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Conceptual models of

spiritualityMaria M. Carroll

a

aAssociate Professor in the Department of Social

Work , Delaware State University , Dover , DE ,

199042277 E-mail:

Published online: 26 Apr 2010.

To cite this article:Maria M. Carroll (2001) Conceptual models of spirituality, Social

Thought, 20:1-2, 5-21

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Conceptual Models of Spirituality

Maria M . Carroll

SUMMARY. The traditional social work view of human nature and the

whole person has emphasized biological, psychological, and social di-

mensions. Interdisciplinary and, more recently, social work conceptual-

izations of the whole person have added spirituality. After exploring

definitions of spirituality, this article describes seven models which in-

clude diagrams that enhance the conceptual understanding of spirituality.

The models are examined with regard to the spiritual growth process by

drawing on developmental theories. A new diagrammatic model, Spiritual-

ity: A Wholistic Model, illustrates the relationship between spirituality

and the biological, psychological, social, and transpersonal dim ensions of

the person. It provides a way to evaluate the helpfulness of experiences, in-

cluding practice interventions, with respect to their role in assisting each

individual in moving toward realization of full potential.

[Article copies

available for a fee from The Haw orth Documen t Delivery Service:

1-800-342-9678 . E-mail address:

Website:

2001

by The

Haworth

Press, Inc. All rights

reserved.]

K E Y W O R S

Spirituality, development, transpersonal, conceptual

models, social work

Maria M. Carroll, PhD, LCSW, is Associate Professor in the Department of Social

Work at Delaware State University, Dover, DE 19904-2277 (E-mail: [email protected]).

[Haworth co-indexing entry

note]:

Conceptual M odels of Spirituality. Carroll, Maria M. Co-published

simultaneously in

Social Thought

(The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 20, No. 1/2, 2001 , pp. 5-21; and:

Transpersonal Perspectiveson Spirituality in Social Work

(ed: Edward R. Canda, and Elizabeth D. Smith)

The Haworth Press, Inc., 2001, pp. 5-21. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from

The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800-342-9678, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address:

[email protected]].

2001 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 5

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6 Transpersonal Perspectives on Spirituality in Social Work

CONCEPTU L MODELS OF SPIRITU LITY

Some helping professions such as social work (Corbett, 1925; Keith-Lucas,

1960; O 'Brie n, 1992; Rich m ond, 1930; Siporin, 1985) and nursing (Carson,

1989a; Stoll, 1989) historically have empha sized the whole person. Ho we ver,

they have usually em phasized the biological, psych ological, and social dim en-

sions of personhood while minimizing spirituality.

As spirituality has been increasingly considered essential for understanding

the whole person, social work literature has broadened its focus to include it

(e.g., Bullis, 1996; Canda, 1986, 1988a, 1997; Carroll, 1997b; Cornett, 1992;

Cow ley, 1993; W eick, 1983b). This new focus has raised questions such as:

W hat is spirituality? W hat is the relationship between spirituality, clients' ex-

periences, and the idea of the whole person or wholeness? How are the ele-

ments of wholeness related? How is spiritual growth demonstrated?

Spirituality, in its broadest sense, has been described as relationship or in-

terconnectedness am ongself,others, and G od -am on g all that exists in the uni-

verse (Canda, 1983). M ode ls depicting w holene ss, therefore, include the

various dimension s of the person and show their interrelatedness acco rding to

the particular theorist's view. In addition to discussing spirituality and whole-

ness in conceptual models, several theorists from various disciplines have dia-

gramed their models. These visual representations enhance the understanding

of conceptual models.

Th is article will define spirituality in two different w ays , presen t seven dia-

grammatic models which include spirituality, and discuss spiritual develop-

ment as a process of growth toward wholeness. It will then present a new

diagrammatic model of spirituality which includes its two most common

meanings as well as a wholistic developmental perspective.

ME NINGS OF SPIRITU LITY

De scriptions of spirituality contain various them es. O ne theme is a perso n's

experiential knowledge of and relationship with a transcendent and ultimate

source of reality or creation (Berenson, 1987; Bullis, 1996; Fowler, 1981;

Siporin, 1985; Titon e, 1991). This relationship with G od, or the transcendent,

is described as a person's openness and responsiveness to God (Helminiak,

1987), sense of well-being in relation to God (the religious component)

(Ellison, 1983), and focus on ultimate reality (Canda & Furman, 1999). This

relationship with the transcendent may (but not necessarily) be expressed

through organized religion, which serves as a means to express one's beliefs

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Maria M. Carroll 7

about his or her spiritual nature (Dudley & Helfgott, 1990; Ortiz, 1991;Titone,

1991).

A second theme refers to spirituality originating from the deepest core of

the person (Canda, 1990; Jung, 1954a; Siporin, 1985). This is described as

what is given as a birthright (Helminiack, 1987), one's fundamental nature

(Ortiz, 1991), the ground of our being (Joseph, 1988, p. 444), soul (Siporin,

1985),

and an intangible, life-giving principle or force (Stoll, 1989).

These themes are interrelated and complementary (Canda, 1990, 1997). In

discussing social work's conceptualization of spirituality, Carroll (1998) iden-

tified two different meanings of spirituality: spirituality-as-essence and spiri-

tuality-as-one-dimension. Spirituality-as-essence refers to a core nature

which provides the motivating energy toward meeting the potential for self-de-

velopment and self-transformation [whereas] . . . spirituality-as-one-dimen-

sion refers specifically to one 's search for meaning and relationship with God,

the transcendent, or ultimate reality (p. 11). Spirituality-as-one-dimension is

frequently considered to be the transpersonal dimension of a person. The di-

mension of relatedness to God and the transcendent (however that relationship

is expressed) may be framed within or separate from the belief system of an or-

ganized religion. Various words-God, transcendent, and others (e.g., creator,

Higher Power, life energy)-will be used interchangeably in referring to rela-

tionship with the transpersonal. These two themes, the transpersonal dimen-

sion and spirituality (-as-essence), set the stage for exploring wholeness as

reflected in diagrammatic models.

DI GR MM TIC

MOD ELS OF

SPIRITU LITY

From earlier world views of a heaven-earth relationship, Ellison (1983) de-

veloped a model called here the Vertical-Horizontal Approach (see Figure 1).

It is indicated by two intersecting lines which represent two different, but inter-

related, dimensions. The first dimension is relationship directly with God (or

however the transcendent is conceptualized), and the second is all other rela-

tionships-withself,others, and the environment. While most writers discuss

both of these dimensions, Ellison (1983) goes a step further by specifically

identifying their separateness and interrelatedness. Although not actually con-

structing a diagram, he explicitly describes these dimensions as directional:

vertical andhorizontal.

The

vertical

dimension refers to the relationship with

God or the transcendent which is beyond and/or outside of self and is the

source of the supreme values which guide one's life. The

horizontal

dimension

refers to the kind and quality of one's relationships with self and others, to

well-being in relation to self and others, and to a sense of life purpose and satis-

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8

Transpersonal Perspectives

on Spirituality in Social Work

FIGU RE 1. Vert ica l-horizontal approach as described by El lison (1983). Co n-

structed by author.

vertical dime nsion-relationsh ip with God

horizontal dimension-relationship with

self, others, environment

faction. This dimen sion may be described as the social-psychological com po-

nent.

Sometimes the two dimensions are inextricably intertwined. For instance,

spirituality is described as experiential awareness of transcendent realities

w hich is reflected by the cen ter of value in o n e 's life and by the quality of on e's

relationsh ips with the unive rse/G od (Ellison , 1983) and as union with the im-

manent, supernatural powers that guide people and the universe for good or

evi l (Siporin, 1985, p. 210 ). W hen spirituality refers to human relationships

and life's activities, it refers to manifestations of one's relationship with God;

the horizontal dimension, therefore, seems to require and reflect the vertical.

The second model is a series of concentric circles that reflect five levels of

consciou sness (see Figure 2) (Vau ghan, 1985/1995). (Although originally un-

titled, this m odel w ill be identified here as Five Le vels of Co nscio usn ess.) Th e

innermost circle is the physical dim ension; m oving ou tward, the other succes-

sive levels are the emotional, mental, existential, and spiritual. Outside of

these five circles or levels (and not encircled or limited) is Absolute Spirit or

the underlying ground of the psy che (Vau ghan, 1995, p. 20). Each level in-

volves acceptance and observation. A wa reness of the outer levels requires that

the preceding levels be relatively calm. Althou gh health or pathology at each

level may appear to be independent of other levels, healing the whole person

depends on awareness of well-being on all of them (p. 21).

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Maria M. Carroll 9

FIGURE 2. Five levels of consciousness. Reprinted from Vaughan, Frances

(1985/1995).The Inward Arc: H ealing inPsychotherapyand Spirituality(2nd

ed.),Nevada City, CA: Blue Dolphin Publishing, p. 22. Copyright 1985, 1995

Frances E. Vaughan. Used by permission.

Absolute Spirit

Farran, Fitchett, Quiring-Emblen, and Burck (1989) acknowledge a sub-

stantive definition of spirituality w hich is grounde d in the belief in a transcen -

dent and universal being or force. However, they also use a functional

definition of spirituality as the person's ultimate commitment or value due to

the human need to find meaning. They propose the third and fourth models to

be considered here (see Figure 3). Th e Integrated A pproach co nsiders the sp ir-

itual dimension as one aspect equal with other dimension s (ph ysiological, psy -

chological, and sociological) of the person whereas the Unifying Approach

views the spiritual dimen sion as a totality und erlying, em bracing , and unify-

ing the other parts of the person.

A fifth model, developed by Kilpatrick and Holland (1990), is called the

Self-Other-Context-Spiritual (SO CS ) Circle (see Figure 4) . The four realities

or areas encompass all which exists or is experienced; each of the four areas

need s to be fully reco gnize d for optim al functioning. S e l f refers to the sub -

jective reality; other refers to the external world of objects and states; con -

tex t refers to the wo rld in the objective se ns e (p. 132); and spi ritua l refers

to God or the universal governing force. Three of the dimensions

(self,

other,

and context) form a triangle w ithin a circle. By surrounding the triangle, the spir-

itual dimension encompasses, permeates, and integrates the other three areas.

The spiritual dimension contains two components: (1) values which provide

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10

Transpersonal Perspectives on Spirituality in Social Work

FIGURE 3. Options for viewing the spiritual dimension. Reprinted from De-

velopment of a Model for Spiritual Assessment and Intervention, by C. F.

Ferran,G. Fitchett, J . D. Quiring-Emblen, & J. R. Burck, 1989,Journal of Re-

ligion & Health,28(3), p. 29. Copyright 1989 by Institutes of Religion and

Health,Inc. Reprinted with permission.

Integrated Ap proach

Unifvinn Approach

FIGURE 4 . SOCS circle presentation of the Four Life Realities. Reprinted

from Spiritual Dimensions of Practice, by A. C. Kilpatrick and T. P. Holland,

1990,The ClinicalSupervisor 8, p. 133. Copyright 1990 by The Haworth

Press, Inc. Reprinted with permission.

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Maria M. Carroll

II

meaning, worth, and direction; and (2) faith which provides a way of under-

standing life.

Th e sixth m odel, A Holistic Mod el of Spirituality (C anda & Furm an, 1999),

consists of three concentric circles (see Figure 5 ). Th e inner circle is the cen ter

of the person, the m iddle circle is divided into quadrants (biological, psyc ho-

logical, sociological, and spiritual aspects), and the outer circle is the whole-

ness of the person in relationship with all. In this model, there are three

metaphors for spirituality. In the middle circle, spirituality refers to the spiri-

tual aspect of the person, which complements the other three aspects. It in-

volves a search for meaning and morally fulfilling relations with self,others,

and ultimate reality, however a person defines it. The outer circle represents

FIGURE 5. A holistic model of spirituality. Reprinted from E. R. Canda and L.

D. Furman, 1999,Spiritual Diversity in S ocial W ork Practice,New York: The

Free Press, p. 46. Copyright 1999 Edward R. Canda, PhD, & Leola Dyrud

Furman,PhD. Reprinted with permission.

Spirituality as Wholeness of the Person

in R elation with All

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12

Transpersonal Perspectives on Spirituality in Social W ork

spirituality as wholeness of the person in relation with all. It transcends and

embraces the four aspects of a person. The center circle represents spirituality

as the center of the person. It is immanent within the person and integrates all

aspects.

The seventh model, The Whole Person: A Model (Ellor, Netting, &

Thibau lt, 1999), is three-dimensional (see Figure 6). Th e spiritual dimension

(on the top level) include s affective, b eha viora l, and cogn itive asp ects; the tra-

ditional clinical dimensions (on the bottom level) include the physical, emo-

tional, and social dimensions. The in-between space, Integrative Dimension,

provides the vehicle through w hich the Spiritual Dimens ion interacts with the

traditional dimensions.

All of these models reflect the whole person and his or her dimensions but

do so in different way s depen ding on the definition or meaning of spirituality.

Spirituality as soul, essence, or ground of one's being

is present in A Holistic

Model of Spirituality (as Center of the Person) and in The Whole Person: A

Model (in the Integrative Dimension). It is also implied in the Vertical-Hori-

zontal Approach (both axes together), in the SOCS Circle (with values and

faith originating from one's core), in the spiritual dimension of the Unifying

Approach (with the basic need to find meaning originating from one's core),

and in the Absolute Spirit of the Five Levels of Consciousness.

The

transpersonal dimension

is reflected in the vertical axis of Verti-

cal-Horizontal Approach, in the spiritual level of Vaughan's (1995) model

FIGURE 6. The whole person: A model. Reprinted from Ellor, James W.,

Netting,

F. E llen, & Thibault, Jane M. (1999).UnderstandingReligious and

Spiritual Aspects of Hum an Service

P ractice,

Columbia, SC: University of

South Carolina Press, p. 118.

Spiritual

Dimension

Integrative

Dimension

Traditional

Clinical

Dimension

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Maria M. Carroll 13

(with five levels of consciousness), in the spiritual aspect of A Holistic Model

of Spirituality, and in the spiritual dim ension of The Wh ole Pe rson: A M od el.

This concept is not explicitly included in the Unifying Approach although im plic-

itly such a relationship m ay be im portant if not essential in the hum an need to find

mean ing (as Farran et al. (1989) define spirituality). Similarly, with respect to the

SO CS Circle, such a relationship is implicitly included if the relationship provides

a way of finding m eaning through values and faith. Descriptions of spirituality as

manifestations of relationship with God or the transcendent are seen in the hori-

zontal axis of the Vertical Approach and in the spiritual dimension of the SOCS

Circle through the use of values and faith. Re lationsh ip w ith the tran scen den t is

also seen in the spiritual dim ensio n of the Integra ted and Unifying A ppro ach es

with respect to values if the ultimate c om m itmen t is to the transcende nt. Th is

relationship is also evident in the traditional dimen sions of The W hole Perso n:

A Model through the action of the integrative dimension and is implied in all

three metaphors for spirituality in a Holistic Model of Spirituality.

GROWTH TOWARD WHOLENESS

Co m m on to both them es (of spirituality as one dimension and as a pers on 's

essence) is the goal of wholeness which includes all aspects of self-physical,

emotional, mental, social, and transpersonal (Canda, 1990, 1997; Fowler,

1981;

Jung, 1954a; M aslow, 1967/1971; Sermabeikian, 1994; Vau ghan,

1995). However, the process of moving toward wholeness is not always ad-

dressed or is done so in very different ways.

Growth in the Transpersonal Dimension

This conscious relationship with the transcendent emerges from an experi-

ential awareness which may occur at any time and in various ways including

moments of insight.

The Integrated and Unifying Approaches and the SOCS Circle address the

nature of the whole person but do not discuss the process toward wholeness.

Through its successive levels, the Five Levels of Consciousness model out-

lines a growth process in the sense that each of the levels needs to be devel-

oped; however, the growth may not occur in a sequential order. Growth in

one's inner life (the existential and spiritual levels) may occur along with

growth in the other levels; in fact, the two may e nhan ce each other (Va ugh an,

1995).

The Vertical-Horizontal Approach is described and diagramed in such a

way potentially to reflect growth of either dimension even though one's rela-

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14


onSpiritualityinSocial Work

tionship with self

and

others (horizontal dimension) seems

to

require

and re-

flect one's relationship with

God or the

transcend ent

(the

vertical dim ension ).

Independent development

of the

psycho-social dimensions, however,

may oc-

cur when there

is a

lack

of

awareness

or an

unconsciousness

of God or the

tran-

scendent. This rationale would support Carson (1989a)

who

says that either

dimension

can

develop com pletely independently

of the

other.

In

A

Holistic M odel

of

Spirituality,

the

spiritual aspect provides meaning

and purpose.

It

points people toward things that have ultimate value.

In The

W hole Person:

A

M odel,

the

(affective, behavioral,

and

cognitive) aspects

of

the spiritual dimension provide ways through which

the

person con nects with

a larger reality. This connection then influences

the

traditional clinical dimen-

sions through

the

integrative dimension.

Descriptions

of

these models

and the

growth process focus primarily

on

one's relationship with

God or the

transcendent

and its

reflection

in

on e's rela-

tionship with self

and

others. Another focus, distinct from growth

in the

transpersonal dimension,

is

growth

or

development

of

one's spiritual

or

core

nature.

Growth

of

One's Essence

or

Spirituality

Jung (1933)

and

Fowler (1981) view spirituality

as a

person's soul

or es-

sence which contains

a

potential needin g

to be

fulfilled thro ugh

a

developmen-

tal process.

In

addition, spirituality provides

the

energy

for

this life-long

process, beginning

at

birth,

of

actualizing

and

realizing one 's potential (Jung ,

1934/1954 a). Th is process potentially culm inates

in

personality com pletion

or

wholeness with increasing consciousness

of

transcendent realities

and

increas-

ingly greater connectedness with

self,

others,

and all in the

universe. Specific

conceptual developmental models include Jung's theory

of

personality d evel-

opment (Jung,

1933;

1934/1954a), Maslow's hierarchy

of

needs (Maslow,

1962,

1971), F ow ler's faith developm ent theory (Fow ler, 1981),

the

struc-

tural-hierarchical

or

transpersonal spectrum model (W ilber, Eng ler,

&

Brown,

1986),

and the

dynam ic-dialectical paradigm (W ashburn , 1995).

For these theorists, spiritual growth occurs through stages which

are se-

quential

and

hierarchical.

In

general,

the

lower stages focus

on

fulfillment

of

basic needs

and ego

develop m ent followed

by ego

disintegration with

the rec-

ognition

of ego

insufficiency,

and

then movem ent

to the

higher stages involv-

in g

an

awareness

of,

acceptance

of, and

cooperation with transcendent forces.

Movement through these stages reflects qualitative changes

in

one's view

of

the world

and in all

relationships .

The

process

of

spiritual growth

is

becoming

connected with

self,

others,

and God or the

transcendent. Spiritual growth

re-

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MariaM.C arroll 15

duces dysfunctioning, enhances maximum functioning, and is inextricably

linkedtogrowthin thebio-psycho-social dimensions.

Movement from one stage to the next occurs through a death-rebirth

transformative process. This change

in the

person

as a

result

of

breaking away

fromthepastmay bedescribedastranscendence, which Ellison(1983) defines

as astepping back fromandmoving beyond whatis (p.331).From this defi-

nition, transcendence would include(1) moving developmental^ fromone

stageto thenext throughthelower stagesaswellasintoandthroughthehigher

stagesand (2)moving beyondthe individual self(asdefined at aparticular

time)aswellasbeyondallhuman selves intoafull realizationofthe cosmicre-

ality. Dependingonone 's stage, experientialandconscious awarenessof the

transcendent

as a

separate aspect

may or may not be

present.

Many hold that spiritualorpersonality growth through these stages occurs

withinthecontextofone's life experiences, either predictable developmental

crisesorunpredictable and/or traumatic events (Canda, 1988c; Carroll, 1997a;

Jaffe, 1985). Stressfulortraumatic events (e.g.,war,life-threatening illnesses)

may initially impede growth. Similarly,theeffectsofabuse during childhood

as wellasunhealthyanddysfunctional adult behaviors (including addictions)

may also delay growthas thebehaviors reflect part(s)ofoneself which is/are

disconnected from

self. The

disconnected part(s) need(s)

to be

acknowledged

and owned.

Asthe stressful experiencesare orbecome perceivedas achallenge,the

person becomes unstuckandresumes growing (Golan, 1978). This perception

hasthepotential for placing such behaviors in a larger perspective sothat

rather thantheperson beinginoppositionto God or thetranscendent, one 'sbe-

haviors becomea waythrough which one's lackofconnectedness (withself,

others, and/orGod) may beaddressedandone's potentialmayemerge. This

viewisreflectedinsome recovering alcoholics gratefully remarking that with-

outthealcoholism, Iwouldn'tbewhereI amtoday (Carroll, 1997a; Netting&

Thibault,1999) andsupportsthebelief thatone of theclinician-client tasksis

to discover m eanings through which suffering istransformed into growthop-

portunity (Canda&Furman, 1999).

Personswhohave made transformational changes following trauma, stress,

or psychological problems have participatedin acreative restructuringof the

self. They have been curiousandinvolved in whatever ishappening,and

have been challenged by changes which stimulated healing and growth.

These eventsandexperiences represent testsfor thepsyche. They become

opportunitiesforself renewal, growth,andtransformation byassistingand

motivating personstowonder about their originsandidentitiesaswellas to

searchforlife's purposeand forsome transcendent meaning (Carroll,1999;

Jaffe, 1985).

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16 Transpersonal Perspectives onSpirituality in Social Work

WHOLISTICMODEL

Limitations

o

Current Diagramm atic Models

The diagrammatic models reviewed here that depict human nature

and the

place

of

spirituality

in it

have several limitations. First, these current models

seem

to

have

a

closed quality

in

that only

the

Ve rtical-Horizontal App roach

is

diagrammed

in a way so as to

show growth.

The

diagrams

do not

provide

a

way

to

illustrate where someone

is in the

various dimensions

at one

point

in

time

and

thereby

to

chart

the

development

of

spirituality (defined

as the

transpersonal dimension

and as a

perso n's essence) over t im e.

Second, these models

do not

address either

the

origin

or the

beginning

of

spirituality.

For

instance,

how

does o ne 's spirituality,

a

perso n's very being,

fit

into

the

ultim ate rea lity?

Can

sp irituality

be

absent?

It has

sometimes been

de-

scribed

as

nonexistent. This description seems reasonable particularly when

spirituality

is

defined quantitatively

as in the

transpersonal (vertical) dimen-

sion

of the

Vertical-Horizontal M odel.

A

zero point would indicate that

no

conscious relationship (with

God or the

transcendent) exists

and

that

the

amount

or

level

of the

existing relations hip theo retically

can be

measured. This

model also includes

the

possibility

of

minus zero score s which would thus

frame

the

vertical dim ension

in

terms

of the

quality (positive

or

negative)

of

the relationship. With respect

to

spirituality

as

one's core nature,

its

nonexis-

tence seems impossible.

How can

sp irituality

not

exist sinc e, without

the

spirit

(defined

as

core

or

essence), humans

are

phy sically

not

even alive?

And

there

is much evidence that people

who

lose faith

and

hope physically

die.

And third,

the

existing m odels

do not

account

for

references

in the

literature

to negative and/or distorted im ages

of the

transcend ent.

For

instance, m any

per-

sons, especially those

who

struggle with addictions, believe

in an

all-judging,

punitive

God and

frequently also have difficulties with experiencing

a

power

greater than

self,

sharing self with others

or

hearing

who

they

are

(Carroll,

1997a), accepting self

and

others

as

imperfect (Kurtz

&

Ketcham, 1992),

and

living without fear

and

resentment (Dollard

in

Prugh, 1985/1986).

New Model

This writer suggests

a new

m odel, Spirituality:

A

W holistic M odel, w hich

includes aspects

of

earlier mod els (core essen ce, relationship with

God or the

transpersonal,

and

m anifestations

of

that relationship)

(see

Figure

7). It ac-

knowledges

an

open-endedness

to

spiritual development

and

provides

a way

of charting developmental growth. Similar

to

other models with vertical

and

horizontal axes,

the

horizontal axis reflects relationship with

self,

others,

and

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Ma ri a M.

a

rroll 17

FIGURE 7. Spir ituality: A Wholist ic Model. Constructed by author.

Infinity ^

v

^' ' Infinity \

y^

Transpersonal

Dimension

/

Bio-psycho-social

Spirit ^.

-* Infinity

/ Dimensions

Infinity

the world while the vertical axis reflects relationship with the transcendent

(which may or may not be according to traditional organ ized religious beliefs).

In contrast, the two axes do not intersect or meet. This lack of a meeting point

allows space for spirit to enter thus indicating the beginn ing of hum an life and

placing o ne 's being in a larger context. The axes explicitly do not end as they

move outward into infinity. The total space between the two axes, noted here

by the open circle (but may be another sh ape), is whe re growth o ccu rs. The cir-

cle does not have rigid boundaries but represents possibilities of growth and

expansion upward and outward. This diagram provides a way to see the rela-

tionship between the transpersonal dimension and the bio-psycho-social di-

mensions,

all

of which are grounded within a universal spiritual context

(similar to Absolute Spirit in Five Levels of Consciousness).

According to this mode l, manifestations of a pe rso n's expe riences and relation-

ships with self and others would be at a specific developmental stage on the

bio-psycho-social axis. Th e degree of his or her relationship w ith G od or a High er

Power (however conceptualized) would be indicated on the transpersonal axis.

The boundaries of their interconnection, at any one time, would form a circle or

some other shape.

In describing spirituality, people frequently use positive terms, such as ful-

filling, m eaning ful, and peaceful. For this reason , the term , ne gativ e spiritual-

ity (reflected in a below ze ro rating in the V ertical-H orizon tal ap proa ch) is

somewhat confusing. One way of understanding the descriptions identified as

negative spirituality is through the relationship between the bio-psycho -social

and the transpersonal dim ension s. A person may see his or her negative beliefs

about

self,

others, and human relationships as negative aspects of God or the

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18


on Spirituality in Social Work

transcendent. In other words, the negative beliefs (which may well reflect

one's human relationships and experiences) may be projected on to the tran-

scenden t. In this situation, a person having these ne gati ve beliefs wo uld be

low on the transpersonal axis (little relationship with the transcendent) and

would be at a specific developmental level on the bio-psycho-social axis.

Th en, the chara cteristics of ne gativ e spiritua lity m ight be attributed to the ef-

fects of traumatic or other problematic events and experiences.

The difference between the transpersonal dimension and spirituality pres-

ents another way of understanding negative spirituality. For instance , some

religions believe in a conditional God wh o is judg m ental or negative and is not

all-lo vin g. Th is belief seem s to refer to an imag e of Go d (or a neg ative view

of the transcend ent) rather than to spirituality, which is gene rally conside red to

be a life-giving principle or force.

CONCLUSION

The importance of social work practice and spirituality has been increasingly

recognized. Recent books (Bullis, 1996; Canda & Furman, 1999; Robbins,

Chatterjee, & Can da, 1998) explore a variety of w ays, such as transpersonal the-

ories, strengths perspective, multicultural approaches, and growth-oriented

helping techniqu es, which are im portant to understanding spirituality within this

profession.

All-too-often, theoretical frameworks or practice interventions are empha-

sized one over the other, yet the two are inextricably intertwined. Conc eptual

m odels are designed to (and do) enhan ce our understanding of the integration

of theory and practice, but the conceptualizations themselves can be difficult

to follow. Diagrammatic models help to clarify concepts and to facilitate un-

derstanding of the theory-practice integration.

This new diagramm atic m odel, Spirituality: A W holistic M odel, provides a

visual way of understanding and assessing the person-in-environment cur-

rently and of following changes over time. Grounded in a multi-dimensional

theoretical foundation, this model provides a way to evaluate the helpfulness

of experiences, including practice interventions, with respect to their role in

assisting each individual in moving toward realization of full potential. Al-

though the goal may not primarily be that of managed care, the positive rela-

tionship between spiritual growth and improved everyday psycho-social

functioning (Carro ll, 1997a, 1999; Sm ith, 1995) suppo rts the com patibility of

managed care and spiritual approaches.

This m odel also ties into the work of Cand a and Furman (1999) by provid-

ing another way of connecting the conceptual underpinnings of their holistic

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Maria M. Carroll 19

and operational mo dels of spirituality. Developing new ways to understand the

whole person assists social workers in being more responsive to fully accept-

ing clients, to meeting the needs of clients, and to providing services responsi-

bly as w e m ove into the 21 st cen tury.

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