CARTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF GENERAL GEOGRAPHIC

ELEMENTS IN CHILDREN’S MENTAL MAPS

Kristina Gurjanovaite

State Company “GIS-Centras”

kristina_gurjanovaite@yahoo.com

Giedre Beconyte

Vilnius University

giedre.beconyte@gf.vu.lt

INTRODUCTION

The present paper presents the results obtained by analysis of submissions to the

B.Petchenik’s Children’s World Map Competition in Lithuania in 2005. The research was

initiated after noticing that most of the submissions could be analyzed as mental maps that

reflect children’s cognition and evaluation of geographical environment as well as their

cartographic knowledge – not only what has been learned at school, but also the relationships

between elements of geographical environment, which have been intuitively perceived. The

drawings show a reduced and generalized model of surrounding environment, where

individual symbols are used. So they could be considered mental maps. Mental maps were

defined as individual systems of spatial references, which have no material form. Still there is

no universally accepted methodology of their visualization and research. The authors of the

paper have compared the children’s drawings with traditional maps looking for cartographic

elements, which were identified and classified according to a relation to ordinary map

elements. This method allows measuring cartographic knowledge and intuitive cartographic

thinking, which reflects in drawings where mental maps were graphically conveyed by the

authors. The described research is a part of a broader investigation, which aims at evaluation

of the importance of children’s mental maps research, finding out and description of their

peculiarities and creation of a methodology of geographic analysis for such works. It is

expected that the results of this research will help to form a methodology for development of

cartographic perception for children.

CONCEPTION OF MENTAL MAP

Definition of Mental Map

R.M. Downs and D. Stea (Downs, 1990, Stea, 1998) defined the term mental mapping

as a process composed of a sequence of psychological transformations during daily navigation

through physical space detecting, coding, storing, reconstructing and decoding of the

information about the relative position and properties of objects.

When an individual faces a new experience he has to explore it, assimilate, compare

with the already existing one and introduce it into his mental outfit. If the newly acquired

knowledge or part of it do not correspond to or confront with the familiar information the

individual simply rejects or ignores it or, if the information is undeniable, changes his

perception.

Mental maps usually are poor in geographical objects. The geographical information

includes the visited objects, ridden roads, heard or read information, knowledge about

distances, climate zones, and neighbouring countries. Historical or linguistic knowledge may

strongly influence the mental mapping. Mental maps have many mistakes which largely

depend on individual education. Thus, mental maps are a reflection of individual knowledge

and perception and interpretation of the world as a geographical space.

According to Y-F. Tuan (Tuan, 1975), mental maps should not be perceived as mere

mental images resembling real maps which we use in our everyday life. They are a reflection

of more sophisticated spatial perception. Mental maps may not have common cartographic

constructions. They are composed not only of images but also of emotions. According to D.

Pocock (Pocock, 1979), part of individual‘s spatial perception can be conveyed neither

cartographically nor in any other way.

These ideas were supported by R. Golledge (Golledge, 1992, 1997) who believed that

a mental map does not resemble a cartographic map because it is not a real though diminished

view of the world and correctness is not its requisite feature. In Gollege’s opinion, specific

cartographic knowledge is not necessary for reading a mental map. Yet this view narrows even

the classic definition of a map confirmed by the International Cartograpic Association

(www.icaci.org): “Map is a symbolized image of geographical reality, representing selected

features or characteristics, resulting from the creative effort of its author's execution of

choices, and is designed for use when spatial relationships are of primary relevance”. If mental

map was conveyed graphically, it would be nothing else but a diminished and generalized

image of geographical reality with emphasized role of spatial relations and author’s subjective

choices of objects and their properties.

In authors’ opinion, mental maps are a specific kind of maps and, concomitantly, an

object of scientific research.

Mental map should be defined as a cartographically conveyed subjective perception of

real geographical space predetermined by education, psychological attitude and other factors.

Mental maps of the same space are different for every individual but they may be generalized

for social groups on regional, national, cultural or other bases.

Overview of Investigations

The rudiments of mental maps can be followed back to the teaching methods used for

training teachers of oratory in the ancient Rome. Students of oratory used to memorize their

speeches by spatial perception method: a student memorizes the image of physical place (for

example, the arrangement of rooms in a house) every object of which is linked with a word or

a phrase to be learned. Walking about the house the students tried to remember the meaning

attributed to each place.

Mental maps and their use attracted more serious interest only in the middle of the 20th

century. In the 70ties, when the importance of this kind of maps was fully recognized, the

fundamentals of their conception were started to be developed. At the beginning, efforts were

directed at formulating the concept of mental map. i.e. at defining what mental map was (D.

Gould, H. White, R. M. Downs, D. Stea, R. J. Stimson, B. Tversky) and whether it could be

regarded as a map in all (R. G. Golledge). E. C. Tolman studied and compared mental maps of

humans and rats. K. Lynch used mental maps in his studies of urban design.

Today, most of the people have a sufficiently broad and correct perception of the

universe. Whereas very limited intuitive knowledge about the planet supplemented with

imagined and fantastic objects are often reflected in children’s subconscious and in their

creative works which can be regarded as cartographic. Contrary to mental maps of adults,

which almost always are images of the universe levelled by information, mental maps of

children convey reality which is not affected by preconceived notions, tradition or other

limiting factors.

In the 80ties, the interest in children’s mental maps strengthened and they were

investigated in different aspects. Magazine “Professional Geographer” published a series of

articles related with the studies of mental maps of adults and children. Some time later,

Skelton and Valentine compiled a collection of publications devoted to theoretical

perspectives related with debates about spatial perception by children and youth. These

publications analyse the links of youngsters with concrete places and assume that young

people are forced to create their own private spaces. S. Ruddick supported this idea. He

pointed out the importance of understanding the needs of youth and the most important things

in their environment. The understanding could be achieved by cognitive mapping.

Many scientific studies go into children’s ability to picture what is in their

consciousness. There have been many discussions as to children’s ability to convey their

perception of own place and location. Undoubtedly, children’s drawing skills and skills of

conveyance of own spatial perception develop rather slowly and limit the possibilities of

conveyance of conscious images (S.J. Catling).

The works of R. M. Downs, L. S. Liben and J. M. Blaut are devoted to children’s

spatial perception (Downs, 1990, Blaut, 1999). It is argued whether a child is able to

understand maps, aero photographs and other forms of spatial information. Downs and Liben

believe that kindergartners are too young to perceive space depicted in symbols therefore they

are unable to determine the links between objects. It is assumed that namely gradual and

integrated training of mapping skills can help to develop this ability. Whereas D. Stea (Stea,

1998) asserts that the newly acquired linguistic and sensomotoric abilities that are unrelated

with spatial perception may inhibit the development of the skills of mental mapping. Thus a

map or a mental map is an important tool of training spatial cognition.

Some authors analysed the dependence of mental mapping ability on the child’s age

(R.D. Sack) and sex. It has been reported that boys demonstrate better understanding of spatial

links and notions than girls (M.H. Matthews).

In his project “Children’s mental maps and design of the neighbourhood of Abu-Nuseir

(Jordan) A.Y Al-Zoabi analysed how children interact with the environment and how urban

designers could make use of this information forming a locality meeting children’s

expectations. Children’s mental maps have been analysed in terms of age, sex, family earnings

and education.

A discussion is going on as to the social-economic factors forming mental maps. It has

been reported that social and economic status is responsible for children’s different

environments (Chemers, Altman, Ward) and the features of these environments (pleasant and

unpleasant) are reflected in their mental maps.

Problems of Analysis of Mental Maps

Analysis of mental maps is not an easy task. It is possible to see and analyse these

maps in two ways:

a) The objects of mental map and their links are found out by inquiry and their

schematic depiction. This method allows acquisition of intended part of mental map and the

graphic depiction not necessarily is similar to the mental image of the author;

b) The mental image of environment is drawn by the author. Information acquired by

this method is more abundant and diverse.

A twofold problem occurs in the case of graphic expression by the author. On the one

hand, it is necessary to evaluate child’s possibility to convey the imagined reality on a plane

accurately (by drawing or other means). On the other hand, it is necessary to evaluate the

portions of mental image and acquired knowledge in the conveyed mental map.

Catling in his works discusses children’s ability to accurately convey the mental

image. It is reported that child’s drawing and spatial conveyance skills are permanently

developing. Spatial perception of the universe by children until six years of age is egocentric.

In about the seventh year of age, the perception of the universe becomes more objective. Until

ten years of age, children acquire skills which help to perceive the space notionally and to

operate notions.

D. Stea believes that when child’s verbal and writing skills are rudimentary the mental

map may be the best way of conveying the perception of the surrounding space.

Children’s mental maps often become an object of research despite certain difficulties.

Attempts are made to acquire knowledge about children’s perception and predetermining

factors through the forms of depicted bodies, chosen colours, relative sizes, chosen objects for

depiction, distances and subscripts.

Once a conclusion was made that drawings of mental spatial images are maps they

were analysed in cartographic aspect, i.e. through a scale, cartographic grid and projection,

topographic information and conventional signs.

CHILDREN’S DRAWINGS AS MENTAL MAPS

The international children’s mental map competitions have been organized by the

International Cartographic Association since 1993 (every two years) in commemoration of

Barbara Petchenic, former vice-president of ICA, who had for a long time worked with maps

designed for children. The main objectives of the competitions were: to develop children’s

knowledge of geography and cartography, promote creative efforts, improve the perception of

the immediate surroundings and encourage a global attitude towards it.

Seven hundred thirty six children’s mental maps have been submitted during the whole

history of the international competition (Europe – 404, Asia – 125, N. America – 77, S.

America – 67, Africa – 31, Australia and New Zeeland – 27, and C. America – 7). The leading

positions were taken by: Europe – 33, Asia – 16, N. America – 6, S. America – 6, Africa – 5,

Australia and New Zeeland – 2.

The international competition has been organized in Lithuania since 2005. It is

coordinated by the Lithuanian Cartographic Society. The organizers received 753 drawings of

children of different age (Fig. 1; A–C). The best works were exposed at the Teachers’ School

in Vilnius. Five of the drawings were submitted for the final approval at the Conference of the

International Cartographic Association in Spain where the total of 133 children’s mental maps

selected by national organizers was evaluated. Lithuanian representative Gintarė Kvietkute (13

years of age; Fig. 1) was among the twelve winners.

A. Age, years

74%

26%

girls boys

B. Sex

6%1%

15%

69%

9%

worldregioncountrylocalmixed

C. Territory

D. Gintare Kvietkute, 13 E. Vilius Skrinska, 8

Fig. 1. Children’s map contest in Lithuania; Distribution of the submissions by age, sex and

mapped territory (A–C); the winners: international (D), Lithuanian (E)

It should be noted that although the mentioned competition was for the first time organized in

Lithuania in 2005 already in 1993, Alfonsas Lekavicius from Lithuania was among the winners

of the first competition organized by B. Petchenik.

These results are cheering. Lithuanian representatives participated only twice and twice were

among the winners. The access of A. Lekavicius’ submission among the one hundred World’s

best children maps printed in the book „Children Map of The World. Selections from the Barbara

Petchenik Children‘s World Map Competition“ was an even more honoured recognition. Thus,

we may conclude that Lithuanian children have specific perception of the universe and possess a

great cartographic potential.

CARTOGRAPHIC ELEMENTS IN CHILDREN’S MENTAL MAPS

General Assumptions

The present work analyses the general geographical and cartographic elements of children’s

mental maps. Analysis of these elements helps to understand the general laws of perception of the

universe by children and the regularities of children’s perception depending on the age, sex, etc.

The geographical spatial perception is reflected in mental maps by territorial and thematic

elements: universe, general view of the world, settlements, and natural objects, cultural, political

and social–economic territorial peculiarities. Yet as was mentioned above, researchers have

determined that depending on the age, sex and social–economic status of children the

geographical spatial perception differs. As a child is growing up, his perception of the universe

changes (Sack): from point objects perception proceeds to linear objects and then to the

environment around the linear objects and further to notional perception of the links between

point and linear objects. Therefore, we can expect that in the mental maps of small children one

may find individual unrelated things and phenomena of the real world. The maps of older

children should be based on a more abstract image of the real objects with more sophisticated

spatial interrelations. Mental maps also depend on children’ education: the mental maps of

kindergartners should be predominated by the nearest reality because children of this age are yet

unable to perceive larger spaces. The maps of older children should contain elements of “real’

maps: the shape of a country/continent, hydrography, settlements, etc. about which children learn

at school or which are perceived based on individual experience.

Analysis of the elements of cartographic mental maps allows understanding of the

relationship between the reality and imagination in children’s mental maps and estimating

cartographic knowledge of children. For this purpose, ability to generalize, symbols, elements

of mathematical basis (scale, cartographic grid and cartographic projection), and general

topographic information were studied. Great attention also was paid to transformation of

cartographic image because it demonstrates the child’s sub-conscious spatial perception.

Scale

Scale is the essential feature of cartogramphic basis of a map. Its perception allows a

rather precise localization of objects and comparison of the distances on a map. Combinations

of different scales in children’s mental maps show how children perceive distances and how or

whether at all they perceive dimensions. Out of 788 children’s submissions only 10 (about

1.3%) had an indicated scale; as a rule, the scale was expressed in numbers. Though the linear

scale should be more acceptable to children they did not use it. Probably, this can be

accounted for by the dominant Lithuanian cartographic tradition. Some of the submission

(13.2%) had more than one (though not indicated) scale. These works were especially

interesting due to depiction of territorial units of different importance at a relevant (in author’s

opinion) scale. Egle Grigaite very visually combined different scales in her drawing (Fig. 2,

A). The scale is growing left to right, i.e. from the global to the local (planar view).

A: Egle Grigaite, 15 B: Gabija Razanskaite, 12

Fig. 2: Different scales combined in one drawing. A – The scale grows left to right from global to

local planar view. B – Lithuania is shown at a largest scale in the uppermost part of the map

Different scales also were combined in the drawings for hierarchical arrangement of

territories. Gabija Ražanskaitė depicts Lithuania (Fig. 2, B) as the main object of the map at a

largest scale and in the uppermost part of the vertical axis of the map.

Though there were not many submissions where more than one scale was combined, they

present an opportunity to carry out an interesting investigation of how children evaluate and

depict territories at local, national, regional and global levels.

Cartographic Grid

The cartographic grid – a network of meridians and parallels – reduces the map into

separate small easily identified areas. In this way, the vast amount of information is reduced to

smaller elements facilitating its detection.

Most of children do not use cartographic grids in their drawings. Yet the grids

occurring in drawings are characterized by great diversity. In many drawings they are just

copied. Very precisely presented cartographic grids (without creative aspect) allow making a

conclusion that they, together with the remaining cartographic material, are merely copied

from a map without any relation with the map image.

Some drawings have not very precise (in most cases without digital expressions) grids

which resemble drawing decorations. Sometimes there occur very original analogues of

cartographic grids, for example, lines on a basketball identified with the globe divided into the

northern–southern and eastern–western hemispheres (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Fictitious “cartographic” grid

Yet the absolute majority of children’s drawings have no cartographic grid at all.

Almost all maps depicting only a part of the globe have no cartographic grid. This is,

presumably, accounted for by poor cartographic knowledge and concentration on more

important – thematic – aspects, unwillingness to “spoil” the visual quality of the drawing by

reducing it to small elements or, merely, disregard of cartographic grid in creative process.

Cartographic Projection

Due to orbicular properties of our planet, the planar projection of the Earth surface

cannot be done without certain deformations. A lot of cartographic projections have been

developed in order to possibly reduce the deformations yet new solutions are still to be made.

Children’s drawings are characterized by an especially great variety of “cartographic”

projections. The common copied projections – Mercator’s, Robinson’s, Stab-Werner’s or

Bonne’s – are used. Yet often original projections are created using rich imagination. Children

project the Earth surface both on a plane and on three-dimensional objects. Though many

projections customary some creative solutions are much unexpected. Original “cartographic”

projections often are produced by transference of the image of Earth surface on a relevantly-

shaped toy, plant or animal (Fig. 4., A).

A: Daina Sakenyte, 13 B: Aiste Baltraityte, 14

Fig. 4. Original „projections“: A – Earth surface projected on a turtle shell, B –

continents projected on a flower blossom.

Some intuitively created cartographic projections are very interesting and demonstrate

the authors’ ability to apply the poor cartographic knowledge in stock. Projection of continents

on flower petals which remind small areas of the globe cut along the meridians may serve as a

good example (Fig. 4., B).

Conclusions

The elements of cartographic fundamentals in children’s mental maps can be evaluated

according to relationship between the geographical knowledge and imagination used in

creating certain elements and according to the demonstrated ability to manipulate them.

The possible general evaluations:

• an element is depicted expressively, copied from an available map without accessory

interpretation (for example, lines of cartographic grid in no way related with the image);

• an element is constructed applying the learnt rules, used consciously, adapted for expression

of original ideas (for example, combination of a few scales, conveyance of their hierarchy and

grid reducing the space into meaningful regions) with a clear idea what it is and what it is

necessary for;

• an element is formed intuitively, it is original, decorative, has fictitious features (for

example, scale: the Earth is depicted as a part of something bigger, emphasized perception and

depiction of the universe; the Earth is identified with an object in a familiar environment – for

example, a kitten playing with the globe, the Earth floating in an ocean);

• is absent, not emphasized or not applied.

The scale in children’s drawings was evaluated according to a few criteria. There were

drawings where the scale was expressed in numbers. These works show that the authors

perceive the importance of the main factor lending mathematical basis to cartographic image

and prove the cartographic sophistication. Of special interest are the drawings with a few

combined (though mathematically not expressed) scales. In this way, the author gives weight

to some territory or emphasizes relationship or dependence. These works are a perfect material

for scientists to study children’s mental maps. When evaluating the scale in children’s

drawings, special attention was paid to the drawings in which the globe was depicted as

surrounded by real or imagined universe what implied a broad spatial perception. The

drawings where the scale was not emphasized were distinguished.

Projection was evaluated according to the degree of originality and interpretation.

Drawings were selected which have almost no importance for studies of children’s mental

maps. They were copies of maps. The drawings with obvious author’s interpretation using a

preferred cartographic projection were regarded as informative. These works show child’s

ability to use the available information and apply it for his own needs. They also demonstrate

child’s personal territorial evaluation and perception. The drawings with original cartographic

projections were regarded as especially valuable.

Most of children’s drawings have no cartographic grid. Yet though rare it appears as a

“real” cartographic image. The cartographic grid in children’s drawings was evaluated visually

by determining the extent of original interpretation. Copies were selected which have no

greater importance for investigations of mental mapping but evidence that children are

familiar with cartographic production.

Table 1. Projection in children’s mental maps

Copied Interpreted Original Unidentified

Projection 15.5 % 41.6 % 24.6 % 18.3 %

Table 2. Grid in children’s mental maps

Copied Interpreted Imitation Not present

Grid 8.2 % 6.2 % 4.9 % 80.7 %

Table 3. Scale in children’s mental maps

Numeric Several

scales

Earth in space Concept ignored

Scale 4.1 % 13.2 % 34.9 % 47.8 %

THEMATIC INFORMATION IN CHILDREN’S MENTAL MAPS

Specific Features of Thematic Information in Children’s Mental Maps

The title of the children’s mental maps competition “Many countries – one world”

predetermined the general topics of submissions. They were: solidarity, friendship among

countries, integrity, and peace.

The idea of integrity and solidarity is conveyed in children’s drawings in various

original ways: the globe is depicted as a seedbed producing an integrated object – aim – which

is rendered as a flower or tree; continents are linked by linear objects as if “arm in arm”; the

depicted Oikumena is engirdled with chosen objects, in most cases flowers, children or peace

doves, strengthening an impression of integrated world. Many animals and plants unrelated

with the national level are drawn on the globe as if uniting the continents into an integrated

planet and creating an impression of free movement.

Inga Jančytė, 14 Vytautas Mickus, 12 Oksana Vasiljeva, 15

Fig. 5. Examples of geopolitical ideas in children’s maps

Nevertheless, in the context of common idea it is possible to notice a variety of topics:

specific natural and anthropogenic objects, fictitious spaces and objects, reflections of

different social psychological aspects: cultural conflicts, friendship among nations, unions, etc.

(Fig. 5). In comparison with the general information, the “thematic” information is usually

very expressive and shows interesting trends. This opens a vista for further investigations.

Possibilities and Trends of Thematic Information Analysis

Main trends of mental map investigations (sections of analysis) are the following:

1. Geographical coverage and context: the scale and environment of depicted space, most

“well-liked” (often beneficently depicted) territories, emphasis on Europe and Lithuania as

own living environment, and reflections of other geographical knowledge depending on the

authors’ age.

2. Cartographic cognition: the discussed elements of cartographic basis, general geographical

information, conventional signs and their analogues, legends, precision and information of

cartographic image, and methods of cartographic conveyance.

3. Stylistic features: colour schemes, diversity of depicted objects, technique of performance

and associations.

4. Linking of continents and countries with other objects: people (the globe as a part of human

body, the planet in the human hand, etc.), zoomorphism (the planet as an animal), and other

objects and related associations (flowers, trees, houses, etc.).

5. Diversity and intensity of conveyed ideas: friendship among nations, peace, journeys;

elements of irony or satire.

6. A reflection of social-information environment of author’s.

GENERALIZATION

Perception of the elements of cartographic basis is clearly expressed in few works

though many of them are distinguished for improvisations on the topic of these elements

implying the presence of cartographic perception. Perception of scale is relatively strongest.

Cartographic grid in children’s drawings commonly is not designed for orientation but is used

as a decoration or imitation of once seen cartographic image.

The thematic information in children’s mental maps is interpreted more freely and is

marked by variety of ideas. It is a perfect material for further investigations of mental maps.

Children’s mental maps can be investigated in different aspects. Using a relevant

method of analysis it is possible to obtain much objective information about children’s

perception and evaluation of geographical environment and manifestations of cartographic

perception what is especially interesting in small children.

An atlas of children’s mental maps is one of the intended results of this study. It is

expected that such an atlas would help to develop cartographic and geographical perception

and would be a good cartographic visual aid. The demand for such atlas, the tasks to be solved

by it and the target groups will be determined. It is desirable that the atlas bears a complex

character: most typical maps will be supplied with cartographic and psychological analysis.

There are expectations to prepare a digital version of the atlas to be disseminated among

schools as a teaching aid.

LITERATURE

Anderson, J.M., Atwal, J., Wiegand, P. And Wood, A.A (2005). Children Map the World: Selections

from the Barbara Petchenik Children‘s World Map Competition, Redlands: ESRI Press.

Blaut, J.M.(1999). Maps and Spaces, The Professional Geographer 51: 510 – 515.

Downs, R.M., Liben, L.S. and Daggs, D.G (1990). Commentary – On „ On education and

Geographers: the Role of Cognitive Developmental Theory in Geographic Education“, Annals of

Association of American Geographers 80: 123 – 135.

Golledge, R.G and Stimson, R.J (1997). Spatial Behavior: A Geographic Perspective, New York:

Guilford Press.

Golledge, R.G, Gale, N., Pellegrino, J.W. and Doherty, S. (1992). Spatial Knowledge Acquisition by

Children: Route Learning and Relational Distances, Annals of Association of American Geographers

82: 223 – 244.

Pocock, D.C.D (1979). The Contribution of Mental Maps in the Persception Studies, Geography 64:

279 – 287.

Stea, D., Reid, A., Cuevas, M. V. And Millan, G. L. (1998). Spatial cognition among Small Children in

a Oaxacan Fishing Village, Boston: The Annual Meeting of the Association of American

Geographers /Scientific report/

Tuan, Y-F. (1975). Images and Mental Maps, Annals of Association of American Geographers 65: 205

– 213.

Internet links

Al-Zoabi, A.-Y (2004) “Children’s ’Mental Maps’ and Neighborhood Design of Abu-Nuseir, Jordan”:

http://www.araburban.org/childcity/Papers/English/Alzoabi.pdf (last visited 2007-02-14)

Chatterjee S. (2006) “Children’s friendship with place: an exploration of environmental child

friendliness of children’s environments in cities”: http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/theses/available/etd-

05172006-230131/unrestricted/etd.pdf (last visited 2007-03-14).

C.Strohecker, A. Slaughter, “Constructing Representations of Mental Maps”:

http://www.merl.com/papers/docs/TR99-01.pdf (last visited 2007-03-14).

“Cognitive Maps: the mental representation of the environment”, Environmental Psychology 4:

http://www.surrey.ac.uk/~pss1su/lecturenotes/notes/env4/env4sprep.pdf (last visited 2007-03-14).tal

Psychology

Kristina Gurjanovaite, Giedre Beconyte

CARTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF GENERAL GEOGRAPHIC ELEMENTS IN

CHILDREN MENTAL MAPS

Summary

The paper discusses the results of the analysis of submissions sent for the International

B.Petchenik Children’s map competition in Lithuania in 2005. The research was initiated after

noticing that the most of submissions could be analyzed as mental maps that reflect children’s

cognition and evaluation of geographical environment as well as their knowledge of

cartography – not only what has been learned at school, but also relationships between

elements of geographical environment, which have been intuitively understood. The drawings

show a reduced and generalized model of surrounding environment, where individual symbols

are used. So they could be considered mental maps. Mental maps were defined as individual

systems of spatial references, which have no material form. Still there is no universally

accepted methodology of their visualization and research. The authors of the paper have

compared the children’s drawings with traditional maps looking for cartographic elements,

which were identified and classified according to relation to ordinary map elements. Such

method allows to measure cartographic knowledge and intuitive cartographic thinking, which

reflects in drawings, where mental maps were graphically rendered by the authors themselves.

The elements of cartographic base in children mental maps can be evaluated by the

relationship among demonstrated cartographic knowledge, amount of imagination used for

designing the element and ability to manipulate the element seeking to convey a

corresponding message. The following types of use of cartographic elements have been

distinguished (the results are summarized in Tables 1–3):

A copy of the element from a real map without any interpretation.

The element designed consciously applying cartographic rules and personal

knowledge.

The element designed intuitively, original with fantastic features.

The element is not present or not emphasized.

The use of scale have been analyzed in different aspects. Special attention was paid to

the paintings which employ several scales although they may be not explicitly indicated. This

is the way how the author assigns special importance to some territory, stresses on the spatial

relationship or dependence. Such paintings are very good materials for analysis of children

mental maps (Fig. 2). Very interesting are the paintings where the Earth is shown surrounded

by the universe or a phantastic space. In many cases they reveal a specific perception of the

reality

Use of map projection was evaluated according to whether it was originally chosen,

copied or interpreted. The paintings with various interpretations of cartographic projections

are of the biggest interest when cartographic cognition is concerned. They show that a child is

able to apply his cartographic and geographic knowledge for his own purposes. Also such

mental maps often reflect personal evaluations of different territories. On the other hand the

most important paintings for analysis of contents of children‘s mental maps are the ones with

originally designed cartographic projections (Fig. 4).

The majority of children paintings does not have any cartographic grid at all but

individual approach to grid-like lines can be noticed in some of them (Fig. 3).

It is possible to see variety of themes within the main idea of the contest: there are

specific natural and anthropogenic objects, fantastic spaces and objects shown on children‘s

maps, they reflect diverse socio-psychological aspects – cultural conflicts, friendship of

nations, spatial preferences etc. (Fig. 5). Such thematic information is generally more

expressed than general geographic and cartographic information and reflects interesting trends

of spatial thinking. It opens many possibilities for the future research.

Gurjanovaite K., Beconyte G. Cartographic analysis of general geographic elements in children

mental maps. Geography. Scientific Journal. 2007. Vol. 43 (1)

The paper discusses the results of the analysis of submissions sent for the International

B.Petchenik Children’s Map Competition in Lithuania in 2005. The research was initiated after

noticing that the most of submissions could be analyzed as mental maps that reflect children’s

cognition and evaluation of geographical environment as well as their cartographic knowledge – not

only what has been learned at school, but also relationships between elements of geographical

environment, which have been intuitively understood. The drawings show a reduced and generalized

model of surrounding environment, where individual symbols are used. So they could be considered

mental maps. Mental maps were defined as individual systems of spatial references, which have no

material form. Still there is no universally accepted methodology of their visualization and research.

The authors of the paper have compared the children’s drawings with traditional maps looking for

cartographic elements, which were identified and classified according to relation to ordinary map

elements. Such method allows to measure cartographic knowledge and intuitive cartographic thinking,

which reflects in drawings, where mental maps were graphically conveyed by the authors. Described

research is a part of a broader investigation, which aims to evaluate the importance of children mental

maps research, to find out and describe their peculiarities and to create a methodology of geographic

analysis for such works. It is expected that the results of this research will help to form methodology

for development of cartographical perception for children.

References 12. Figs 5. Tables 3. Lithuanian, summary in English.

Keywords: cartography, mental map, children, geographic information, mental space, maps