.0

7 41,925.

18 28,247.

92 8,956.

56 45,672.1

3 483,530.8

6 198,000.00

-423,807.

94

2.140

1,412.69

33 Morada 12 60 386,565.7 45,800. 28,529. 9,514. 43,499.3 513,908.5 216,0 - 2.1 1,578.

Appendix D

120


Item

Community


Available

energy in 25

years kWh

Energy cost

Consumer units

kWh/month.

CU

Equipment and

Implementation

Equipment

transport

Labor cost

Labor

transport


costs


costs

Present Value €

LCOE €/kWh

Monthly cost for


th Nova 1 23 17 08 6 4 00.00 473,575.

39 92 58

34 Caroçal 11 60 358,729.07

41,925.18

28,909.33

9,811.42

45,672.13

485,047.12

198,000.00

-463,285.

37

2.340

1,544.28

35 São Francisco

11 60 358,729.07

41,925.18

28,928.08

9,848.59

45,672.13

485,103.04

198,000.00

-464,979.

28

2.348

1,549.93

36 Toari 11 60 358,729.07

41,925.18

28,965.58

9,922.92

45,672.13

485,214.88

198,000.00

-468,367.

10

2.365

1,561.22

37 Fazendinha 12 60 386,565.7

1 45,800.

23 27,774.

01 8,473.

38 25,092.8

9 493,706.2

2 216,000.00

-425,628.

40

1.971

1,418.76

38 Boca do Xeruã 14 60 441,211.2

8 53,443.

65 29,021.

83 10,03

4.43 39,259.5

4 572,970.7

3 252,000.00

-545,444.

39

2.164

1,818.15

39 Ouro Preto 16 60 494,929.6

5 60,948.

72 28,478.

54 9,413.

73 16,708.6

5 610,479.2

8 288,000.00

-563,147.

35

1.955

1,877.16

40 São José/Anaxiqui

19 60 574,833.28

71,956.32

28,890.58

9,774.25

10,561.27

696,015.69

342,000.00

-648,498.

30

1.896

2,161.66

41 Sororoca 12 60 386,565.7

1 45,800.

23 28,950.

58 9,893.

19 25,092.8

9 496,302.5

9 216,000.00

-491,370.

76

2.275

1,637.90

TOTALS 580 52.68 16,218,616.11

1,916,450.38

1,151,548.14

360,034.50

1,539,019.14

21,185,668.28

9,031,500

-18,503,7

10.39

2.100

61,679.03


121

Table D.2: Costs for PV mini-grids in community of Barcelos, Amazonas - Brazil

Item

Community


Available

energy in 25

years kWh

Energy cost

UC´S kWh.mes. UC

Equipment and

Implementation

Equipment

transport

Labor cost

Labor

transport


costs

Total Impleme

nttion costs

Present Value €

LCOE €/kWh

Monthly cost for

each community €/month

1 Bacabal 21 45.00 219,279.3

6 24,638.

10 27,108.

85 3,460.

67 15,840.3

7 290,327.3

5 283,500

-332,538.

62

1.173

1,108.46

2 Bacuquara 13 45.00 145,824.7

8 15,521.

89 27,689.

63 4,155.

71 27,112.7

6 220,304.7

7 175,500

-269,887.

27

1.538

899.62

3 Bulixu 16 45.00 168,112.46

14,850.53

27,056.35

3,356.60

22,772.78

236,148.72 216,0

00

-254,742.

98

1.179

849.14

4 Caju 19 45.00 194,361.55

22,157.09

27,684.01

4,144.56

18,993.09

267,340.30 256,5

00

-340,930.

03

1.329

1,136.43

5 Camaru 40 45.00 321,229.5

4 38,266.

20 43,108.

04 6,012.

50 37,547.2

2 446,163.4

9 575,461

-574,823.

41

0.999

1,798.01

6 Estrada do Caurés

16 45.00 177,112.46

15,050.53

26,943.85

3,113.99

41,068.15

263,288.98 216,0

00

-243,243.

66

1.126

810.81

7

Lago do Ataina/ Manacauácá

22 45.00 229,241.71

20,403.84

26,953.22

3,152.18

13,293.16

293,044.11 297,0

00

-310,336.

34

1.045

1,034.45

8 Lesbão 18 45.00 192,861.22

21,183.68

27,200.72

3,642.80

18,373.52

263,261.94 243,0

00

-305,802.

65

1.258

1,019.34

9

Piloto/ Iguarapé do Beruri

42 45.00 333,448.66

39,721.79

44,747.81

6,241.20

38,975.46

463,134.92 615,3

85

-598,453.

57

0.972

1,838.00

10 Ponta da Terra

27 45.00 263,603.13

24,965.39

27,112.60

3,468.11

11,532.30

330,681.52 364,5

00

-377,122.

99

1.035

1,257.08

11 Romão 13 60.00 173,300.37

20,225.07

27,166.97

3,575.89

21,226.92

245,495.22 234,0

00

-279,989.

06

1.197

933.30

12 São Luiz 22 45.00 229,241.7

1 25,785.

97 27,112.

60 3,468.

11 11,388.4

0 296,996.7

8 297,000

-344,436.

73

1.160

1,148.12

13 São Roque 17 45.00 185,913.6

2 15,934.

78 27,058.

22 3,360.

32 21,070.9

7 253,337.9

2 229,500

-265,916.

26

1.159

886.39

14 Samaúma 14 45.00 151,224.3

2 16,554.

01 27,187.

60 3,616.

78 26,721.4

2 225,304.1

2 189,000

-256,928.

60

1.359

856.43

15 Tapira 42 45.00 333,448.66

39,721.79

44,747.81

6,241.20

38,975.46

463,134.92 615,3

85

-598,453.

57

0.972

1,838.00

16 Valério 12 45.00 132,246.54

14,313.62

27,112.60

3,468.11

29,941.96

207,082.83 162,0

00

-225,825.

17

1.394

752.75

17 Florestal I 27 45.00 272,016.2

4 31,604.

57 27,552.

76 3,884.

39 22,478.0

4 357,535.9

9 364,500

-420,993.

31

1.155

1,403.31

18 Acuacu 13 45.00 141,324.78

15,421.89

27,670.88

4,118.54

46,685.90

235,221.99

175,500

-268,193.

1.528

893.98

Appendix D

122

Table D.2: Costs for PV mini-grids in community of Barcelos, Amazonas - Brazil

Item

Community


Available

energy in 25

years kWh

Energy cost

UC´S kWh.mes. UC

Equipment and

Implementation

Equipment

transport

Labor cost

Labor

transport


costs

Total Impleme

nttion costs

Present Value €

LCOE €/kWh

Monthly cost for

each community €/month

36

19 Acuquaia 10 60.00 139,892.1

6 18,779.

01 27,792.

76 4,360.

13 44,984.0

8 235,808.1

4 180,000

-280,907.

87

1.561

936.36

20 Canafé 20 45.00 210,451.08

23,446.23

27,680.26

4,137.13

15,512.81

281,227.50 270,0

00

-354,996.

14

1.315

1,183.32

21 Nova Jerusalém

20 45.00 206,851.08

28,251.80

28,184.17

4,679.78

16,763.60

284,730.43 270,0

00

-398,133.

02

1.475

1,327.11

22 Baturité 17 45.00 184,113.6

2 20,054.

80 27,181.

97 3,605.

63 20,267.8

0 255,223.8

2 229,500

-292,298.

34

1.274

974.33

23 Daracuá 11 45.00 123,083.3

3 13,209.

04 27,108.

85 3,460.

67 50,667.9

2 217,529.8

2 148,500

-213,188.

68

1.436

710.63

24 São Francisco

27 45.00 263,186.95

38,083.74

27,112.60

3,468.11 6,932.60 338,784.0

0 364,500

-425,885.

07

1.168

1,419.62

25 Tomar 14 45.00 150,324.32

16,534.01

27,571.51

3,921.55

26,319.83

224,671.22 189,0

00

-271,336.

15

1.436

904.45

26 Boa Vista 10 60.00 132,692.1

6 15,394.

45 27,099.

47 3,442.

09 29,079.1

9 207,707.3

6 180,000

-226,786.

18

1.260

755.95

27 Estrada do Elói 12 60.00 162,399.0

9 14,794.

46 26,925.

10 3,096.

43 22,759.5

6 229,974.6

4 216,000

-228,472.

67

1.058

761.58

28 Seringalzinho 10 60.00 139,892.1

6 18,779.

01 28,122.

29 4,557.

12 26,895.0

6 218,245.6

5 180,000

-290,403.

08

1.613

968.01

29 Santa Luzia 10 60.00 130,892.1

6 15,354.

45 27,760.

88 4,296.

95 29,228.4

0 207,532.8

3 180,000

-266,263.

62

1.479

887.55

30 Santa Rita 10 60.00 136,292.1

6 15,474.

45 27,560.

26 3,899.

25 27,828.4

0 211,054.5

1 180,000

-248,138.

77

1.379

827.13

TOTALS 565 48.50 5,843,861.

35 654,47

6.22 871,31

4.64 119,406.49

781,237.08

8,270,295.78

8,097,232

-9,765,42

7

1.268

32,119.6

6

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